Arrangements of instrumental works that change the original performing forces are a useful starting point to study Bach's compositional processes because he uses similar methods in the majority of his works. He adapts sections of Reincken's chamber work Hortus musicus for his keyboard compositions (BWV 954, 965, and 966) and retains the original keys of B-flat Major, A Minor, and C Major respectively. In some movements he retains the structure and musical substance of the work, but ornaments and condenses the material. In many of the fugal movements he only uses the subject of Reincken's work to create a new movement. In the rest of the movements, Bach balances the borrowed material with his own ideas by keeping the subject and structural elements of the original work. Bach also arranges concertos by Vivaldi and Johann Ernst for organ. He exploits the differences in capabilities between the original instrument and organ by adding counter themes to the solo lines. By comparing Bach's arrangements with literal transcriptions for organ of the original, his compositional process can be studied more carefully. Bach transcribed several of his concertos for violin and oboe into works for harpsichord in which he addresses several problems in the transcription process. In the harpsichord concerto BWV 1058, he adopts the written out version of the extemporizing process. Concertos based on works now lost show a varied order of composing the orchestral and solo lines. All of these arrangements and transcriptions show how carefully Bach handled the issue of instrumentation.

Works: J. S. Bach: Fugue in B-flat Major, BWV 954 (155, 158), Sonata in A Minor, BWV 965 (155), Sonata in C Major, BWV 966 (155, 157-58), Concerto for Organ in C Major, BWV 594 (161-62), Concerto for Organ in G Major, BWV 592 (161-63), Concerto for Harpsichord in G Minor, BWV 1058 (167), Concerto for Harpsichord in D Minor, BWV 1052 (168), Concerto for Harpsichord in E Major, BWV 1053 (168-69), Concerto for Harpsichord in F Major, BWV 1057 (169).

Sources: Johann Adam Reincken: Hortus musicus recentibus aliquot flosculis Sonaten, Allemanden, Couranten, Sarabanden, et Giguen (155-60); Vivaldi: Violin Concerto in D Major RV 208 (161-62); Johann Ernst of Saxe-Weimar: Concerto in G Major (161-63); J. S. Bach: Violin Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1041 (167), Brandenburg Concerto No. 4, BWV 1049 (169).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Carlo Francesco Badini's libretto Le pazzie d'Orlando was set by Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Nunziato Porta, and Franz Joseph Haydn. These settings include musical borrowing as well as textual borrowing from the original poem by Ariosto. Guglielmi's setting borrows from earlier operas through intertextuality and hypertextuality. By using part of Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice, Guglielmi enters into a tradition of mocking French styles. He also borrows French airs to mock not only French opera, but also other English theaters using these tunes. The parody had to be altered for different audiences on the continent by Nunziato Porta. It retained much of Guglielmi's music, including the Gluck borrowing, but altered Badini's text and incorporated other texts in the libretto. Haydn's setting, based on revisions of Porta, has plot themes similar to the other versions, but is less similar musically. It does not directly borrow musical material from the earlier versions. Mozart's Don Giovanni uses similar methods and reasons for borrowing as Le pazzie d'Orlando.

Works: Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi: Le Pazzie d'Orlando (584-94, 602); Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi/Nunziato Porta: Orlando paladino (592-96); Mozart: Don Giovanni (599-600).

Sources: Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice (587-93, 602); François André Danican Philidor: Tom Jones (589-91); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (600).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Although there are many documents attesting to the first performance of Bach's Cantata No. 21, BWV 215, there is conflicting evidence about how it was composed. Bach had three days notice of the visit of the elector of Saxony to compose this work. Because of this short time frame for composition, many scholars have argued for Bach's need to borrow from his previous works. However, the majority of earlier scholars have disagreed as to which parts are borrowed and from which compositions. Several types of evidence demonstrate that there is in fact very little borrowing in this cantata. In other pieces with proven cases of borrowing, Bach's handwriting is neat in passages of parody because melodies are simply copied. In certain passages of BWV 215, Bach's handwriting is of the same character as other known first drafts of works, and there are continuation sketches, which do not appear in borrowed movements. Changes from the autograph score to the final version of BWV 215 reveal that the autograph written for the Elector's visit was an initial stage in the composition process. The formative changes made between these two versions are found in both instrumental and vocal lines. In most cases of Bach's parodies, the majority of corrections are in the vocal lines because they are being reworked to fit new words. Considering how quickly other cantatas had to be composed early in Bach's first few years in Leipzig, one should not be surprised at how quickly he was able to compose the new material in BWV 215.

Works: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (137-38, 152, 159-60), Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (138), Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (139-51).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 16, Es lebe der König, der Vater im Lande, BWV Anh. 11 (138), Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (139).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Borrowing in eighteenth-century opera is so common that these works can be defined by individual performances, not a written score. However, by analyzing these works in written form as they compare to their sources of music and libretti, much can be learned about the compositional process of adapting materials. Vivaldi's Tamerlano is an excellent example of this. There are many related libretti on this story from the early eighteenth century. Certain adaptations of these libretti share large structural features. Handel's Tamerlano preserves the distribution of arias between characters found in Gasparini's Il Bajazet. Shared performers between works sometimes cause the choices of borrowed and retexted sections in arias. Vivaldi's Tamerlano has additional text because of his self-borrowing of a chorus from Farnace. He also adds different text to the music of arias from his earlier operas. By changing rhyme schemes and only keeping key words, he adapts the aria to a completely different scene and affect. This process also changes where important melismas are placed and therefore which parts of the music are emphasized. Vivaldi also repeats this process with arias by other composers, but in these cases misses the subtle harmonic relationships with the text used by the original composer.

Works: Vivaldi: Tamerlano (276-79, 283-311); Handel: Tamerlano (277, 281-82), Cantone (291, 294); Francesco Gasparini: Il Bajazet (277, 281).

Sources: Francesco Gasparini: Tamerlano (277-79), Il Bajazet (277); Vivaldi: Farnace (284, 288-89, 294, 305), L'Olimpiade (286-88), Giustino (288-94), Orlando finto pazzo (309); Hasse: Siroe re di Persia (297-301); Geminiano Giacomelli: Merope (301-5).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The performance history of Handel's opera Sosarme, completed in 1732, is complicated because of the changes made before the first performances and for the 1734 revival. The setting and character names had to be changed during the initial composition process for political reasons. Cuts to the music and libretto also made at this time caused the plot's coherence to suffer greatly. This led to negative reactions to the drama, but the music was still well received. Many arias in the 1732 version resemble many of Handel's earlier works in general stylistic traits, but several are specific reworkings of previous material. Handel had to make many additional changes for his 1734 revival in order to accommodate the differences in voice ranges and talent of the two completely different casts. In addition to transposing much of the opera into alternate keys and cutting arias, Handel made changes to showcase the great skill of Carlo Scalzi in the role of Argone. He inserted the arias "Corro per ubbidirvi" and "Quell'orror delle procelle" from Riccardo Primo specifically for Scalzi's voice, reworking them slightly to fit the plot.

Works: Handel: Sosarme (125, 132-33, 144-45).

Sources: Handel: Riccardo Primo (125), Admeto (132-3), Giulio Cesare (133), La Bianca Rosa (133), Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (144-45).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Handel's last two compositions, the Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3, and the oratorio Jephtha, were both written in 1751 before he became blind, and both borrow from Franz Joseph Habermann's six masses, Op. 1. These borrowings and his sketches demonstrate Handel's compositional process in two of his prolific genres. Although some of these borrowings were identified in earlier editions of these works, Handel's borrowings in these two works are much more in depth than previously thought. Handel expands Habermann's themes for use as his own themes in this organ concerto, both in the early version of the work and his revision, which creates an equal dialogue between organ and orchestra unusual for his concerti. In Jephtha, Handel uses Habermann's themes to create his own fugue themes in the finale, as well as for many aria melodies. This work represents a more traditional and conservative use of borrowed materials in using borrowed melodies for contrapuntal elaboration. Handel used some of the contrapuntal techniques that Habermann had tried to use for the melodies. Since Handel thought Habermann's efforts were unsuccessful, he attempted to improve upon them in Jephtha. An appendix of the contents of sketches related to Jephtha is included.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3 (22:61-69, 23:27), Jephtha (22:61-62, 23:27-43).

Sources: Franz Joseph Habermann: Mass, Op.1, No. 5 (22:62-64, 23:29, 33), Mass, Op. 1, No. 2 (22:66-67, 23:37, 39-40), Mass, Op. 1, No. 3 (22:68-69, 23:37-39), Mass, Op. 1, No. 6 (23:29-32), Mass, Op. 1, No. 4 (23:29-34, 41), Mass, Op. 1, No. 1 (23:31, 37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Vaudeville comedies of the eighteenth century continued to use antiquated sixteenth-century dances as well as more contemporary contredanses within the same work. In the early history of fair entertainment in France, dialogues and monologues were banned. Verse was set to popular vaudeville tunes in order to get around this rule. Alain-René Lesage's comedies were among the first to be mostly sung. Lesage chooses songs that the audience will recognize and provides text which acts as commentary on the original meaning of the songs. He refers back to earlier parts of his work by using the same popular vaudeville tune in several places. He also ties his comedies to works being performed at the opera houses by using similar situations for scenes, but changing the character of them through borrowed popular tune accompaniment instead of the newly composed music at the opera. Some of these source songs such as Du Cap de Bonne Espérance also allude to older dance styles of La Folia, the gavotte, or many of the branle types. In Les Couplets en process, Lesage takes advantage of these dance associations to string together tunes to create larger dance numbers. This is also Lesage's first work to use songs referring to both older and newer styles of dance music.

Works: Alain-René Lesage: Arlequin roi de Sérendib (139-46), Les Couplets en process (146-58).

Sources: Anonymous: Je laisse à la fortune Matelots, Galions (140), Quand le peril est agreeable (140), Grimaudin (140-48), Menuet de M. de Granval (141), Je ne suis pas si diable (141), Du Cap de Bonne Espérance (141), Ne m'entendez-vous pas (141), Le fameaux Diogenes (142), Reveillez-vous, belle Endormie (142, 153), Quel plaisir de voir Claudine (142), Folies d'Espagne (143-44), Ma Mére, mariez-moi (143), Ah! Vraiment, je m'y connois bien (144), Faire l'amour la nuit et le jour (144), Monsieur Lapalisse est mort (145), Joconde (145, 155), Flon, flon, larira dondaine (147), Oüida, ma Comère (147), Le Mitron de Gonesse (147), Marotte Mignonne (147), Pierre Bagnolet (147), La Belle Diguedon (147), Le Traquenard Grisellidis (147), Mon père, je vien devant vous (148), Je ne suis né, ni Roi, ni Prince (148), Lucas se plaint que sa (149), En tapinois, quand les nuits sont brunes (149), Les Cordons-bleus (149-50), Le son de la clochette (149-50), Je suis malheureuse en Amant (150), Allons à la Guinguette, allons (150), Qu'elle est belle? (150-51, 155), Et pourquoi donc dessus l'herbette (151), Les sept sauts (152), Je vais toujours le même train (152-53), Il étoit un Avocat (153-54), De l'Horoscope accompli (153), Je ferai mon devoir (154), Robin, turelure lure (154), Quand on a prononcé ce malheureaux oui (155), N'aurai-je jamais un Amant? (155), Or écoutez petits &Grands (155), Oüistan-voire (155), Hé bon, bon, bon! Je t'en répond (156), Voulez-vous sçavoir qui des deux (157), Un certain je ne sçai quoi (157), Toque mon Tambourinet (157); Lully: "Les Trembleurs" from Isis (142); André Cardinal Destouches: "Coulez, hâtez-vous de couler" from Callihoé (144); Jean-Claude Gillier: La ceinture de Vénus (153), Vive Michel Nostradamus (157); Alain-René Lesage: Télémaque (156).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Handel composed four works in the summer of 1743: Semele, Dettingen Te Deum, Dettingen Anthem, and Joseph and his Brethren. The methods of borrowing Handel uses in these works encompass all of his parody techniques as identified by Bernd Baselt. The pages that still remain of the first (unused) version of "Bless the glad earth" from Semele closely match "Zaphnath Egypt's Fate" from Joseph. The layout of the manuscripts further supports this borrowing claim. Handel's compositional process can be analyzed to find when the first version was replaced by the final version of "Bless the glad earth." The final version has a seemingly uncertain chronology with "And why? Because of the King" from the Anthem because of their similar composition dates. However, by examining Handel's composition process and changes in drafts of the Anthem, it can be argued that "Bless the glad earth" (final version) was written earlier. The use of this borrowed material can be traced in his sketching process. This is seen in Handel's adaptation of small sections of the "Bless the glad earth" (final version) to create the solo introduction to "And why? Because of the King."

Works: Handel: Joseph and his Brethren (174-75, 178-80), Dettingen Anthem (175, 180-91).

Sources: Handel: Semele (175, 178-91).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Paul Wranitzky is one of the only eighteenth-century symphonists to compose a symphony based on Haydn's concept of diminishing returns in his "Farewell" symphony. His Symphony in D not only includes Haydn's concept in the final movement, but also presents its reverse, starting the first movement by bringing players in one at a time. Wranitzky's symphony is even more exceptional because of its third movement, subtitled "Ein Quodlibet." This movement borrows from eleven melodies, which are all named in the score. Many are treated as a theme for variations. Wranitzky uses folk songs commonly used as themes for variations by composers of his generation. Most of the melodies are from popular opera arias performed frequently at that time. He often keeps much of the orchestration of the original aria, while changing the vocal line to an instrument. Occasionally he changes instrumentation to be ironic.

Works: Paul Wranitzky: Symphony in D Major (250, 252-58).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp Minor ("Farewell") (250, 257); Anonymous: A Schlüsserl und a Reindl (253-54), Mama mia non mi gridate (254); Giovanni Paisiello: "Nel cor piu non mi sento" from La Molinara (255); Mozart: "Non piu andra" from Le Nozze di Figaro (255), Die Zauberflöte (255-56); André Ernest Modeste Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (255); Antonio Salieri: Palmira (256); Joseph Weigl: "Pria ch'io l'impegno" from L?amor marinaro (256); Simon Mayr: "Contento il cor nel seno" from Lodoiska (256); Jakob Heibel: Le nozze disturbate (256-57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The desire to return to one's childhood or the adult's recollection of a lost youth figure prominently as themes in the music and texts of Charles Ives. The composer's view of an innocent childhood fit into a larger American cultural trend in the first decades of the twentieth century as realized through nostalgic or sentimental ballads and regression fantasies acted out in literature and film of that time. By distorting borrowed melodies, Ives heightens distance between past and present, increasing the sense of nostalgia. The tune The Old Oaken Bucket is deeply embedded in Tom Sails Away, and its original lyrics also depict memories of childhood. The fragmented and sometimes cloudy quotations of The Beautiful River during the third movement of Ives's Fourth Violin Sonata suggest an impossible union between the boys and men of the hymn's lyrics. The melody of The Beautiful River materializes throughout the movement, but Ives prevents the melody from emerging in its entirety, thus suggesting the vagueness of memory and the distance between generations.

Works: Charles Ives: Tom Sails Away (81-87), Violin Sonata No. 4 (87-91).

Sources: George M. Cohan: Over There (84, 87); David T. Shaw, Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (84, 87); Samuel Woodworth and George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (Araby's Daughter) (84-87); Anonymous: Taps; George Ives: Fugue in B-flat Major (87); Robert Lowry: The Beautiful River (88-89).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson, Amanda Sewell, Alexis Witt

Telemann's Violin Concerto in B-flat Major and Handel's Overture in D, Ottone, and Sonata à 5 have significant interrelationships. Handel uses the orchestral ritornello opening of the third movement of Telemann's concerto for the fugue subject of his overture in D. Telemann's concerto works well as a source because its solo episodes hint at a fugal outline. Handel expands this subject into a formal fugue in his overture by changing and extending the countersubject. He uses the beginning of this subject again in the greatly extended fugue of the overture to Ottone. This practice of only using the beginning motive of a fugue without preserving other features is a common practice for Handel's borrowings. Although there are several other Handel works which use similar opening gestures, there is no evidence borrowing occurred in these cases. The borrowing between this Telemann concerto and these three Handel works is much more likely because of the personal correspondence and long history of borrowing between the two composers.

Works: Handel: Overture in D, HWV 337 (33-35, 37), Ottone, HWV 15 (33, 35-36); Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33), Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 12 (36).

Sources: Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33-35, 37-38); Handel: Sonata à 5, HWV 288 (33, 38-39); Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow: Keyboard Suite in B Minor (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The pastiche opera Demofoonte is attributed to Niccolò Jommelli in contemporary London reviews, but it contains music by many other composers, including many Gluck arias. Eighteenth-century reviews of the work also noted the similarity of the aria "Ogni amante," thought to be from a lost opera by Gluck, to a certain Handel minuet. Although the Gluck aria was also used in self-borrowing in his opera La Clemenza di Tito, it is the Issipile version that is used in Demofoonte and compared to Handel. Through thorough analysis current audiences can better understand the observations of the work's first audiences. Gluck also borrowed from Handel's Alessandro for his opera La Fausse Esclave. The differences between Handel opera excerpts and Gluck's aria showcase the composers' different strengths and weaknesses.

Works: Niccolò Jommelli: Demofoonte (168-69); Gluck: "Se all'impero" from La Clemenza di Tito (169, 178-80), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (171-80), "Tendre Agathe" from La Fausse Esclave (180, 183-87).

Sources: Handel: Arianna in Creta (168-70), "Il cor mio" from Alessandro (180-83, 185); Niccolò Jommelli: "Padre sposa" from Cajo Mario (169); Johann Adolf Hasse "Or che salvo" from Arminio (169); Gluck: "Padre perdona" from Demofoonte (169-70), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (169-71, 178-80).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Nineteen of the works now contained in the Turin manuscripts are works not by Vivaldi. The composers for most of these works are not known. Vivaldi plagiarized five of these compositions directly in order to copy an older style. Vivaldi seems to have obtained these manuscripts in an intentional attempt to learn the stile antico for choral works. The variety of works borrowed suggests he needed to learn the strict stile antico, the stile misto, and the brilliant concerto style. Borrowings from madrigals by Antonio Lotti also helped Vivaldi to gain fluency with traditional vocal styles. The lack of these sources and borrowings in other genres such as the instrumental concerto suggest that he was already comfortable with these styles.

Works: Vivaldi: Gloria, RV 588 (93), Gloria, RV 589 (93), Credidi, RV 605 (93), Dixit Dominus, RV 595 (94, 98, 103-107), Kyrie, RV 587 (99), Concerto madrigalesco, RV 129 (99), La Senna festeggiante (99-100).

Sources: Giovanni Maria Ruggieri: Gloria in due chori (93, 95-96); Anonymous: Lauda Jerusalem, RV Anh. 35 (93, 96), Dixit Dominus, RV Anh. 27 (94); Antonio Lotti: Inganni dell'umanità (98-99, 103-107), Moralità d'una perla (99-102).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Mozart became director of Baron van Swieten's oratorio concerts in 1787. One of the pieces he was asked to arrange was Handel's Messiah. For this he was provided with a skeleton version of Handel's score that was condensed and translated into German by van Swieten with lines left blank for Mozart to add extra parts. Van Swieten expected Mozart to arrange the work to fit musical taste of the time, which involved extensive changes in orchestration including the addition of several extra wind parts with mostly new material. Mozart also added material so that the instrumental parts would more directly reflect the text. The declamatory style and basso continuo parts were also changed in some sections. Baron van Swieten specifically suggested some of these additions. During this arrangement process, van Swieten and Mozart represented conflicting aims, van Swieten wanting to make dramatic alterations and Mozart wanting to stick closely to Handel's original. Mozart executed all of these ideas, however. This arrangement served as the basis of the German performance tradition of the work throughout the nineteenth century and led to further reworkings of baroque compositions by German Romantic composers.

Works: Mozart/Baron Gottfried van Swieten/Handel: Messiah (1-14); Mozart: Requiem (2).

Sources: Handel: Messiah (1-14).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Bach's harpsichord concerto BWV 1056 has long been recognized as a borrowed work. The origins of the second movement have falsely been attributed to a number of Bach's earlier works, however. A closer match can be found between this movement and the first movement of Telemann's concerto in G Major. Manuscript evidence analyzed in context of Telemann's early concertos supports it being composed before Bach's concerto. This example is a break in Bach's normal concerto borrowings. Telemann's style of concerto writing is preserved, thereby changing Bach's style. Bach improves the contour of Telemann's melody to make it more dramatic. The technique of borrowing through transformative imitation fits the writings on musical rhetoric in the early eighteenth century. This is one of the only instances of a borrowing from concertos by his German contemporaries and shows a greater relationship between Bach and Telemann than has previously been assumed. Both works are also used in self-borrowings. Some of the material in the Telemann concerto is used in his solo for flute. Bach's harpsichord concerto movement also served as the basis for his Cantata No. 38, BWV 156. This could be a sign of Bach thinking of his concerto slow movement as an aria form.

Works: J. S. Bach: Concerto for Harpsichord in F Minor, BWV 1056 (546-51, 556-61, 571, 574, 580-84), Cantata No. 38, BWV 156 (551-53); Telemann: Solo in G Major, TWV 49: G9 (557-58).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Concerto for Violin in G Minor [lost] (546), Concerto for Harpsichord in F Minor, BWV 1056 (551); Telemann: Concerto for Flute or Oboe in G Major, TWV 51:G2 (547-51, 554-67, 580).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson