Quoted musical fragments are as deep in symbolic content as Freudian symbols of "dream-text" fragments. A distinction is made between quoted musical matter that involves words and quoted musical matter that does not. Quotations of untexted music, such as "Westminster Chimes" in Ives's Second String Quartet and the opening motive of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in Ives's Second Piano Sonata ("Concord"), evoke philosophical associations but not literary meaning. But quoting texted music, such as the songs Ives uses in his Fourth Symphony and his song West London, provides a deeper meaning if the listener knows the original words. Different structures of meaning exist for various listeners in a work that utilizes borrowed materials: (1) abstract, which concerns purely musical relationships; (2) programmatic, eliciting extra-musical associations; and (3) musico-philosophical, uniting all levels of perception and transcending both abstract musical relationships and programmatic images. Ives's Central Park in the Dark and Washington's Birthday illustrate the way in which these levels work. Although in some cases Ives may have borrowed material for structural and thematic reasons, he was still undoubtedly exploiting the connotations of this borrowed material to incorporate different levels of meaning into his music.

Works: Ives: String Quartet No. 2 (171-72), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (172), West London (173-74), Fourth Symphony (174-76).

Sources: "Westminster Chimes" (171-72); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (172); "There is a fountain" (173-74); Lowell Mason: "Bethany" (174-75), "Watchman" (175); Arthur Sullivan: "Proprior Deo" (175-76).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh, Fredrick Tarrant, Paula Ring Zerkle

Vincent d'Indy was heavily influenced by Gregorian plainsong, and this influence was clearly reflected in his musical philosophies, teaching, and compositions. D'Indy's music quotes, paraphrases, or alludes to the style of Gregorian chant in several ways. These are organized according to compositional genre. The use of Gregorian chant fits into d'Indy's musical aesthetic in several ways.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Schubert's last three piano sonatas, composed during the summer of 1828, borrow from or are modeled on works by Beethoven. Schubert may have been insecure about this particular musical form and subsequently turned to Beethoven's works for help. Detailed examples of Schubert rondos that may have been modeled on Beethoven rondos support this hypothesis.

Works: Schubert: Sonata in C Minor (780), Sonata in B Flat Major (780), Sonata in A Major (782-86), Rondo in A Major for Piano Duet, Op. 107 (788-93).

Sources: Beethoven: Thirty-two Variations on an Original Theme in C minor, WoO 80 (780), String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 130 (780-82), Piano Sonata No. 16 in G major, Op. 31, No. 1 (782-86), Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor, Op. 90 (788-93).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

A quotation in the fourth movement of Shostakovich's Piano Concerto No. 1 is incorrectly attributed as Ach du Lieber Augustin. According to Hart, the quotation is actually from an English nursery song titled Poor Jennie is a-weeping, a-weeping.

Works: Shostakovich: Piano Concerto No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Shostakovich's Symphony No. 15 quotes Rossini's William Tell Overture in the first movement and Wagner's "Annunciation of Death" motive from Die Walküre in the final movement. These quotations are symbolically related to Eine Kapitulation (1870), a play by Wagner that expressed "contempt for the lost ideals of failed revolutionaries." Shostakovich, through the use of musical allusion, was making a forbidden political statement and giving his Soviet masters "the Russian equivalent of two fingers."

Works: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15.

Sources: Rossini: William Tell Overture; Wagner: Die Walküre.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

While this correspondence has nothing to do with Shostakovich's borrowings, it contains several interesting comments on musical borrowings in general. Hill states that "Notte e giorno faticar" from Mozart's Don Giovanni is quoted in Offenbach's Tales of Hoffman because Hoffman is waiting for his latest love, Stella, who is appearing in a performance of Don Giovanni in the theater next door. Hill parenthetically adds that "it is very difficult to think of a work of any length without a quote," and states that at least 24 works borrow from God Save the King.

Works: Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

An inventory of the uses of self-quotation in Schubert's works is provided. In addition to the well-known cases of self-borrowing, Hoorickx cites 33 lesser known compositions in which Schubert reuses his own material. Each individual case of self-borrowing is discussed in enough detail to establish a clear relationship between the borrowed material and its former setting. Hoorickx proves that self-borrowing was a compositional device frequently employed by Schubert.

Works: Schubert: Ich sass an einer Tempelhalle, D. 39 (373), Fantasia for Piano Duet in G Major, D. 1 (373), Leichenfantasie, D. 7 (374), Overture for String Orchestra, D. 8 (374), Piano Duet Fantasia in G Minor, D. 9 (375), String Quartet No. 7 in D Major, D. 94 (375), Octet for Wind Instruments (376), Piano Piece in C Major, D. 29 (376), String Quartet in C Major, D. 32 (376), String Quartet in B-flat Major, D. 36 (376), Salve Regina, D. 223 (377), Der Jüngling am Bache, D. 30 (377), String Quartet in C Major, D. 46 (378), Fantasy in C Major for Piano Duet, D. 48 (378), Sehnsucht, D. 52 (378), Gesang der Geister über den Wassern, D. 484 (379), Fierarbras, D. 796, No. 18 (379), Drei Klavierstücke, D. 946, No. 2 (379), An die Nachtigall, D. 497 (380), Hermann und Thusnelda, D. 328 (380), Ellen's Gesang I, D. 837 (380), Atys, D. 585 (380), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (380), Geist der Liebe, D. 414 (381), Lied der Mignon, D. 877, No. 4 (383), Elysium, D. 584 (383), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (384), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (384), "Der Tag entflieht" from Das Zauberglöckchen (385), Deutsche Messe, D. 872 (385), Der häusliche Krieg (386), Nachtgesang im Walde, D. 913 (386), Täuschung, D. 911, No. 19 (386), Rosamunde Overture, Op. 26 (387), Der Jäger, D. 795, No. 14 (388), Violin Sonata in A Major, Op. 160, D. 574 (388).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

It is suggested that the Duke of Newcastle's play, The Triumphant Widow (1674), may be a significant forerunner to John Gay's The Beggar's Opera. Apparently The Triumphant Widow was an unusual play for its time, and it introduced a number of ballad opera characteristics (such as provincial comedy, or abundance of song and spoken verse) that may have influenced the creation of The Beggar's Opera. Similarities between plots, characters, tone, and structure in these two works are discussed.

Works: John Gay: The Beggars' Opera.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

This article discusses the deep symbolic ramifications of musical quotations and leitmotivs. According to Kirchmeyer, quotations and leitmotivs possess demagogical powers or properties. He feels that composers of the German school such as Mahler, Schoenberg, and particularly Wagner were highly aware of these demagogical powers and properties, and consequently exploited them through the use of quotations and/or leitmotivs in their compositions. Kirchmeyer discusses the way in which these three German composers strengthen the symbolic meanings of their works through the use of quotations and leitmotivs.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Manuscripts of the first movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 indicate the presence of an earlier version of the principal theme. In this earlier form, the principal theme is clearly derived from Mozart's "Notte e giorno faticar" from Don Giovanni. Schubert held Don Giovanni in highest esteem and was probably reminded of the work by a performance of this opera at the time he was composing Symphony No. 9.

Works: Schubert: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The second half of this book focuses on the works of Lili Boulanger and provides detailed stylistic analyses of individual compositions. Within these stylistic analyses, a number of quotations from works by other composers are identified. In several cases, Rosenstiel discusses why these quotations may have been used. Examples of other composers borrowing compositional gestures from Boulanger are also pointed out.

Works: Boulanger: Nocturne (139), Le Retour (154), Pour les Funérailles d'un Soldat (156), Clairières dans le Ciel (172, 189), Dans l'Immense Tristesse (191); Fauré: "Diane" from Horizon chimérique (175); Honegger: Le Roi David (191); Ravel: La Valse (195), Concerto for the Left Hand (195).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

This article provides an interesting perspective with regard to the early twentieth-century attitude toward musical borrowings. Sternberg argues that musical borrowings are a legitimate compositional device employed by a number of great composers. The issue of emulation and competition is also addressed. Although Sternberg asserts that "stealing is stealing," musical borrowing is established as a long-standing compositional tradition, and Sternberg remains inconclusive as to whether or not this tradition should be defined as plagiaristic.

Works: Bizet: Carmen (391); Schumann: "The Happy Farmer," from Album for the Young (392); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 3 (392); Wagner: Lohengrin (392); Schubert: Atlas (393); Liszt: Les Préludes (393).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The reason why Mozart's "Notte e giorno faticar" is quoted in Beethoven's Diabelli Variations can be found in Czerny's Memoires. Apparently Diabelli was constantly pressing Beethoven to complete this work. On one particular occasion, Diabelli visited Beethoven after he had just completed Variation 21. As a humorous comment on being harangued by Diabelli, Beethoven consequently composed Variation 22 with quotations from Mozart's "Notte e giorno faticar" and a waltz tune titled Keine Ruh bei Tag und Nacht.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh