The technology of digital sampling challenges our traditional understanding of authorship, and the resulting ambiguities are reflected in our cultural and political environment. For instance, when the group Frankie Goes to Hollywood sampled Led Zeppelin's drummer John Bonham for their recording of Relax, who was the author? Was it John Bonham (who was deceased at the time)? Was it the sampling software? Donna Haraway, in her "Manifesto for Cyborgs," has argued that high-tech culture problematizes many of the binarisms built into our culture, and such destabilization can be politically useful. One artist who has exploited technology for politically useful ends is Laurie Anderson. In her film Home of the Brave she opens by lecturing the audience through a synthesized "male" voice, blurring the binarism of gender. She also samples the voice of William S. Burroughs, who is also silently present for one scene, playing with the dualism of recording and "liveness." Throughout her film, she goes on to challenge other dualisms such as speaking/singing, self/other, author/reader, and person/machine. Anderson's work provides a glimpse of the effect that technology can have on politics and culture.

Works: Frankie Goes to Hollywood (Peter Gill, Holly Johnson, Brian Nash, Mark O'Toole): Relax (31); Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Ula Hedwig (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Bette Midler (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Laurie Anderson: Home of the Brave (37-41).

Sources: Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Bette Midler (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Bobbie Freeman (songwriter and performer): Do You Want to Dance (33).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Musical artists within the Jewish American "hipster" scene (ca. 1986-2006) drew on conventions from rap and hip-hop as a means of negotiating a new Jewish identity. Of the many strategies to draw on the conventions of rap, one common tactic was parody. For instance, parody artist Shlock Rock parodied Aerosmith and Run DMC's Walk This Way (1986) and created Wash This Way, now a song about the Jewish hand-washing ritual. Despite the different lyrics, Shlock Rock's parody borrows vocal inflection, instrumentation, and even attitude. Although humor and parody were common reasons to incorporate rap and hip-hop into Jewish music, the Yeshiva-educated duo Black Hattitude used rap to promote a political and controversial program. Drawing on the stylings of rap, the duo included spoken tracks, took polemical points of view, and sampled artists such as Led Zeppelin. Such music provided a site in which young Jews could simultaneously negotiate a new Jewish identity and preserve and transmit their culture through such change.

Works: Lenny Solomon and Etan Goldman (songwriters), Shlock Rock (performers): Bless On It/Boogie in the Shul [Synagogue] (5), Wash This Way (5); Black Hattitude, R.E.L.I.G.I.O.N (7); Etan G (Etan Goldman): South Side of the Synagogue (8).

Sources: Newcleus: Jam On It/Boogie in the Club (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Aerosmith (performers): Walk This Way (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Run DMC (performers): Walk This Way (5); Led Zeppelin (Jimmy Page, Robert Plant, John Bonham, and John Paul Jones) and Willie Dixon: Whole Lotta Love (7, endnote 11); Peter Gabriel: Sledgehammer (7, endnote 11); Lenny Solomon (songwriter), Shlock Rock (performers): Yo Yo Yo Yarmulke (8), Recognize the Miracles (8).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Composers can expand their musical possibilities by borrowing samples of pre-existent music. For instance, Noah Creshevsky's Borrowed Time samples music from the twelfth to twentieth centuries. By incorporating a variety of disparate samples, one can represent the multicultural society in which we currently live. The revolution of technological media has made sampling equipment readily available. Creshevky's compositional processes have changed in reaction to this technological shift, in that the samples used are often so short in duration as to obscure their origins. Sampling an entire stanza from an aria would be a quotation, belonging to composer and librettist, but sampling just a syllable is an unidentifiable form of sampling and musical borrowing. Whether in times of bounty or scarcity, composers should borrow music, for there is plenty to go around.

Works: Noah Creshevsky: Borrowed Time (91, 96).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Beginning in the early 1960s, Hans Werner Henze began to take a special interest in the music of Gustav Mahler, particularly Mahler's exploration of form, his use of earlier music, and his music's connection to personal experience. It was at this time that Henze began to transition away from the Darmstadt school and move towards a more expressive idiom. This can be seen in Henze's Being Beauteous (1963) and The Bassarids (1965), both of which borrow from Mahler's Fifth Symphony. Being Beauteous draws from the Adagietto of Mahler's Fifth Symphony, and The Bassarids draws from the fourth movement. These intertextual connections exemplify both a transition in Henze's music and also a portrait of how Henze conceived of the importance of Mahler's music.

Works: Hans Werner Henze: Being Beauteous (183-98, 203), The Bassarids (198-204).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (185-93, 199-201).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Scholarship often portrays John Cage as a composer at odds with tradition, but such a portrayal obscures the composer's engagement with Gesamtkunstwerk and its utopian aesthetics. In 1967 Cage was working at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign with Lejaren Hiller. The university at this time had cutting-edge computer technology. Cage and Hiller collaborated to plan HPSCHD, a four-hour work for seven harpsichords, 51 tape players, 208 computer generated tapes, 64 slide projectors and 8 film projectors. Cage used chance procedures to create the harpsichord parts from pieces by Mozart, as well as Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Gottschalk, Busoni, Hiller, and himself. In HPSCHD, Cage aimed to create a microcosm of an ideal, utopian anarchist world of abundance. This is analogous to Wagner's conception of Gesamtkunstwerk as a model for social unity. HPSCHD is also a theater piece and offers a space in which participants can create their own postmodern narrative. Seeing Cage's work in conjunction with his politics helps one to see his participation in high modern European traditions like Gesamtkunstwerk.

Works: John Cage, HPSCHD (474-98).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 57 (Appassionata) (493); Chopin: Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24 (493); Schumann: "Reconaissance" from Carnaval (493); Gottschalk: The Banjo (493); Busoni: Sonatina No. 2 (493); Cage: Winter Music (493); Lejaren Hiller: Sonata No. 5 (493).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

For a short time in the 1970s, disco provided a place in which various cultures could coexist on the dance floor, and such diversity is reflected in the music, such as in Walter Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven and David Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain. Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven is primarily based on the first theme area of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 and opens with a quotation from the opening of the first movement. This opening motive is set against a 4/4 disco pattern of electric bass, acoustic drum set, and clavinet playing composed material. Recalling the French horn bridge to the second theme area, Murphy alternates C and Eb whole notes, marking the beginning of the B section, but, rather than following sonata form, Murphy keeps A Fifth of Beethoven firmly in C minor throughout. By not modulating and by using static harmonies and a persistent rhythmic drive, A Fifth of Beethoven exemplifies the "inclusive homogeneity" that was a marker of disco style. Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain, like its Mussorgsky source, employs a wide range of sources for its orchestration, including a wah-wah electric guitar. The combination of sounds serves as a reflection of the diversity on the disco dance floor. While this was a short-lived phenomenon, disco borrowings of classical music served to exemplify the pluralism of disco.

Works: Walter Murphy: A Fifth of Beethoven (349-57, 260-61); David Shire: A Night on Disco Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (351-56); Mussorgsky: Night on Bald Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Sampling constitutes a form of creative theft that should be seen within the history of musical borrowing. Sampling is mainly associated with digital technology beginning around 1980, and it is used in two main ways: to sample performance sounds, such as a cymbal crash, or to sample more extended sounds. One group that exemplifies creative theft is Negativland. who sampled the lead singer of U2 singing I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For and turned the singer into a whining voice. The artist Scanner travels the airwaves sampling personal phone calls. John Oswald sampled Michael Jackson's voice in BAD to create Oswald's own DAB. Oswald removed all markers of Jackson's voice until it no longer sounded like the artist, and, in so doing, used Jackson's own medium against him. This new form of musical borrowing, creative theft, is appropriate for our media-saturated environment.

Works: Puff Daddy and Faith Evans: I'll Be Missing You (160); Wyclef Jean: We Trying to Stay Alive (160); Janet Jackson: Got 'til it's Gone (160); Negativland: U2 (162, 166-67, 169-70); John Oswald: Plexure (171), Plunderphonic (177), DAB (178-81); Scanner: Sulphur (175); Tape-Beatles: Music with Sound (181-83).

Sources: Sting (songwriter), The Police (performers): Every Breath You Take (160); Bee Gees (Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb, and Maurice Gibb): Stayin' Alive (160); Joni Mitchell: Big Yellow Taxi (160, 163-64); U2: I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For (167); Buck Ram (songwriter), Dolly Parton (performer): The Great Pretender (177); Michael Jackson: BAD (178-81).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Lou Harrison's later style is defined in part by his propensity to revise, rework, and borrow from his own compositions. In Harrison's Suite for Symphonic Strings (1960), the first piece in which borrowed from himself, he incorporated works that were written both before and after his most significant stylistic shift, resulting in the juxtaposition of strikingly contrasting styles. Such polystylism even carried over to works that did not borrow any pre-existing music, such as in his Symphony on G. Self-borrowing allowed the composer to restrict his compositional options and focus on novel reworkings and new combinations. The resulting polystylism was a direct result of Harrison's revisions and self-borrowings and became a hallmark of the composer's style.

Works: Lou Harrison: Suite for Symphonic Strings (86-91), Third Symphony (94-100).

Sources: Lou Harrison: Double Fugue (87-88, 90), Triphony (87-88, 91), Fugue for David Tudor (87), Almanac of the Seasons (87), Nocturne (87, 91, 93), Chorale for Spring (88-89), Largo ostinato (94, 96-98, 100-102), Reel to Henry Cowell (96), Waltz for Hinrichsen (96), Estampie for Summerfield (96), Political Primer (96).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

The duo Mono's 1997 album Formica Blues samples a variety of sources. For instance, the tenth track of the album, Hello Cleveland, samples works from Berio, Webern, Schoenberg, and Berg, which are combined with Mono's composed ambient setting. Depending on the listener, one would hear this track in two different ways. To a listener unfamiliar with classical music or with these particular source pieces, it might sound like a collection of undifferentiated "classical" sources. But to one more familiar with classical music and the tradition of borrowing, the song is full of potential meaning. However, when Mono provides the listener with such an abundance of sources, the knowing listener is left with a similar result as the unknowing listener: no single, unified narrative.

Works: Mono [Martin Virgo and Siobhan de Maré]: Formica Blues, Hello Cleveland.

Sources: Burt Bacharach: Walk on By; John Barry: Ipcress File; Miles Davis and Gil Evans: The Pan Piper; Berg: Lulu Suite; Schoenberg: Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16; Berio: Sinfonia; Webern: Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Monophonic works identified in medieval sources as motets lie outside our traditional definition of the motet. Although not all monophonic motets were motets entés in the commonly understood sense of borrowing refrains, the concept of grafting (enté) between monophonic and polyphonic repertories was integral to this genre of monophonic motets, as attested to by both medieval theoretical sources and modern analysis. By relating monophonic motets to sampling in today's popular music, one can gain insights about the intertextual nature of monophonic motets and the ways in which they engage their audience through technology (notational) and literacy (musical and textual). For example, the motet D'amor nuit et jor me lo (F-Pn fr. 845), although recorded in nonmensural notation like the other monophonic motets in its source, has notational peculiarities that suggest that it was transcribed from a voice of a polyphonic work recorded in mensural notation. Moreover, "grafting," whether in music or in gardening, implies a sense of cultural refinement that raises the motet enté to a level of technical and intellectual superiority. These motets represent a moment of transition in recording technology (notation and literacy), drawing from both the trouvère tradition, which was monophonic and orally transmitted, and the motet tradition, which grew out of an intellectual and literate context.

Works: Anonymous: En non Dieu c'est la rage (646-49, 674), Quant plus sui loig de ma dame (654-44), D'amor nuit et jor me lo (652, 660-62), Onc voir par amours n'amai (663-64), Bone amourete m'a souspris (664-66), Han, Diex! ou purrai je trouver (672-74).

Sources: Adam de la Halle: Bonne amourete mi tient gai (664-66); Anonymous (from Le roman de Fauvel): Ve qui gregi deficiunt (672-74).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi, Kerry O'Brien, Virginia Whealton

Arvo Part's best known works were written after the adoption of his tintinnabuli style in 1976, but his experimental works of the 1960s prefigure his new style. While Pärt wrote a number of twelve-tone compositions in the 1960s, in 1964 he began to utilize borrowed music, particularly the music of J. S. Bach. For instance, Pärt's Credo (1968) was his last work to use serial procedures and collage techniques; he borrows J. S. Bach's Prelude No. 1 in C Major, BWV 846/1, and juxtaposes it with a twelve-tone row built on the circle of fifths. These two disparate styles are tied together through a common fundamental structure. The ways in which Pärt renders his borrowed material serve as a preview of how the composer would reconcile disparate material in his later works.

Works: Arvo Pärt: Credo (16-20).

Sources: J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1, Prelude No. 1 in C Major, BWV 846/1 (17-20).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Scholars have reinforced narrative tropes about Steve Reich's early works at the cost of musical description. Such tropes have discouraged actual description of Reich's techniques of sampling in It's Gonna Rain, and they have obscured Reich's early "structural borrowings" from African music. Scholars often draw connections between Reich's 1968 essay "Music as a Gradual Process" and contemporary aesthetics in art. For instance, when Reich claims that the process and the sounding music "are one and the same thing" this resonates with minimalist aesthetics in art. This aesthetic has become the "myth of minimalism," standing in for actual musical descriptions. In It's Gonna Rain, the process and the sounding music are not equivalent, for, as Reich mentions, when listening to phasing you hear unintended consequences. The many techniques employed in It's Gonna Rain, such as repetition of full statements, phasing, and monophonic sampling, are more analogous to Andy Warhol than to minimalist art. Considering Reich's influence from African music, Reich's "structural borrowing" from African music occurs much earlier in his output than has been acknowledged. Most scholarship only cursorily acknowledges Reich's influence from African music and only after 1971. But Reich's earliest works show the influence of "structural borrowing" from his study of A. M. Jones's transcriptions in Studies in African Music (Oxford University Press, 1959). In works such as Piano Phase or Violin Phase, Reich is borrowing structural features such as a 12/8 meter and non-coinciding downbeats. The principle of non-coinciding downbeats is what led Reich to set the two samples in It's Gonna Rain at different phase relationships. By dismantling the narrative tropes connecting Reich's music to minimalist art and by acknowledging his early study of African music, one comes closer to clarifying his minimalist style.

Works: Steve Reich: It's Gonna Rain (208-11, 213-19, 227, 230, 235-37); Piano Phase (226-27).

Sources: Brother Walter: Recorded sermon; A. M. Jones: African music transcriptions in Studies in African Music (233-36).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien