The sacred vocal parodies of the seventeenth century are not characteristic of the artistic spirit of the age, as evidenced by the few compositions of composers such as Schütz and Monteverdi based on other composers. Despite this, it is possible to speak of a history of parody in the seventeenth century. The seventeenth-century view of parody, as set forth in Quitschreiber's treatise De parodia of 1611, departed from that of the Renaissance in two main ways. First and most important was a new recognition of the concept of artistic ownership. Second was the regard of parody as a useful pedagogical and stylistic tool in composition ("Stileinübung").

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

In Thomas Weelkes's first madrigal book, Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6 Voyces (London, 1597), the five- and six-voice works borrow both text and music from Salamone Rossi's Primo libro delle canzonette a tre voci of 1589. Numbers 13 through 18 of Weelkes's madrigal book clearly borrow from numbers 7, 6, 2, 11, 15, and 19 of Rossi's book respectively. From Rossi, Weelkes primarily borrows thematic points, melodic contours, rhythms, and textures for use in his own compositions. For example, in Weelkes's No. 16, Lady, our spotless feature, the homophonic texture and chanson-like rhythm of Rossi's No. 11, Donna, il vostro bel viso, are clearly present in the work's opening. These borrowings show a progression of maturity on the part of the English composer. Numbers 16 and 13 demonstrate a dependence on the model and unimaginative solutions, while numbers 15 and 17 reset the derived ideas more convincingly, and numbers 14 and 18 clearly show that Weelkes has not only fully mastered the borrowed material but also surpassed his model. Moreover, his later Italian version of Donna, il vostro bel viso in his Ayeres or Phantasticke Spirites for Three Voices of 1608 shows a dependency on his own English version of the text from 1597 rather than a direct relationship with Rossi's original. Weelkes's reuse of Rossi's canzonette demonstrates a progressive compositional maturity in his manipulation of borrowed material, culminating in a reworking of his earlier attempts at modeling.

Works: Thomas Weelkes: Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6. Voyces (110-17), Lady, your spotless feature (111), Your beauty it allureth (111), Those sweet delightful lilies (112), If thy deceitful looks (113), What haste, fair lady (113), Ayeres or Phantasticke Spirites for Three Voices (115-17), Donna, il vostro bel viso (115), I bei ligustri e rose (115).

Sources: Salamone Rossi: Primo libro delle canzonette a tre voci (110-17), Donna, il vostro bel viso (111); Thomas Weelkes: Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6. Voyces (115-17)), Lady, your spotless feature (115).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker, Elizabeth Elmi

The dominance of rhythmic texts in the twelfth-century sequence, conductus, versus, and related genres imposed a structural framework on their musical settings which was crucial to the development of "rhythm" in Notre-Dame polyphony. In the sequence repertory, it was not uncommon to borrow the text and melody from another source and use them as a basis for the composition at hand. The high level of sophistication possible using this technique is illustrated by the use of the hymn Ave maris stella as both a textual and melodic source for the sequence O Maria stella maris, where the music of the sequence is a theme with variations upon the original hymn melody.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Many twentieth-century composers are motivated to borrow musical materials out of a sense of nostalgia. Two practices can be found: that of Mahler and Ives and that of the neo-classicists. Mahler and Ives both used quoted material drawn from popular and folk culture, Mahler for the purpose of capturing the spirit of the people and thus enabling himself to speak for them, Ives for the purpose of presenting his observations of life and nature; both seldom develop their musical materials. Ives's process of composition is similar to that of the writer James Joyce, in that both begin with simple subjects and use them to create multi-layered meanings. In contrast to Mahler and Ives, the neo-classicists display their nostalgia through reference not to popular music but to the art music of the 18th century. Ironically, the listener finds neo-classicism, with its limited frame of reference, easier to grasp than the music of Ives and Mahler, which draws from a larger pool of resources.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra, Randal Tucker, Jessica Sternfeld

Shostakovich achieves his life-long goal of writing a truly classical symphonic allegro in his Fifteenth Symphony. The work as a whole is characterized by economy: a quotation from Rossini's William Tell Overture forms the basis for all motives in the first movement. It is significant that Shostakovich chooses a model far removed from Viennese classicism from which to build this movement. The second movement quotes twice from the Eleventh Symphony, and the third introduces the infamous D-S-C-H motive. The final movement quotes Wagner's "Fate Motive" from Der Ring des Nibelungen as well as the rhythm of Siegfried's "Funeral March" from Gotterdämmerung. The quotation of the "Fate Motive" may be a back-handed comment on "poster-coloured" optimism, but becomes more personal when juxtaposed with the D-S-C-H motive. This progression from the Rossinian light-heartedness of the first movement to the gravity of the last exemplifies Shostakovich's affinity for tragedy.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Handel undoubtedly turned to Purcell's works for guidance during his early years in England. Acis and Galatea, one of Handel's earliest works written for England, appears to be a manifestation of this influence. Although Handel never directly borrows from Purcell, an unmistakable likeness in feeling is present between passages of Acis and Galatea and passages from Purcell's secular works.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Stadlmayr's Missa Fuggi pur se sai, based on Giovanni Gabrieli's secular composition of the same name, is one of four masses that borrow material from other composers, and one of two that borrow from works of Gabrieli. These two works in particular testify to the marked influence of the Venetian school in southern Germany during the first half of the seventeenth century. Both of Stadlmayr's masses based on works of Gabrieli use the original material sparingly. The Missa Fuggi pur se sai illustrates this economy while demonstrating some remarkable inventiveness on the part of Stadlmayr, particularly in his treatment of rhythm. Together, all four masses illustrate that imitation technique was far from being a unified procedure in seventeenth-century compositional practice.

Works: Stadlmayr: Missa Fuggi pur se sai.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Imitazione in the Renaissance can describe three distinct types of borrowing: (1) following, exemplified in the cantus-firmus technique; (2) imitation proper; and (3) emulation, implying a critical reflection on the model itself. Gesualdo and Monteverdi, despite being regarded as two of the most "original" composers of the 1590s, continued this tradition in their madrigal compositions. In choosing texts that had been previously been set, Gesualdo and Monteverdi seem to both emulate and challenge their predecessors. The techniques of emulatio of both composers range from direct quotation to borrowings of texture and rhythm, and the number of borrowings decline as their respective madrigal careers progress. By the time of Gesualdo's Book VI of 1596 and Monteverdi's Book V of 1605, both composers become fully aware of their own originality, and emulatio ceases to play a significant role in their compositions. This abatement suggests not that the form had been exhausted, but rather that composers had grown tired of imitazione. This new emphasis on the concept of originality marks a significant move away from the past. In his later madrigals, Monteverdi's borrowings thus appear to be simply acts of homage to figures whom he held in particuarly high regard.

Works: Gesualdo: From Il Primo Libro de Madrigali--Baci soavi, e cari (457); Madonna io ben vorrei (457); Non mirar (458); Son si belle le rose (460); From Il Secondo Libro de Madrigali--Caro amoroso neo (462); Dalle odorate (463); Non mi toglia il ben mio (463); From Il Terzo Libro de Madrigali--Ahi, disperata vita (466); Ancidetemi pur, grievi martiri (466). Monteverdi: From Canzonette--Canzonette d'amore (472); Son questi i crespi crini (472); Corse a la morte il povero Narcisso (472); Chi vuol veder un bosco folto (472); Io son fenice (473); Raggi, dov'è'l mio bene (473); From Libro I à 5--A che tormi il ben mio (474); Poi che del mio dolore (475); Ardo sì, ma non t'amo (476); From Libro II--Tutte le bocche belle (479); Crudel, perchè mi fuggi (480); From Libro V--Ahi, come a un vago sol (483); From Libro VIII--Hor che'l ciel e la terra (483).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Evidence suggests that Handel came into contact with Purcell's King Arthur during the period of his greatest struggles as a composer, and thus when he may have been particularly susceptible to borrowing. The period of Handel's heaviest borrowings from Purcell occurs during the 5 years after his return from Aix-la-Chapelle in 1737. Handel may have turned to Purcell's music for assistance in coping with two main problems: the unfamiliar English language, and an unfamiliar and intractable English public. Although there is a lack of solid evidence linking Handel's works directly to Purcell's, there are numerous similarities in melodic and motivic construction as well as in general style that cannot be ignored. An appendix of muiscal examples can be found on 28-30.

Works: Handel: Susanna (22-23), Saul (23), L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (24), Messiah (26), Alexander Balus (27), Belshazzar (26), Joshua.(27).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Four types of borrowings in Handel's music can be identified: (1) overt plagiarisms; (2) re-workings of components of work other than the melody; (3) parodies; and (4) borrowings of scene, mood, atmosphere or affect re-used in a different context. When turning to Purcell for material to borrow and rework, Handel was much more subtle than with other composers, primarily utilizing the last technique. The conspicuous lack of the first three types of borrowings from English composers in Handel's output constitutes strong evidence that Handel was wary of being found out by the London public. He knew that any borrowings from English composers would likely be recognized, and especially those of Purcell.

Works: Handel: Susanna (50), L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (51), O Sing Unto the Lord (52-53), Hercules (54), Judas Maccabeus (54-55), Theodora (55), Alexander Balus (56), Alexander's Feast.(57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker