The use of existing music is one of the most characteristic facets of Charles Ives’s music. What has been broadly described as musical “quotation” is in fact fourteen distinct procedures that Ives uses: modeling, variations, paraphrasing, setting, cantus firmus, medley, quodlibet, stylistic allusion, transcribing, programmatic quotation, cumulative setting, collage, patchwork, and extended paraphrase. Analyzing Ives’s use of existing music through these procedures allows for a clearer understanding of Ives’s compositions, the discovery that most of these procedures can be traced back to existing practices in the European tradition, and the tracing of a logical development in Ives’s practice from common types of musical borrowing to highly individual methods. The development of Ives’s use of existing music largely corresponds to six periods in Ives’s career: youth (to 1894), apprenticeship (1894-1902), innovation and synthesis (1902-8), maturity (1908-18), last works (1918-27), and revising (1927-54).

In his early career, Ives, like countless other composers, often modeled compositions on existing works to learn from the masters and develop his own voice. At the same time, Ives honed his skills at paraphrasing existing melodies (particularly hymn tunes) for use in classical idioms. Ives’s First and Second Symphonies represent the height of his use of modeling and paraphrase; the First Symphony demonstrates Ives’s command of the symphonic tradition, and the Second demonstrates his ability to bend American vernacular material to fit the symphonic form, paraphrasing American tunes as themes and adapting transitional passages from European compositions. Between 1907 and 1920, the most common form in Ives’s concert music was cumulative setting, a distinctive form in which a borrowed or paraphrased theme is first heard in fragments, gradually accumulating until the entire theme is heard at the end of the movement, often with a countermelody that accumulates in a similar way. Cumulative setting is based on techniques that have precedents in various musical traditions. Ives’s synthesis of these ideas served several musical and extramusical functions, celebrating American melodies and hymn tunes in a new, thematically-driven form. In other mature compositions, Ives uses conventional borrowing techniques in novel ways, such as alluding to a style or genre (often through a specific piece) as a means of commenting on it. Two extensions of paraphrase technique—patchwork, in which a melody is stitched together from fragments of multiple tunes, and extended paraphrase, in which the main melody of an entire work is paraphrased from an existing tune—also became important compositional techniques for Ives. Programmatic quotation, in which a tune is explicitly quoted for a clear extramusical purpose, is uncommon is Ives’s music, but the technique is used in works where the program involves listening to a musical event. Among the most extraordinary uses of borrowed music in Ives’s works are his orchestral collages, which blend several compositional techniques (modeling, paraphrase, cumulative setting, programmatic quotation, and quodlibet) and many borrowed tunes to create a stream-of-consciousness effect representing the process of memory. By systematically analyzing Ives’s increasing use of borrowed music throughout his career, the prevailing “crazy-quilt” view of Ives’s borrowing—that old and new material are stitched together without discrimination—can be replaced by a more accurate assessment that Ives drew on traditional techniques and developed new ones to give expression to his American culture within his own musical language.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (14-16), Polonaise in C (17-20), Variations on “America” (21-22, 43-46), Turn Ye, Turn Ye (23-24), Ein Ton (25-27), Ich grolle nicht (27-31, 33-34), Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), The Celestial Country (34-36), Fantasia on “Jerusalem the Golden” (38-41), March No. 1 in F and B-flat (41-43), String Quartet No. 1 (49-75, 86-87), The Side Show (76-79), Fugue in Four Keys on “The Shining Shore” (80-81, 162-64), Religion (82-83), Evening (83-84), String Quartet No. 2 (84-85, 348-50), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (88-102), Symphony No. 2 (102-36), Symphony No. 3 (139-54, 238-40), Violin Sonata No. 3 (139, 142, 154-61, 166, 174-78, 206-12, 243), The Camp-Meeting (149-50), Violin Sonata No. 1 (163-72, 201-6, 241-42, 250), Violin Sonata No. 2 (165, 170-74, 197, 200, 242, 315-16), Violin Sonata No. 4 (167-68, 177-84, 189, 193-94), Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day from Holidays Symphony (168-69, 185-86), His Exaltation (174), Piano Sonata No. 1 (187-93, 212-14, 243-44, 248-49), At the River (193-94), Adagio cantabile (The Innate) (194-95, 196), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (195-200, 350-57), Ragtime Dances (212-14), The Rockstrewn Hills Join in the People’s Outdoor Meeting from Orchestral Set No. 2 (214), “Pre-First” Violin Sonata (236-38), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (253-62), From Hanover Square North, at the End of a Tragic Day, the Voice of the People Again Arose from Orchestral Set No. 2 (262-66), Waltz (268-70), Grantchester (277-78), On the Counter (278-80), The One Way (279-80), Serenity (281-86), The Rainbow (287-89), The White Gulls (291-94), The Last Reader (301-5), The Things Our Fathers Loved (306-11), Old Home Day (311-12), Lincoln, the Great Commoner (312), In Flanders Fields (313), He Is There! (313-15), An Elegy to Our Forefathers from Orchestral Set No. 2 (316-17), The “St.-Gaudens” in Boston Common (Col. Shaw and his Colored Regiment) from Three Places in New England (317-22), The Housatonic at Stockbridge from Three Places in New England (327-30), Down East (330-33), West London (333-39), Yale-Princeton Football Game (342-43), Calcium Light Night (343), The Gong on the Hook and Ladder (343), The General Slocum (343-44), Central Park in the Dark (344-45), Decoration Day from Holidays Symphony (345-46), The Celestial Railroad (357-60), The Pond (Remembrance) (360-63), Requiem (363), Tom Sails Away (363-64), Trio for Violin, Cello, and Piano (373-74), The Fourth of July from Holidays Symphony (376-82), Washington’s Birthday from Holidays Symphony (383-85), Putnam’s Camp from Three Places in New England (386-89), Country Band March (386-87), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Symphony No. 4 (389-411); George M. Cohan: The Yankee Doodle Boy (322-24, 325-26)

Sources: David W. Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (14-16, 346, 373-74); Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (17-20); Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck: Variations on “God Save the King” (21-22); Josiah Hopkins: Expostulation (23-24); Peter Cornelius: Ein Ton (25-27); Robert Schumann: Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (27-31, 33-34); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (126-30, 132-33), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (127), Vier ernste Gesänge (128), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (349); Horatio Parker: Hora novissima (34-36); Alexander Ewing: Jerusalem the Golden (38-41); Anonymous: The Year of Jubilee (41-43); Attributed to John Bull (composer), Samuel Francis Smith (lyricist): America (43-46, 312-13); Attributed to Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth: Nettleton (50-52, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 105-7, 115, 194-95, 196, 197, 200, 306-11, 349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); John R. Sweney: Beulah Land (52-55, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 99-101, 111-14, 207-12, 392-401); George J. Webb: Webb (55-57, 73-74); Oliver Holden: Coronation (55-57, 71-74, 402); George F. Root: Shining Shore (56-70, 73-74, 80-83, 86-87, 99-101, 162-63, 164-65, 168-69, 170-72, 185-86, 291-94), Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (236, 241-42, 250, 314, 359-60, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), The Battle Cry of Freedom (236, 306-11, 313, 314, 315-16, 317-22, 377-82, 386-89), There’s Music in the Air (239); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (71-74, 402), Bethany (81-85, 301-5, 330-33, 349-50, 390-92, 402-10), Watchman (201-6, 301-5, 390-92), Work Song (202-3, 205-6); J. S. Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (“Dorian”) BWV 538 (71, 402), Three-Part Invention in F Minor BWV 795 (126-27), Fugue in E Minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (128-30); Pat Rooney: Is That You, Mr. Riley? (76-79); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Op. 74, Pathétique (76-79, 95-97, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 36 (130-31); C. G. Gläser, Lowell Mason (arranger): Azmon (80-83, 140-41, 143-46, 151-54, 162-64, 240, 404, 408); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (89-95, 101-2, 130-31); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (97-98, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (195-200, 350-60), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (195-200, 350-60); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, Unfinished (98-99, 101-2); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (104-7, 115, 122-24, 316-22, 357, 383-85, 386-89, 392-401), De Camptown Races (115-22, 359-60, 383-85, 392-401), Old Black Joe (122-24, 316-22, 359-60, 392-401), My Old Kentucky Home (306-11, 373-74, 386-89), Old Folks at Home (383-85); Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (107-8, 373-74, 383-85, 392-401); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (108, 116-24, 312, 313, 314, 348-49, 355, 359, 364, 376-82, 386-89, 392-401); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (108-9), Marching Through Georgia (312-14, 317-22, 345, 348-49, 359-60, 373-74, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), Kingdom Coming (377-82); George A. Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (109-10, 213-14, 243-44); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where Are the Verdant Freshmen? (110-11); Gregorian chant, Lowell Mason (arranger): Hamburg (110-11); Johann G. Naegeli, Lowell Mason (arranger): Naomi (110, 238-40); Samuel A. Ward: Materna (112-15); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (115, 123, 195-200, 402-10); Thomas Haynes Bayly: Long, Long Ago (120, 373-74, 392-401); George Washington Dixon or Bob Farrell: Turkey in the Straw (121-24, 315, 348-49, 383-85, 392-401); Handel, Lowell Mason (arranger): Antioch (123-24, 402, 402-10); Anonymous (bugle calls): Reveille (124, 257, 312-13, 314, 377-82, 392-401), Assembly (312, 377-82), Taps (313, 345-46, 360-63); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (127); William Bradbury: Woodworth (140-41, 143-51, 153, 240), Jesus Loves Me (168, 181-84, 316-17); Charles Converse: Erie (141, 151-54, 188-89, 192-93, 239-40); Robert Lowry: Need (142, 154-61, 207-12, 243), The Beautiful River (166, 174-77, 189, 193-94, 195, 196, 392-401), Where Is My Wandering Boy? (249); François-Hippolyte Barthélémon: Autumn (165, 170-74, 237); Ira D. Sankey: There’ll Be No Dark Valley (166, 174-78); William H. Doane: Old, Old Story (167, 178-81); George E. Ives: Fourth Fugue in B-flat (167, 178-81); John Hatton: Duke Street (168-69, 185-86); Henry K. Oliver: Federal Street (168-69, 185-86); George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (170, 236, 241-42, 250, 363-64); John Zundel: Lebanon (187-92, 244, 249); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (195-200, 402-10); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (195-200, 355-56, 358-60, 392-401, 402-10); Anonymous: Happy Day (213-14, 243-44); Lewis Hartsough: Welcome Voice (213-14, 243-44, 402); William G. Tomer: God Be With You (236, 359-60, 392-401); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (236, 313-14); Anonymous: Sailor’s Hornpipe (236, 315, 373-74, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: Money Musk (236, 315, 383-85); Anonymous: The White Cockade (236, 315-16, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous, Lowell Mason (arranger): Fountain (238-40, 254-62, 333-39, 373-74); Andrew Young, Lowell Mason (arranger): There Is a Happy Land (238-40, 392-401, 402-10); James P. Webster: In the Sweet Bye and Bye (262-66, 306-11, 373-74, 390, 392-401); Michael Nolan: Little Annie Rooney (268-70); Debussy: Prélude à “L’après-midi d’un faune” (277-78); Ives: A Song—for Anything (278-80), Country Band March (313, 355, 359-60, 386-87, 392-401), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (357-58, 392-402), Old Home Day (377-82), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Violin Sonata No. 1 (390-92), The Celestial Railroad (392-401), String Quartet No. 1 (402), String Quartet No. 2 (406); Oley Speaks: On the Road to Mandalay (279-80); William V. Wallace: Serenity (282-86, 288-89); Ludwig Spohr: Cherith (301-5); Henry W. Greatorex: Manoah (301-5); Alexander R. Reinagle: St. Peter (301-5); Paul Dresser: On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away (306-11); William Steffe (composer), Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (311-12, 312, 314, 377-82, 386-89); H. S. Thompson: Annie Lisle (311-12); Anonymous: Arkansas Traveler (311-12, 386-89); Anonymous: The Girl I Left Behind Me (311-12, 377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Garryowen (311-12, 377-82, 383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: Saint Patrick’s Day (311-12, 373-74, 377-82, 385, 392-401); Anonymous: Auld Lang Syne (311-12); Philip Phile: Hail! Columbia (312, 348-49, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (312, 314, 386-89); Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (313, 314); Henry S. Cutler: All Saints New (313); George M. Cohan: Over There (314, 364); Dan Emmet: Dixie (314, 348-49, 373-74, 377-82); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (314, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); James Ryder Randall: Maryland, My Maryland (314); Isaac B. Woodbury: Dorrnance (327-30, 402-10); Nelson Kneass: Ben Bolt (344); Ellen Wright: Violets (344); Joseph E. Howard: Hello! Ma Baby (344); John Philip Sousa: Washington Post March (344, 392-401), Semper Fidelis (386-89); William Crotch: Westminster Chimes (349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); Edward S. Ufford: Throw Out the Life-Line (359-60, 392-401); Frederick Crouch: Kathleen Mavourneen (361-63); Handel, Anonymous (arranger): David (361-63), Christmas (402); Mendelssohn, Anonymous (arranger): Hexham (361-63); William G. Harris (arranger): A Band of Brothers in DKE (373-74); George Morris: Few Days (373-74); Anonymous: The Worms Crawl In (373-74); Anonymous: That Old Cabin Home Upon the Hill (373-74); Anonymous: The Campbells Are Coming (373-74, 383-85); Henry J. Sayers: Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay! (373-74); Anonymous: Hold the Fort, McClung in Coming (373-74); William Gooch: Reuben and Rachel (373-74); Anonymous: Fisher’s Hornpipe (377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: London Bridge (377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Katy Darling (377-82); Henry R. Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! (383-85, 392-401); Edwin P. Christy: Goodnight, Ladies (383-85); Anonymous: For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow (383-85); Anonymous: Irish Washerwoman (383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: The British Grenadiers (386-89); Theodore E. Perkins: Something for Thee (391-401, 402-10); Arthur Sullivan: Proprior Deo (391-92, 402-10); Anonymous: Crusader’s Hymn (391-92); Justin Heinrich Knecht, Edward Husband (arranger): St. Hilda (402-10)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet