Haydn's late oratorios The Creation and The Seasons were performed all over Europe soon after their premieres and became immensely popular throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. Haydn borrowed from some previous traditions and predecessors, and the two oratorios were in turn sources of allusions, quotations, and models to many composers in the German-speaking lands, such as Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, providing many musical, textual, and rhetorical relationships. Haydn borrowed from specific works of Handel, Mozart, and himself, as well as from the general stylistic conventions of opera seria and the Singspiel. The famous representation of chaos leading to the appearance of light employed in The Creation was particularly influential for the next generation of composers, with Beethoven prominent among them. Further source materials were provided by the pastoral setting of both oratorios, spinning choruses, and general representations of nature such as storms and sunrises.

Works: Haydn: The Creation (28-30, 35-39), The Seasons (31-39); Beethoven: The Creatures of Prometheus (40), Fourth Symphony (41), Fifth Symphony (41, 50), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (42); King Stephan, Op 117 (42); Leonore Overture No. 3, Op 72 (44), Sixth Symphony (44-47, 50), Second Symphony (48-49), Fidelio (50), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (50), Ninth Symphony (50-51); Schubert: "Tragic" Symphony, No. 4, D. 417 (52), "Great" C-Major Symphony, D. 944 (50); Weber: Der Freischütz (52); Mendelssohn: Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

All twelve surviving opera texts that Haydn set to music for Esterházy existed in previous versions by other composers, but La fedeltà premiata (1780) is the only one whose earlier setting, with the title L'infideltà fedele (1779) by Domenico Cimarosa, Haydn apparently knew before attempting to write his own work. Haydn's debt to Cimarosa is not great, apart from sharing the almost identical libretto. An intertextual approach reveals the incorporation of elements of the pastoral genre of the later sixteenth-century, while an unsuspected connection between the "coro di furie" from Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) and the second-act finale of La fedeltà premiata proves to be much more significant. Haydn uses the tonality, the chromaticism, and the sarabande rhythm articulated by Gluck's furies, while also evoking the austerity of the scene. This parody of Gluck's Orfeo is contrasted with an interpolated section employing Gypsy music or the "style hongrois," which provides a clash between the buffa and seria opera styles. This clash is further reflected in the second-act finale's almost tragic character within the pastoral and opera buffa world of La fedeltà premiata. By quoting from Gluck's famous opera, which would certainly be recognized by his knowledgeable audience at Esterházy, Haydn provides a commentary between texts, and through the juxtaposition of different styles he reveals the comic character behind this apparently serious finale.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Mozart's concertos-pastiches K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, and K. 41 were viewed as original compositions until 1908 when Wyzewa and Saint-Foix discovered that they borrowed from sonatas by "Parisian" clavichordists such as Raupach, Schobert, Hannauer, Eckard, and C. P. E. Bach. Since then they have been excluded from the canon of Mozart's original works. The notion of plagiarism in the eighteenth century was not clearly based on the ownership of a text, and composers shared the same musical language and style. Mozart's imitations are a natural procedure during his apprenticeship years, and a gradual development from straight arrangement, through more elaborate reworking, and finally to relative autonomy is exemplified in the three sets of piano concertos examined.

Works: Mozart: 3 Piano Concertos K. 107 (118-121), Piano Concertos K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, K. 41 (121-32), Piano Concerto K. 175 (132-38).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

There is rarely a single best version for Rossini's operas, since in the first half of the nineteenth century, Italian opera was treated as a collection of individual units which could be rearranged, substituted, or omitted depending on varying local conditions. This dissertation examines all the authentic versions of fourteen operas by Rossini in printed or manuscript sources in order to establish the correct texts for the works. An authentic version is defined as one with which Rossini can be shown to have been directly connected in the capacity of composer, director, or arranger, or one that he personally approved for inclusion in his operas but was composed by somebody else. Although not dealing primarily with borrowing, this dissertation examines Rossini's reuses of his own music in great detail, since he frequently made use of this practice in his operas or in later versions or revivals of the same work. Rossini's self-borrowings are viewed as an important characteristic of his compositional style and as a result of his time and milieu.

Works: Rossini: L'inganno felice (166-172, 190), Tancredi (198-200), L'italiana in Algeri (247), Il barbiere di Siviglia (276-79, 293), Otello (313-14), La Cenerentola (338-39), La gazza ladra (358), Armida (381), Mosè in Egitto, Moïse (307, 434), Maometto (456), Semiramide (490), Le Comte Ory (508), Guillaume Tell (524).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

The archetype of Rossini's overture is defined in order to test attributions of dubious pedigree from his first period of compositional practice (1808-1813). Rossini's self-borrowings in his overtures are examined indirectly but in great detail since they are a very prominent characteristic of his compositional style and can help to solve matters of authorship. An alternate overture to La scala di seta is shown not to be by Rossini on the basis of its borrowing technique. This overture quotes in full two melodies that will appear in later operas by Rossini and Gossett shows that Rossini never uses melodies from an earlier overture in the body of a future opera unless he intends to preface the latter with the same overture. A table with comments about Rossini's self-borrowings is shown on page 15.

Works: Rossini: Zelmira (3), Otello (7, 8), Il Turco in Italia (8), Sigismondo (8), Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (8), Matilde di Sahbran (8), Il barbiere di Siviglia (12, 18), La cambiale di matrimonio (14, 15, 24), L'inganno felice (14), Ciro in Babilonia (14), Il signor Bruschino (15, 24, 25), Adelaide di Borgogna (15), Tancredi (15), Aureliano in Palmira (18), alternative overture to La scala di Seta (22), Bianca e Falliero (22), Le siège de Corinthe (30), L'equivoco stravagante (30, 31).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Mozart's overtures were usually the last part of his operas to be written, since they required only a run-through by the orchestra, while the other sections had to be in the hands of performers ahead of time for study and rehearsal. However Mozart's overtures since Idomeneo are extremely important, because they present with economy of means the emotional and intellectual content of the drama. Among Mozart's overtures, the one to La clemenza di Tito uses the greatest number of musical ideas from the body of the opera. A possible reason for this fact is that Mozart had a very limited amount of time to compose it. The overture to Titus reproduces the harmonic scheme of the opera as a whole, and the sequence of tonalities of different numbers of the opera is also reflected in some of the cadential progressions such as IV-V-I. The music of two of the main characters also plays a major role in the overture, preparing us for the heroism of Sextus and the fiery and scheming Vitellia.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

More than one third of Beethoven's compositions make use of his pre-existing music. These reworkings are frequently extensive and serve as an alternative way to access his compositional method in addition to his sketchbooks. His self-borrowings have both musical and practical explanations: (1) to correct, improve, and perfect the quality of a previously finished composition; (2) to enable him to indulge his penchant for variation, development, and invention; (3) to respond to compositional challenges; (4) to express feelings of friendship and debts of gratitude; (5) to make a composition available to a wider spectrum of the music buying public in order to earn extra money. The re-uses can be classified in four categories: (1) amelioration; (2) arrangement; (3) single composition or movement reuses; and (4) thematic or motivic reuses.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (1), Piano Sonata in C# minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (5), Piano Sonata in C major, Op. 2, No. 3 (10), Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (13), Feuerfarb', Op. 52, No. 2 (14), O welch ein Leben!, WoO 91, No. 1 (17), Fidelio, Op. 72 (21), Sonatina in G Major, Op. 79 (28), String Quintet in Eb Major, Op. 4 (32), String Trio in Eb Major, Op. 3 (49), String Quintet in C minor, Op. 104 (69), Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 (78), Der freie Mann, WoO 117 (102), Piano Concerto No. 2 in Bb Major, Op. 19 (106), Rondo in Bb Major for Piano and Orchestra, WoO 6 (110), Quartet in Eb Major for Piano and Strings (116), Septet in E Major for Violin, Viola, Clarinet, Horn, Basson, Violoncello, and Contrabass, Op. 20 (124), Trio in Eb Major for Piano, Clarinet or Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 38 (124), Opferlied (130), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 (151), Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2 (156), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 (156), Sonata in G Major for Piano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3 (156), Piano Trio in E Major Op. 70, No. 2 (156), Piano Sonata in Ab Major, Op. 110 (156), Adagio in Eb Major for Mandolin and Harpsichord, Hess-44b (164), Allegretto in C minor for Piano, Hess-66 (176), Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 (179), String Quartet in F, Hess-34 (184), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (200), Septet in Eb Major, Op. 20, arranged as Trio, Op. 38 (210), Fragment of an Arrangement for Military Band of Septet in Eb major, Op. 20 (225), Piano Sonata in Bb Major, Op. 22 (228), German Dance or Allemande in A Major for Orchestra, WoO 13 (231), Trio in G Major for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 1, No. 2 (231), String Quartet in A minor, Op. 132 (231), Fifteen Variations in Eb major with a Fugue for Piano, Op. 35 (248), Symphony No. 3 in Eb major, Op. 55 (248), Music for Friedrich Duncker's Drama Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 (260), Arrangement for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello of Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 (263), Busslied, Op. 48, No. 6 (269), Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 (270), Overture III to Leonore (1806) (273), Concerto in D for Violin, Op. 61 (287), March in Bb Major for Six Wind Instruments, WoO 29 (313), Music for August von Kotzebue's Festspiel (Nachspiel) Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (318), Introduction to Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (327), Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1 (337), Hoffnung, Op. 82, No. 1 (339), March and Chorus from Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 114 (346), An die Geliebte, WoO 140 (351), Canon An Mälzel, WoO 162 (353), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (361), Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria for Orchestra, Op. 91 (367), Hochzeitslied, WoO 105 (370), Puzzle Canon Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (378), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (381).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

The standard biographies of Schubert are silent about the events that occurred between March and July of 1824. Two works for piano four hands from this period, the Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 and the Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat major, D. 813, respectively quote from Beethoven's Second and Seventh Symphonies. Schubert is shown to have been present at the Kärntnertor Theatre on the evening of May 7, 1824 when Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was premiered, and Schubert was moved enough to pay tribute to Beethoven in his next two pieces for piano duet mention above. Although transformed into Schubertian sentiments, the borrowed ideas show unmistakably his allegiance to Beethoven's symphonic model. Schubert's quotation of the "Freude" theme from the Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in his "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (1825), provides further evidence that Schubert was present at the Ninth's first performance since the score was only published in 1826.

Works: Schubert: Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 (421-25, 31), Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat Major, D.813 (421-22, 26-29, 31-32), "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (432-434).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

All numbers of Rossini's Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (Naples, 1815) are borrowed from his previous operas with the exception of only one totally original piece. Most of the reused music was selected from the best material from Aureliano in Palmira and Sigismondo, which were previous fiascoes in other cities, but Rossini also borrowed from Ciro in Babilonia and the Cantata Edipo Coloneo. In spite of the numerous self-borrowings, Elisabetta cannot be considered a simple pastiche, since Rossini reworked all the reused materials and achieved a balance between dramatic and musical time in the opera, which became the first great success of his Naples's period. It seems that Rossini chose the borrowed material according to the following criteria: (1) themes with similar dramatic function; (2) texts with similar metrical structure; and (3) identical tonal settings. Likewise the libretto of Elisabetta by Giovanni Schmidt is shown to have been modeled upon the play Il paggio di Leicester by Carlo Frederici (Naples, 1813), which was derived from an English play by Sophia Lee and not from a romance by Sir Walter Scott as asserted by previous biographers.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Beethoven's String Quartet in A major Op. 18, No. 5 is clearly indebted to Mozart's String Quartet K. 464 in the same tonality, and Mozart's quartet was an homage to Haydn. The parallels between the two later works are examined using Harold Bloom's theory of the anxiety of influence. Beethoven's imitation can be explained as a desire to learn from Mozart, as motivated by feelings of rivalry, and also as an act of homage to him. The differences between some sections can be seen as an attempt to "misinterpret" the original in order to surpass it. In the String Quartet in A minor Op. 132, which is a much later re-use of Mozart's music, Beethoven achieves the effect of complete sublimation of the precursor, capturing its essence so completely that it seems that the latecomer is being imitated by his ancestor.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 (30-71); String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (71-72).

Sources: Mozart, String Quartet in A Major, K. 464.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes