Understanding Ives's use of borrowed materials demands that one first verify that seemingly quoted materials are in fact there, and from what source they derive. Judgments are difficult to make in many cases because it is impossible to be familiar with all of the music Ives knew. Then the material should be classified according to its structural importance. Some of Ives's quotations are brief and structurally insignificant, others are structurally important within a single movement, and still others serve as unifying factors among movements. Given that many of the tunes Ives used have more than one text, the approach seeking extra-musical "reasons" that Ives quoted one tune or another is less serviceable than the preceding.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Chapters II ("Musical Symbolism: The Use of Leitmotivic Symbols and Motto Tunes") and V ("The RVW Style as Manifested in This Work") contain information about his use of borrowed materials. Among the materials Vaughan Williams incorporates into the opera are the hymn tunes York and Lasst uns erfreuen and Thomas Tallis's Third Mode Melody.

Works: Vaughan Williams: The Pilgrim's Progress.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Among several devices mentioned in this article which have been used for humorous effect in music is quotation. Various means of achieving humor through quotation are by paradox, pun, parody, and exploiting the historical significance of the music quoted, all of which assume previous knowledge on the part of the listeners of the music being referred to.

Works: Beethoven: Es war einmal ein König, der hatt' einen grossen Floh (693); Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (692); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake Walk," from Children's Corner (691); Falla: The Three-Cornered Hat (692); Saint-Saëns: Le Carnaval des Animaux (690); Satie: Sonatine bureaucratique (695).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

In the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven uses numerous rhetorical gestures to express the meaning of the text. Some of the gestures were conventional in his day, such as a static motive with which to begin the Kyrie, used at least as far back as Benevoli in 1628. Known to have been studying Handel's Messiah while he composed the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven is indebted for the Katabasis (lowering of the elevated host) in his Agnus Dei to "He shall feed his flock," and for a fugato subject to the "Hallelujah Chorus," both from Messiah.

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Luciano Berio's well-justified and innovative use of the third movement of Mahler's Second Symphony in the middle movement of his Sinfonia has given rise to other uses of borrowed music which are neither innovative or justified. Many more recent pieces using the technique of collage, like George Rochberg's Music for a Magic Theater, are not destined to survive because they do not represent a significant contribution by the composer.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (36); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (36); Berio: Sinfonia (36); Ian Hamilton: Alastor (38); Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann (36); Rochberg: Music for a Magic Theater (38); Richard Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (36); Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée (38), Jeux de Cartes (38), Pulcinella (38); Tippett: Symphony No. 3 (38); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

One reference to borrowing is present: the second song of On Wenlock Edge, "From Far; From Eve and Morning," recalls "The Infinite Shining Moment" from Songs of Travel with its widespread common chords.

Works: Vaughan Williams: On Wenlock Edge (36).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

English folk songs and the modality inherent in them influenced Vaughan Williams's choral works in the areas of rhythm, tempo, meter, modality, melody, harmony, ornamentation, tonality, texture and form. Chapters IV ("Music Based on a Folk Song Idiom") and V ("Choral Works Based Directly on Folk Songs") contain information on Vaughan Williams's use of borrowed materials.

Works: Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on the "Old 104th" Psalm Tune (40), The Dark-Eyed Sailor (50), The Spring Time of the Year (51), Just as the Tide was Flowing (52), The Lover's Ghost (53), Wassail Song (54), A Sea Symphony (63).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The first and fifth movements of Luciano Berio's Sinfonia set fragments of Le cru et le cuit, Levi-Strauss's analysis of South American Indian myths, and the third movement is a commentary on the third movement of Gustav Mahler's Second Symphony "Resurrection"). None of the other quotations in the third movement are treated. The outer movements are unified with the central one by the fact that in his analysis, Levi-Strauss attempted to forge groups of the myths he studied into structures analogous to those of Western classical music.

Works: Berio: Sinfonia.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

In his song cycle An die entfernte Geliebte, Beethoven shows awareness of the whole tradition of compositions written for "song circles" and writes to meet the conventional expectations of hidden symbolism. Specifically, the cycle contains reworked material from Ries's "An die Erwählte" from his Sechs Lieder von Goethe.

Works: Beethoven: An die entfernte Geliebte.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Debussy has had different influences on different English composers. The pointillistic chords of Delius's In a Summer Garden are a French influence. Vaughan Williams's On Wenlock Edge is similar to Ravel's String Quartet, and his Pastoral Symphony will be seen as similar when placed alongside any work of Debussy's. Arnold Bax parodied Vaughan Williams in his Country Tune.

Works: Bax: Country Tune (601); Delius: In a Summer Garden (600); Vaughan Williams: On Wenlock Edge (600); Pastoral Symphony (600).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Handel tended to return regularly to the works of certain composers as sources for his borrowed materials, notably the operas of Reinhard Keiser. Handel would have become familiar with Keiser's music through listening, performance, and presumably study of the scores during his years in Hamburg (ca. 1703-5). A table of the ten Keiser operas from which Handel borrowed is included. Roberts theorizes that Handel was often inspired to borrow by a textual similarity. Handel generally subjected the musical material extracted from another piece to extensive reworking, which leads Roberts to speculate that the composer's creative process may have required the stimulus of outside ideas.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn, Nancy Kinsey Totten

Arnold Bax figures importantly in Ralph Vaughan Williams's Piano Concerto (1931). The end of its final solo cadenza quotes the Epilogue to the Third Symphony of Bax. The matter is confused by the fact that the quotation is implicitly anticipated in the Concerto's Romanza, composed in 1926, three years before the Bax symphony's composition (1929) and four before its first performance (1930). The fuga of the concerto also foreshadows the Symphony No. 4 in F Minor, dedicated to Bax by Vaughan Williams.

Works: Bax: Symphony No. 3 (237); Vaughan Williams: Piano Concerto (237); Romanza (238); Symphony No. 4 in F Minor (238).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Vaughan Williams was influenced by a number of composers as mentors and contemporaries, and mentions many of them in this essay. He had no conscience about musical borrowing--which he calls "cribbing"--and engaged in it quite frequently.

Works: Vaughan Williams: A London Symphony (188), "Satan's Dance" from Job (190), Symphony in F Minor, A Sea Symphony (188, 190).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Bax and Vaughan Williams were friends and supported and helped each other musically. In a conversation about borrowed pieces, Bax is said to have noted that all of Vaughan Williams's "best sellers are not his own." An editor's note points out that Vaughan Williams quoted Bax's Third Symphony in his Piano Concerto.

Works: Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on Christmas Carols (244), Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis (244), Piano Concerto (244).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Among the ways music is made is by the re-use of similar ideas. Three fugue subjects by J. S. Bach, Handel, and Mozart, are each built on the same phrase.

Works: Bach: Fugue No. 20 from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (218); Handel: "And with His Stripes" from Messiah (217); Mozart: "Kyrie" from the Requiem (218).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Folk song has evolved as an oral tradition, a tradition known in Vaughan Williams's day to have been remarkably strong and accurate. Elements common or borrowed in folk music have been the norm, because folk music was written not by one composer but by several, and over a considerable period of time.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The use of folk song by Russian and other nationalist composers is nothing new. The music of the Austro-German tradition is just as similar to Teutonic folk song as that of other traditions is to their folk origins, but because of its dominance of the classical music scene, does not sound folklike to the general audience.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Some have considered musical borrowing and the "cult of archaism" to be wrong on moral grounds, but this is a protest by the establishment which profits by maintenance of the musical status quo.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The history of church music includes many borrowed folk tunes and contrafactions, from the Tonus peregrinus (foreign tune) of the Roman church to the use of popular tunes as hymns or chorales well past the Reformation.

Works: Tonus peregrinus (Gregorian chant) (76); Valet will ich dir geben (German chorale); O Filii et Filiae (Sequence) (77); Thomas Oliver: Helmsley (hymn tune) (77); Louis Bourgeois: Old Hundredth (hymn tune) (77), Old 113th (hymn tune).

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Music has undergone a complex evolution beginning with the inflection patterns of speech. Teschner's chorale Valet will ich is apparently based on the English dance tune Sellinger's Round, and Edmund Gurney rhythmically distorts Ein feste Burg into a jig tune in his The Power of Sound.

Works: Edmund Gurney: The Power of Sound (209); Teschner: Valet will ich (209).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

By using borrowed folk tunes in this opera, Vaughan Williams was intending to flatter his colleague Gustav Holst. As was the practice of Holst, the titles of folk songs used are not generally of programmatic significance.

Works: Vaughan Williams: Sir John in Love.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn