In the early 1930s, Schoenberg transcribed and recomposed compositions of the Baroque era to reaffirm his position in the lineage of German composers during a time when Germany was under the government of the National Socialists. Schoenberg described his Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra as "freely transcribed" from Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7. Its reworking is different from that of Schoenberg's arrangements of Bach and Brahms, as it alters the original much more, using techniques such as reharmonization, the addition of contrapuntal parts, and compressing and expanding the material. Schoenberg reinterprets Handel's music most freely in the third movement. In so doing, he created a duality between the past and the present and contrasted Baroque tonality and compositional techniques with the chromatic/atonal traditions of the twentieth century. Schoenberg also transposed the third movement to a new key, changed the tempo from Andante to Allegro grazioso, and imposed a formal Sonata-Allegro plan onto the material. This work suggests Schoenberg's identity crisis as German and Jewish as well as the larger social and cultural world of the 1930s (specifically 1933), when the work was composed.

Works: Schoenberg: Cello Concerto (264, 285-86), Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra (265-69, 271, 287-313).

Sources: Georg Matthias Monn: Keyboard Concerto F. 41 (264); Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7 (265-66, 287-313).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed, Matthew Altizer

A group of composers, known as "Converts," began as "post-tonalists" and experimentalists and then moved toward more tonal idioms in the 1960s and 1970s. One of the first composers to leave the "post-tonal" world was George Rochberg, who began using collage and other borrowing techniques in his compositions of the mid-1960s. He began quoting his contemporaries and slowly moved to allusion of past composers and eras with his Third String Quartet. Another composer to use collage and allusion was David Del Tredici, who used various traditional and popular tunes to support the texts of Lewis Carroll. William Bolcom, John Harbison, Chick Corea, Keith Jarrett, and Anthony Davis began mixing art music and popular music through quotation, allusion, and homage to create a tonal idiom unlike those found in the music of Rochberg and Del Tredici. In the 1980s and 1990s, young composers also looked back to the Romantic period, but they did not use quotation or other actual borrowing techniques to the extent of the Converts. The young Romantic composers usually composed original music that only alluded slightly to the former composers of the 1800s.

Works: Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (546), String Quartet No. 3 (546-47); Del Tredici: Pop-Pourri (547), Vintage Alice (548); Zwilich: Concerto Grosso (561); Larson: Symphony: Water Music (563).

Sources: Mozart: Divertimento K. 287 (546); Bach: Es ist genug (547); Traditional: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star (548), God Save the Queen (548); Handel: Violin Sonata in D (561), Water Music (563).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Dvořák had a wide-ranging impact on the creation of an American nationalism in music. His ideas about a national American music fall into three different categories, each dealing with a style of folk music. Dvořák felt that American composers should look toward these three folk styles as foundations for their compositions, following the model of his own New World Symphony from 1893. The first category of national American music is Native American music. Composers continued to follow Dvořák's ideas by collecting the music, using previous collections made by ethnologists, and alluding to the culture of the Native American in symphonic and chamber music and opera. The second folk style Dvořák discussed is African-American music. Composers broke into two categories of African-American music, yet they all still were following many of the ideals set forth in the writings of Dvořák. Many composers looked towards the traditions of the Creole people in the South, while others focused mainly on spirituals and other slave songs for the inspiration of various compositions. Finally, composers began looking toward Anglo-American folk traditions, which was the final type of folk music briefly discussed by Dvořák as a basis for a national music. Dvořák was a significant influence on the creation of American music from his entrance into the country until mid-twentieth century.

Works: Works: Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (158-59); MacDowell: Indian Suite (163); Loomis: Lyrics of the Red Men (163-64); Nevin: Poia (164); Farwell: The Hako (164); Griffes: Two Sketches Based on Indian Themes (164-65); Beach: String Quartet, Op. 89 (165-66); van Brockhoven: Suite Creole (169); Gilbert: Dance in Place Congo (169); Beach: Cabildo (169); Shelly: Carnival Overture (170); Schoenefeld: Suite, Op. 15 (170); Goldmark: Negro Rhapsody (171); Gilbert: Negro Episode (171); Mason: String Quartet in G Minor on Negro Themes (172); Cook: Uncle Tom's Cabin (173); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (174).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

African-American music has continually used the troping of texts in blues, jazz, and other popular traditions. Two examples of troping occur in the use of the spiritual "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" and the riding train. Troping of the spiritual has occurred on the textual and musical level. Furry Lewis tropes the idea of a motherless child in his piece "Big Chief Blues." Washington "Bukka" White also creates his trope relating to the motherless child in "Panama Limited" while singing about being far from home. Musical troping can be found in George Gershwin's repetition of the tune of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" in the piece "Summertime" from the opera Porgy and Bess. Gershwin tropes the spiritual's intervallic structure, rhythm, melodic structures, and beat structure throughout "Summertime." David Baker and Olly Wilson also trope the music and text of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child." The train trope deals in the sounds created by a passenger train throughout the United States. Duke Ellington's composition "Happy-Go-Lucky-Local" tropes the passenger train through its use of chugging rhythms, whistles, and sounds of steam locomotives through orchestration. These tropes display an evolution in African-American music through repetition and revision of texts and music.

Works: Traditional: Big Chief Blues as performed by Furry Lewis (36-37); White: Panama Limited (37); Gershwin: "Summertime" from Porgy and Bess (37-43); Baker: Through This Vale of Tears (43-44); Wilson: Sometimes (44-45); Ellington: Happy-Go-Lucky-Local (46-47); Logan: Runagate Runagate (47-50).

Sources: Traditional: Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child (35-45).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Hindemith, upon becoming a citizen of the United States, began working on what is considered his only nationalistic, American piece: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem "For Those We Love." Like many other American composers living during World War II, Hindemith was drawn to the poetry of Walt Whitman as the essence of American nationalism. Within this composition, however, there are allusions to the Germanic tradition that Hindemith had left. There are many similarities between Hindemith's Whitman Requiem and Brahms's Ein deutsches Requiem, such as elaborate choral fugues, funeral marches, an orchestral prelude that uses an extended pedal point in the bass, almost identical orchestration, tempo indications, and motivic material. Other than the allusion to Brahms, Hindemith uses only two other musical borrowings within the Requiem. The first is an offstage trumpet playing "Taps" during a militaristic march. The last borrowing is found in the eighth movement, entitled "For Those We Love." Previous scholarship has only found parallels in the Whitman text with the text of the popular Episcopal hymn "For Those We Love." However, by looking deeper into the history of this hymn text, one finds it used in another hymnal but set to "Yigdal," a traditional Jewish melody sung either before or after the service proper on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, which is note-for-note the same as the tune used by Hindemith in the eighth movement of the Requiem. Hindemith takes the quotation one step further by using many of the same rhythmic values, the same key, and the same shift to the major mode for the final cadence as the traditional Jewish melody.

Works: Hindemith: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem "For Those We Love" (133-74); Gaza, traditional Jewish melody from The Hymnal of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America 1940 (148-56).

Sources: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem (142-45); Yigdal (155-61).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

The inclusion of an African-American spiritual in Ellington's Black and Tan Fantasy follows the ideas set forth by many writers during the Harlem Renaissance. Ellington takes the Renaissance ideals a step further by integrating the spiritual with blues, urban jazz, call-and-response, and even a quotation of Chopin's funeral march. Bubber Miley, cornetist and co-composer in the Ellington band, bases the opening motive of the fantasy on a spiritual he heard his mother singing while he was a child. However, the spiritual is not truly African-American in its origins. A friend of Miley pointed out that the spiritual is derived from "The Holy City," a sacred song in the style of a spiritual but by the white composer Stephen Adams. This white sacred tune is transformed through Miley's performance practice of bending the pitches, growling, and vocal ya-yas. These issues moved the spiritual away from Du Bois's ideas of the "sorrow song" with lush, pleasant, and Europeanized harmonies and toward Hurston's ideas of the spiritual, which strives for the unrefined sounds of the "real Negro singer." Black and Tan Fantasy was not the only jazz composition to draw upon "The Holy City." King Oliver and His Creole Jazz Band incorporated the sacred work into a twelve-bar blues, and Johnny Dodds responds to the text and music of "The Holy City" in his composition "Weary City."

Works: Ellington/Miley: Black and Tan Fantasy (137-58); Oliver: Chimes Blues (151); Dodds: Weary City (151-53).

Sources: Adams: The Holy City (137-58); Chopin: Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat Minor (140).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

The idea of the avant-garde has been misinterpreted as the music of the atonalists and experimentalists. These styles of music actually became the standard of Western art music in the early twentieth century because of the support found in academia. The composers still writing in the tonal idiom and looking back to the past for support should be seen more as the avant-garde. These composers, such as Stravinsky, Copland, Prokofiev, Milhaud, and Bernstein were creating new music firmly founded in the tonal traditions of the 1700s and 1800s. The future of tonal music, although impossible to predict, may be rooted in assimilation and dissemination of non-Western music. Though composers like Chavez, Bartók, Villa-Lobos, and Messiaen have borrowed from non-Western music sources in their compositions, the total integration of other musical traditions has yet to be accomplished.

Works: Liebermann: Concerto for Jazzband and Orchestra (40); Stockhausen: Gruppen (41); Tippett: The Knot Garden (41); Stockhausen: Hymnen (41); Rochberg: String Quartet No. 3 (41); Bernstein: Mass (41); Berio: Sinfonia (41).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Resurrection (41).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

In an interview, Rochberg discusses his move toward serialism after World War II and his eventual return to the tonal idiom after the death of his son in the mid-1960s. Even though he was writing in the serial tradition after World War II, his music did not sound like that of other serial composers because he kept his sight on what he called "hard Romanticism," which Rochberg defines as an unattainable romantic notion that forces the music to open to the chaos of atonality. He eventually became disillusioned with serial techniques because it was only possible to manipulate the music in one way. Rochberg could find no true cadences or musical pauses for drama and expressive purposes. Starting with Contra Mortem et Tempus, Rochberg begin moving towards tonal music with the use of collage. He finally found his compositional style in String Quartet No. 3, which is rooted in both tonality and atonality. This piece, although not using collage technique, is formed through the music of previous eras that creates a sense of looking back to understand the future.

Works: Rochberg: Contra Mortem et Tempus (10), Music for the Magic Theater (10), Caprice Variations (10), String Quartet No. 3 (10-12).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

In a brief interview, George Rochberg discusses his move away from serial techniques in the 1960s in hopes to create a more evenly mixed tonal/atonal tradition. With pieces like Music for Magic Theater, he relied upon the music of his peers as the foundation of the piece. His String Quartet No. 3, however, only evokes the music of past composers through the harmonic and motivic movement, which is interspersed between atonal sections of music.

Works: Rochberg: Music for Magic Theater, String Quartet No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Corigliano's opera is a prime example of camp, using allusion and quotation to present a parody-like interpretation of the history of opera. Hoffman and Corigliano have created an opera within an opera with a mixture of both fictional and historical characters. The fictional characters represent principal buffa characters from various operas by Mozart and Rossini. Corigliano creates a larger allusion to the history of opera by composing in a style that recalls the operas of Mozart, Rossini, and Verdi. At times, he even quotes from specific operas to allude to a Mozartian opera that, though it was never written, would be firmly placed in the grand history of opera between The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni. This quotation of an allusion is placed into a new field of musical borrowing defined in the writings of Jean Baudrillard as simulacrum. Parody, allusion, and quotation are further supported with a cameo appearance of Marilyn Horne in a role that alludes to a previous character she popularized in the 1980s. This camp sensibility adds another dimension to Corigliano's opera as a history of the past opera and a possible future of opera.

Works: Corigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles (117-32).

Sources: Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (117-18, 121-28); Rossini: The Barber of Seville (117, 121); Verdi: Il Trovatore (119, 121-23).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Although Ellington's compositional practices tend to support his statements about composing at the end of a deadline, often composing an entire piece in one night, new research shows that the ideas of Black, Brown, and Beige can actually be found twelve years earlier with Ellington's unproduced opera Boola. The plot of Boola deals with the history of the African-Americans, beginning in Egypt and continuing through Africa and the Deep South until they found their place in present-day Harlem. In Black, Brown, and Beige, Ellington takes the overall diagram of Boola and shrinks the subject matter into a forty-five minute extended work for his band. Ellington also borrows from his own previous compositions in Black, Brown and Beige through quotation and recomposition.

Works: Ellington: Black, Brown and Beige.

Sources: Ellington: Symphony in Black (73-74), Jump for Joy (74-82), East St. Louis Toodle-Oo (82), Riding on a Blue Note (82), Bitches' Ball (82).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Scholarship consistently claims African rhythms as the origin of rhythm in early jazz. However, many of the rhythmic cells found in jazz bear more resemblance to Caribbean styles, specifically the son clave,tresillo, and cinquillo found in Cuban music. The Cuban and Haitian immigrants brought their music with them to New Orleans. Many Creole musicians and marching bands borrowed these Caribbean dance rhythms and sounds as a rhythmic foundation for their own music because of their connection with dance. These rhythms then moved into the music of the early jazz pioneers in the rhythmic breaks that occurred in many pieces. The use of these Afro-Cuban rhythms slowly declined as jazz moved away from its dance beginnings. However, these rhythms are continually borrowed in jazz as an homage to past jazz styles and composers.

Works: Da Costa/Edwards/La Rocca/Ragas/Shields/Sbarbaro: Tiger Rag as performed by Louis Armstrong (69-71); Gillespie/Lewis: Two Bass Hit as performed by Miles Davis (71); Barefield/Moten: Toby (71-72); Ellington/Mills/Nemo: Skrontch (71-72); Monk: Rhythm-a-ning (72-73); Clarke/Gillespie: Salt Peanuts (73); Simons/Marks: All of Me (73); Richard M. Jones: Jazzin' Babies Blues as performed by King Oliver (74-75); Caesar/Kahn/Meyer: Crazy Rhythm as performed by Miff Mole (74-75); Barbarin/Russell: Come Back Sweet Papa as performed by Louis Armstrong (75-76).

Sources: Traditional: Son clave,Tresillo, and Cinquillo (57-80).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Collage can be seen as a central force in the various arts of the twentieth century, including music. Collage in music should be considered as more than just a collection of other people's music used in another composer's piece. By expanding the idea of collage to include cultural explosions and reconstitutions, unilateral use of European and American ideas by each other, access to art and ideas of the non-Western world, and the mixture of culture and music theory, a strong transition between Modernism and Postmodernism can be followed. The modernist music of Stravinsky and Debussy at the fin-de-siècle introduced orientalist musical theories and sounds into their own music. This use of orientalism led the way for Primitivism and its various guises throughout the rest of the twentieth century. Collage took a front seat in the music and culture of the twentieth century after World War II. The techniques used in early film played an important role for the emergence of collage in post-war music by giving composers the chance to suggest many past musical styles in quick succession without using long transitions. Composers also continued the tradition of using cultural, literary, and architectural collages in their compositions instead of only creating collage by cutting and pasting from earlier composers.

Works: Debussy: Images (23-26); Stravinsky: Le Rossignol (38-49), Le Sacre du printemps (84-100); Milhaud: La Creation du monde (116-21); Krenek: Jonny spielt auf (150-53); Thomson: Four Saints in Three Acts (153-55); Ellington: Black and Tan Fantasy (187-88); Gershwin: Porgy and Bess (195-202); Stravinsky: David, projected collaboration with Cocteau (238-43, 256-64), Three Pieces for String Quartet (260-64); Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire (282-84); Stravinsky: Renard (285-87); Debussy: The Children's Corner (297-98); Antheil: Ballet mecanique (327-29); Stravinsky: Agon (360-74); Varese: Ameriques (389-90); Satie: Le feu d'artifice (399); Ives: Flanders Field (400); Britten: War Requiem (405); Rouse: Symphony No. 1 (407-8); Schnittke: Symphony No. 1 (410); Gubaidulina: Offertorium (411-12); Riley: Salome Dances for Peace (414-15); Berio: Sinfonia (416-17), Rendering (417); Berg: Violin Concerto (430-32); Britten: The Prince of the Pagodas (445-46).

Sources: Traditional: America (400), Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (400); Bruckner: Symphony No. 7 (407-8); Lasso: Stabat Mater (411); Beethoven: Grosse Fugue (410); Bach: The Musical Offering (410); Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Resurrection (416).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Many popular music groups, especially rap groups, have been sued by other artists and their publishers for using copyrighted music without permission, even though the groups generally took a small section of the piece in question and thus the quotation falls under the fair use clause. However, by looking at quotations more closely, one can find an extramusical meaning to the quoted material. Because of this, many of the quotations should not be seen as plagiarism as long as the composer does not borrow too much from a previous source.

Works: Puccini: Madame Butterfly; Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15.

Sources: Dees/Orbison: Oh Pretty Woman;The Star-Spangled Banner;Dies Irae; Rossini: William Tell.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Sampling and quotation in popular music resembles borrowing in Western art music. DJ sampling not only "recycles" music, it also uses specific performances from recordings. This commonly brings in characteristics of timbre and the performer's interpretation from the sampled music that is not found in other forms of musical borrowing. Because of these added factors in sampling, one finds a kind of iconography that the DJs bring into their music that is noticed by the listeners. The idea of extra-musical meaning, albeit through iconography in DJ sampling, is not new. Composers of Western art music have commonly inserted previously composed music into their own compositions for extramusical meanings. These meanings within the borrowing do not hinder the composer's, nor the DJ's, originality in any way.

Works: Berg: Violin Concerto; Wuorinen: Machaut mon chou; Respighi: The Birds; Schubert: String Quartet No. 14 in D Minor; Mahler: Symphony No. 1; Ives: Three Places in New England; Ravel: Bolero; Copland: Symphony No. 3; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Sources: Brown: Funky Drummer; J.S. Bach: O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort BWV 60; Schubert: Death and the Maiden; Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer; Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer