A thorough examination of Stravinsky's early works can show not only his early indebtedness to Russian folklore, folk music, and concert music, but also the degree to which these Russian characteristics influenced his mature works.

When Stravinsky entered the Russian musical scene in 1902 the values and surviving members of the New Russian School were being absorbed into the growing Conservatory establishment (Chapter 1). Stravinsky had strong ties to the old order, especially to the members of the New Russian School within the Belyayev circle. Stravinsky began his relationship with some of these composers when he joined Rimsky-Korsakov's circle in 1902 (his studies with Rimsky-Korsakov would begin in 1905). Works composed in these early years show a strong reliance on models, most notably works by members of the New Russian School who were active in Belyayev's circle. Stravinsky's Piano Sonata in F-sharp minor is both modeled on and quotes from numerous other piano sonatas, some of which were widely known at the time, others of which were written by some of Stravinsky's former teachers and acquaintances. Likewise, his song How the Mushrooms Mobilize for War, written in the style of an opera aria, is modeled on operatic pieces that had been in his father's repertoire as an opera singer (Chapter 2).

Stravinsky's reliance on existing works (both as generic models and for specific quotations) continued as he studied with Rimsky-Korsakov. His Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1, is dependent upon symphonic models by Glazunov, Tchaikovsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov (among others). The first work composed entirely under his teacher's guidance, The Faun and the Shepherdess, Op. 2, demonstrates a more pervasive reliance on stylistic or generic models (including non-Russians like Wagner) rather than frequent quotations from specific models (Chapter 3). More general stylistic tendencies in Stravinsky's music can also be traced through longer chains of influence. For example, the use of third relations originated in Schubert and passed through Glinka (or Liszt) to Rimsky-Korsakov to Stravinsky; likewise, more inventive approaches to harmony (such as the prominent use of tritones or octatonicism) as demonstrated by Wagner and Liszt was transferred to Stravinsky via Russians of the previous generations, most notably Rimsky-Korsakov, Musorgsky, Borodin, and Glazunov (Chapter 4).

Stravinsky's next two works, Scherzo fantastique and Fireworks, are both scherzos for orchestra modeled on similar fantastic scherzos written early in the careers of Rimsky-Korsakov, Musorgsky, and Cui; however, they also resemble orchestral works by Debussy and Ravel that Stravinsky knew, at least in terms of orchestration (which, ironically, would have been influenced by Rimsky-Korsakov's style). His early songs use other types of models; Spring (A Song of a Cloister) [Vesná (Monastïrskaya)] is an imitation Russian folk song, while Rosyanka (Khlïstovskaya), on the other hand, explores the possibilities present in the less overtly national model of Russian art songs (Chapter 5). Additionally, these songs also demonstrate the degree to which Stravinsky's friends and fellow Rimsky-Korsakov pupils, especially Maximilian Steinberg and Mikhaíl Gnesin, influenced his developing style (Chapter 6).

After Rimsky-Korsakov's death in 1908, Stravinsky joined Diaghilev and his group, Mir iskusstva, who were associated with a decadent, anti-realist, neonational style (Chapter 7). More specifically, Diaghilev and Mir iskusstva aimed to combine their version of Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk idea with a return to folk and peasant roots in balletic works for a Parisian audiences (Chapter 8). Stravinsky's music for The Firebird features frequent references to Rimsky-Korsakov's works, both for harmonic and melodic models. Likewise, Stravinsky also drew from older works by other members of the New Russian School as well as folk melodies (Chapter 9).

Stravinsky came into his own with Petrushka. Borrowing again from Russian folklore, Stravinsky delved more deeply into his repertoire of Russian folk songs, including those quoted in works by Rimsky-Korsakov; however, Stravinsky did more to preserve the folk character of these borrowed songs than his teacher, corresponding with an ethnographic trend of collecting and preserving folk songs occurring at that time (Chapter 10). After Petrushka, Stravinsky turned to vocal genres as he experimented with different combinations of cosmopolitan and traditional Russian musical idioms. His Two Poems of Balmont and the cantata Zvezdolikiy are most influenced by Scriabin's modernist musical style, while Schoenberg is the prevailing musical influence on Three Japanese Lyrics (Chapter 11).

The Rite of Spring grew out of Russian artistic and literary trends that sought a return to mankind's collective, pagan roots. As such, The Rite of Spring includes folk songs that are ethnographically correct for the subject matter (ceremonial songs tied to a specific season or time of year). Stravinsky also revisits his now customary technique of borrowing from earlier Russian works, most notably stage works by his teacher, Rimsky-Korsakov. However, both the folk songs and the previously-composed models are more thoroughly transformed and modified than they had been in previous works (Chapter 12). By the time The Rite of Spring premiered in Paris, Stravinsky had severed most of his ties to former friends and colleagues in Russia (Chapter 13). The falling out between Stravinsky and his former supporters in Russia became complete when he joined in Diaghilev's project of "restoring" Musorgsky's original Khovanshchina (Chapter 14).

Stravinsky's style underwent a major change during his "Swiss exile," a change that was primarily effected through the medium of song. Stravinsky wrote many songs during his years in exile, most of which were arranged into collections (such as Pribaoutki, Berceuses du Chat, and Quatre chants russes). These songs relied almost exclusively on Russian peasant sources of occasional songs (such as game songs, lullabies, or sooth-saying songs) rather than sources of folklore or legend. Musically these songs also attempted to depict Russian peasant roots (in a Eurasian or "Turanian" style) through the use of simple melodies, harmonies built on tetrachords, irregular barring, and, most importantly, free text accentuation (Chapter 15). These musical characteristics are further developed in Baika (Renard), in which Stravinsky presents his imagined version of a Turanian style of theater (called skazka). Similarly, L'Histoire du Soldat contains these Turanian musical elements, although they are complicated somewhat by the intrusion of what initially appears to be American jazz idioms (Chapter 16). The Turanian style reached its pinnacle in Stravinsky's next ballet, Svadebka (Les noces). In this highly formalized performance of a Russian peasant wedding, Stravinsky's only models are songs collected by ethnographers and his own previous compositions rather than works by other Russian composers (Chapter 17).

Stravinsky's instrumental works written during his years in exile are not as unified in style as the vocal works, nor do they follow his Turanian trend as overtly or consistently, although demonstrable aspects do remain. Instead, they demonstrate a more cosmopolitan and proto-neoclassical character (Chapter 18). For all that Pulcinella appears to be a thoroughly neoclassical work, it too includes aspects of Stravinsky's Turanian style whenever he departs from his source materials. Thus Stravinsky's next major stylistic shift occurred in Mavra, in which he returned in part to his old practice of borrowing from Russian masters like Tchaikovsky and Glinka. This work represents an attempt to reconnect with Europe and the "old" Russia, but does not entirely abandon Stravinsky's Turanian developments. Instead, Stravinsky quotes and uses as models the aforementioned composers along with Parisian popular tunes (including melodies heard in stylized Russian cabarets and Americanized jazz) while still borrowing from folk sources as well. Thus, Mavra represents an antimodernistic return to diatonic tonality and music for the sake of enjoyment, one that was not well received by his Parisian audiences and which ended his "Russian" stylistic period (Chapter 19). Beginning with the Octuor, Stravinsky would increasingly abandon his previous folkloristic and nationalistic musical qualities in favor of a more "universal" style. However, covert expressions of nationalism would always persist, and his basic stylistic trademarks were formed primarily by his personal development of Russian influences.

Works: Stravinsky: Scherzo for Piano (100-104), The Storm Cloud [Tucha] (104-8), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (113-16, 118-19, 120-37), How the Mushrooms Mobilize for War [Kak gribï na voynu sbiralis'] (138-39, 142-48, 149-62), Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1 (172-89, 192-222, 224-33), The Firebird (202-3, 310-12, 459-60, 481-86, 579-617, 620-25, 627-30, 632-33, 635-50), Petrushka (202, 204, 661-64, 670-73, 680-701, 705-13, 715-23, 732-41, 744-70), The Faun and the Shepherdess, Op. 2 (233-54), Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3 (315-16, 318-33, 408-11), Fireworks [Feyerverk], Op. 4 (333-45), Spring (A Song of a Cloister) [Vesná (Monastïrskaya)] (346, 348-56, 382-84), Rosyanka (Khlïstovskaya) (356-64), Pastorale (364-68, 382), Chant funèbre [Pogrebal' naya pesn'] (396, 406), The Nightingale (459, 462-86, 1087-1108, 1202-5), Deux poèmes de Verlaine, Op. 9 (651-52, 654-59), Zvezdolikiy (787, 789, 814-22), Two Poems of Balmont (799-811), Three Japanese Lyrics [Tri stikhotvorenii iz yaponskoy liriki] (822-27, 829-42, 844-45), The Rite of Spring (866-71, 873-88, 890-91, 893-95, 897-900, 904-66), Final Chorus for Khovanshchina on Themes of M. Musorgsky and Authentic Old Believers' (1054-60, 1062-68), Svadebka (Les noces) (1068-69, 1129-30, 1132, 1319-1411, 1417-40), Pribaoutki (1137-38, 1145-49, 1167-72, 1224-29), Kolïbel'nïye (Berceuses du Chat) (1137-39, 1149-50, 1172-72, 1230), Quatre chants russes (1137, 1140, 1150-52, 1160, 1162, 1189-93, 1195-98, 1221-24), Podblyudnïye (Four Russian Peasant Songs) (1136, 1139, 1152-62, 1176, 1178-82, 1211-12, 1215-20), Baika (Renard) (1136, 1139, 1162, 1237-39, 1242-1292, 1594-95), Detskiye pesenki (1137, 1140, 1174-75), Chant des bateliers du Volga (Hymne à la nouvelle Russie) (1184, 1187-88), The Rake's Progress (1233-34), L'Histoire du Soldat (1292-1307, 1310-18, 1483), Ragtime pour onze instruments (1307-1310, 1445, 1456), Three Pieces for String Quartet (1444, 1449, 1452, 1465-73), Valse des Fleurs [Tsvetochnïy val's] (1444, 1447-49), Trois pièces faciles (1444, 1447, 1449, 1451, 1473, 1475), Valse pour les enfants (1444, 1449-51), Cinq pièces faciles (1445, 1449), Étude (1445, 1452, 1455), Three Pieces for Clarinet Solo (1445, 1456, 1483-84), Piano-Rag-Music (1445, 1453, 1475, 1477, 1479-83), Concertino for String Quartet (1446, 1484-85), Symphonies d'instruments à vent (1446, 1451-52, 1459, 1461, 1483, 1486), Pulcinella (1462-65, 1501-5, 1507), Souvenir d'une marche boche (1475-76), Les cinq doigts (1517, 1519), Mavra (1537-39, 1546-73, 1575-85, 1588-1603), Octet (1600-1602, 1606-7), Le baiser de la fée (1610-18), Mass (1618-23), Scherzo à la russe (1632-34), Sonata for Two Pianos (1635-47), Requiem Canticles (1649-52, 1657-74); Maximilian Oseyevich Steinberg: Prélude symphonique, Op. 7 (401-7); Nikolai Nikolayevich Tcherepnin: Narcisse (450, 453-57), Le royaume enchanté [Zacharovannoye tsarstvo], Op. 39 (456-58); Debussy: La boîte à joujoux (771-72), Préludes (771, 773-74), Jeux (773-74), Études for Piano (775), En blanc et noir (775-76).

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Valse-Scherzo, Op. 7 (103), Scherzo humoristique, Op. 19, No. 2 (103), Six Pieces on One Theme, Op. 21 (103), Scherzo à la russe, Op. 1, No. 1 (103), Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor (103), Piano Sonata in G Major, Op. 37 (115, 117, 125-26), Symphony No. 5 in E Minor (124-25, 211, 216, 219-21), The Enchantress (157, 159-60), Symphony No. 6 in B Minor (Pathétique) (180, 184, 211), Le baiser de la fée (213), Eugene Onegin [Yevgeniy Onegin] (241, 1553-55), The Tempest [Burya] (243, 246), Romeo and Juliet (243, 245), The Nutcracker (629, 632, 720, 722), The Oprichnik (914), The Sleeping Beauty (1615), Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, Op. 41 (1619, 1620); Glinka: Ruslan und Lyudmila (103, 622, 1331, 1355, 1357. 1458, 1569, 1571), Kamarinskaya (923), A Life for the Tsar (1330, 1355-56, 1535, 1564-67, 1572-73, 1592); Rimsky-Korsakov: The Maid of Pskov [Pskovityanka] (103, 133, 135-36, 606-9), Antar (105, 602), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 72 (145, 148), May Night (152, 156), Pan Voyevoda (166-69, 197), Symphony No. 1 (216, 219), Kashchey the Deathless (216, 219, 243-44, 327, 590-91, 739), The Tsar's Bride (241, 243), The Beauty [Krasavitsa], Op.51, No. 4 (242), The Nymph [Ninfa], Op. 56, No. 1 (242), Snow Maiden [Snegurochka] (242, 244, 327, 601, 632, 636-37, 698-99, 707-8, 710, 712, 934-36, 1331), Christmas Eve (242, 311, 314), From Homer, Op. 60 (336-37), Sadko (349, 351, 401, 403, 469-70, 596-98, 602, 622-23, 739, 747, 927, 1217-18, 1331), The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia (359-61, 364, 401, 698-99, 926, 1184, 1331, 1430), Le coq d'or (403, 464-65, 470, 596, 598-99, 601, 622-23, 701, 748, 1104-5), The Nightingale, Captured by the Rose [Plenivshis' rozoy, solovey], Op. 2, No. 2 (468-69), Mlada (614-15, 629-31, 634, 934), Sinfonietta on Russian Themes (627), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 79 (628), By the Gate a Pine Tree Was Swaying To and Fro [U vorot sosna raskachalasya] (632), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 46 (712), Tsar Saltan (720-21, 914), Overture on Liturgical Themes [Russian Easter Overture], Op. 36 (720-21), Sheherazade (739-45, 747, 751), Ai vo polye lipin'ka (869-70), Nu-ka kumushka, mï pokumimsya (906-9), Na morye utushka kupalasya (912-14), Zvon kolokol v Yevlasheve selye (913); Iosif Wihtol: Piano Sonata, Op. 1 (115); Vasiliy Pavlovich Kalafati: Piano Sonatas, Op. 4 (115); Fyodor Stepanovich Akimenko: Sonates-fantaisies (115); Glazunov: Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 74 (115, 119, 125, 127), Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 75 (115, 118-19), Symphony No. 6 in C Minor, Op. 58 (175, 178, 187, 194), Symphony No. 8 in E-flat Major, Op. 83 (180, 182, 184, 186, 190-91, 197, 199, 205-6, 209-10, 219), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, Op.55 (202, 204-5, 213, 216-18), Symphony No. 7 in F Major, Op. 77 (202), The Seasons (241-42, 624, 626), Preludiya (Pamyati N. A. Rimskogo-Korsakova) (403), Scènes de Ballet, Op. 52 (624); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 3 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 23 (115-16, 129-132), Piano Sonata No. 4 (132, 134), Poème de l'extase (616-19), Piano Sonata No. 5 (617, 622), Prometheus (794-95, 801, 807-9, 811), Piano Sonata No. 7 (808-14, 816-17); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (125), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (1475-76), Twelve Variations on a Russian Dance from Wranitzky's "Das Waldmädchen," WoO71 (1517-18, 1520); Musorgsky: Pride [Spes'] (143-44), Picking Mushrooms [Po gribï] (145-46), Boris Godunov (150-52, 348-49, 476, 740-41, 1218, 1267, 1290, 1438), King Saul (150, 152-53), The Billy Goat [Kozyol] (243, 245), Where Art Thou, Little Star! [Gde tï, zvyozdochka] (349), Khovanshchina (359, 1054-59), The Fair at Sorochintsï (935-36), Marriage (1202-3); Borodin: Prince Igor (145, 150, 157-59, 629, 1290-92), Symphony No. 2 in B Minor (202, 213-16), Arabian Melody (753-54); Balakirev: Collection of Russian Folk Songs, No. 36 (145, 148-49), Symphony No. 1 in C Major (410), Georgian Song [Zhar-ptitsa] (624-25), Volga Boatmen's Song [Ey, ukhnem] (1184-86); Alexander Nikolayevich Serov: Judith (152, 154), The Power of the Fiend (152, 155, 692-95, 697, 701, 706, 1341); Sergey Taneyev: Symphony in C Minor, Op. 12 (186-87, 192, 194-95); Stravinsky: Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1 (202, 324-26), Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3 (596, 938), Fireworks, Op. 4 (596, 748-50), Petrushka (771-77, 800-801, 803, 805, 807, 827, 937, 939, 1062, 1065, 1167, 1184, 1406, 1662), Zvezdolikiy (827, 932, 937, 1065, 1100, 1205, 1662), The Firebird (937, 1065, 1338, 1668), The Faun and the Shepherdess (938), The Rite of Spring (1062, 1065, 1093, 1096, 1100, 1270, 1272, 1281-83, 1332, 1386, 1414, 1417, 1451, 1456, 1471), Three Japanese Lyrics (1104), The Nightingale (1171, 1174), Pribaoutki (1280, 1332), Berceuses du Chat (1280), Hymne à la nouvelle Russie (1280), Baika (Renard) (1332, 1347, 1388, 1431), Podblyudnïye (1332), L'Histoire du Soldat (1458), Chant funèbre [Pogrebal' naya pesn'] (1493), Svadebka (Les noces) (1650), The Rake's Progress (1650), Symphonies d'instruments à vent (1650, 1663), Octet (1662); Sibelius: Symphony No. 2 in D Major (216); Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole (310-11, 313, 614-15); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (332); Dukas: L'apprenti sorcier (338-41); Mikhaíl Fabianovich Gnesin: Snowflakes [Snezhinki] (382-84); Maximilian Oseyevich Steinberg: The Gold Star [Zolotaya zvezda] (382-84); Nikolai Nikolayevich Cherepnin: Le royaume enchanté [Zacharovannoye tsarstvo], Op. 39 (459); Debussy: Nuages (472, 474-75), Pelléas et Mélisande (655), La Mer (820); Robert Schumann: Vogel als Prophet (476, 478); Anatoliy Konstantinovich Lyadov: Eight Russian Folk Songs (632, 635); Émile-Alexis-Xavier Spencer: La jambe en Bois (696, 704, 706); E. L. Zverkov: A Wondrous Moon Plays upon the River [Chudnïy mesyats plïvyot nad rekoyu] (696, 704-5); Fyodor Istomin and Sergey Lyapunov: Song for St. John's Eve [Ivanovskaya] (696, 707-9, 867, 1167-68), Pesni russkogo naroda (904-5, 921-22, 926); Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire (824, 826-28, 830, 834-35); Anton Juszkiewicz: Melodje ludowe litewskie (895-904, 910, 917-18, 935); Izaly Zemtsovsky: Melodika kalendarnïkh pesen (919-23); Levgeniya Linyova: Trudï MEK (921-22, 1059-62, 1068); Vasiliy Pashkevich: St. Petersburg Bazaar [Sankt-peterburgskiy gostinnïy dvor] (924-25, 1330); Pashkevich and Martin y Soler: Fedul and His Children (924-25); Alexander Listopadov: Trudï MEK (1176-78); Dargomïzhsky: The Stone Guest (1202-3, 1570), Rusalka (1568-70, 1573-74); Scott Joplin: The School of Ragtime: Six Exercises for Piano (1307-8); Alexey Titov: Devichnik (or Filatka's Wedding) (1330); Nikolai Uspensky: Obraztsï drevnerusskogo pevcheskogo iskusstva (1378-82, 1418); D. I. Arakchieyev: Trudï MEK (1414-16); Alexey Verstovsky: Askold's Grave (1434); Satie: Gymnopédies (1451); Domenico Gallo: Trio Sonata No. 1 in G Major (1464), Trio Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Major (1464), Trio Sonata No. 8 in E-flat Major (1464, 1504), Trio Sonata No. 3 in C Minor (1464), Trio Sonata No. 7 in G Minor (1464), Trio Sonata No. 12 in E Major (1465, 1502-3); Pergolesi: Il flaminio (1464), Lo frate 'nnamorato (1464), Adrianna in Siria (1464), Sinfonia for Cello and Basso Continuo (1465); Unico Wilhelm Graf von Wassenaer: Concerti armonici (1464); Alessandro Parisotti: Arie antiche (1464); Carlo Ignazio Monza: Pièces modernes pour le clavecin (1464), Suite No. 3 (1464); Alexis Archangelsky, arr.: Katinka (Bailieff's Chauve-Souris) (1546-47); Daniyil Kashin, arr.: Russkiye narodnïye pesni (1559-60); Alexander Varlamov: White Sail [Beleyet parus odinokiy] (1561-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt