Berlioz re-used the final adagio of his 1827 entry for the Prix de Rome, the cantata La Mort d'Orphée, in at least five other pieces, each in a slightly altered manner. The unique orchestration of the passage shows Berlioz's expert ability in the combination of instrumental colors for dramatic effect: here, the orchestral suggestion of the sounds of the aeolian harp and its accompanying sense of melancholy. An examination of the first and subsequent versions reveals that one of the more enigmatic features of the work, the inclusion of a dominant 7th in the final chord, is the result of Berlioz's conscious attempt to incorporate musical "fragments" or "shadows" which leave a sense of longing and lack of resolution at the end of the work.

Works: Berlioz: Le Retour à la vie (198-204), Lélio ou Le Retour à la vie (201-4).

Sources: Berlioz: La Mort d'Orphée (esp. 194-98).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

The music of Wagner exerted a strong influence on Elgar. This influence is evident in the thematic cohesion and chromatic harmony of Elgar's music. It is also evident in the many allusions and reminiscences of particular passages in Wagner, listed here in pairs (Elgar/Wagner): (1) Froissart, Op. 19/love duet from Die Walküre and "Prize Song" from Die Meistersinger; (2) The Black Knight, Op. 25/Prelude to Siegfried and "magic sleep" from the Ring; (3) The Light of Life, Op. 29/Act 2/2 and Act 3/2 from Parsifal; (4) Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 3O/Die Meistersinger; (5) Te Deum/"trial song" from Die Meistersinger; (6) Caractacus/the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Act 2 from Die Meistersinger, Act 2 from Siegfried, and Tannhäuser; (7) The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38/start of Parsifal and the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre; (8) Second Symphony, Tristan (final cadential progression). Most of these allusions are probably subconscious, although Elgar was consciously aware of the significance of Wagner to his creative workings. Wagner had a profound influence on Elgar, especially in his first two periods of composition. Elgar had the opportunity to both hear and perform many of Wagner's works, and Dennison discusses these and Elgar's comments on Wagner in great detail. Many of Elgar's quotations from Wagner only bear superficial resemblance. Very often, however, Elgar uses a Wagnerian leitmotif in passages with similar programmatic or dramatic implications. Elgar is also heavily indebted to Wagner for many compositional techniques. In his later compositions Elgar does not rely on Wagner as often, but sometimes draws specific parallels for dramatic or psychological effect. Dennison includes an appendix of works by Wagner heard or performed by Elgar.

Works: Elgar: The Black Knight, Op. 25; The Light of Life, Op. 29; Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 30; Te Deum and Benedictus, Op. 34; Caractacus, Op. 35; The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38; Second Symphony, Op 63.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler, Will Sadler

Handel's borrowings result from rhythmic and motivic similarities between the borrowed piece and the new composition. Handel was able to draw upon a large number of musical materials chosen on a musical rather than a textual basis. The transformation of these materials was a conscious application of musical craft. This method of recall is termed the "theory of resonances." In addition to borrowing similar melodic and rhythmic motives, Handel also takes portions of Telemann's work and restructures them in a craftsmanlike manner, joining blocks of musical material to produce a more integrated whole. Handel's use of Telemann's work is, therefore, not the result of "licentious whimsy," but the direct result of musical materials that Handel found attractive and amenible to further development.

Works: Handel: Solomon (117-44), Siroe (118), La Resurrezione (120-24), Belshazzar (133-36), Lotario (139-40, 144), Ezio (141-42), Ariodante (144), 12 Concerti Grossi, Op. 6 (144), Messiah (144-45), Semele (145), Joseph and His Brethren (145-46), Hercules (146), Joshua (146), Theodora (146), Jeptha (146).

Sources: Telemann: Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst (118-44); Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (120-24); Handel: Belshazzar (124), Parnasso in Festa (125-27).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson, Will Sadler

Several features of Berlioz's music create an effect of discontinuity, among which is quotation. Specific instances include the offstage use of the Dies Irae and the quotation of the "aeolian harp" section (originally in La Mort d'Orphée) in Lélio.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Berlioz probably derived the title to his Symphonie fantastique from a scene in Act IV of Ossian ou Les Bardes, by LeSueur, in which the words simphonie fantastique were printed in the full score. Similarities, both orchestral and programmatic, between the two works strengthen the connection.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Examines the controversy between Berlioz and Liszt as to who first orchestrated the Rakoczy march. Through an historical examination of how Berlioz came to orchestrate the tune and a comparison of the two pieces, Haraszti determines that Berlioz's accounts in his Memoirs concerning the piece's history are largely correct, and that Berlioz's version is not based on that of Liszt. Haraszti also describes the origins of the tune and its significance to Hungarian society.

Works: Berlioz: Rakoczy March; Liszt: Rakoczy March.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Discusses the reasons behind Cage's use of Satie's Socrate and also what Cage himself says about how he utilized the music to compose a new piece. Through musical analysis Huber shows how Cage follows the precepts he set in borrowing Satie's work. Huber also mentions the beginning to Beethoven's Eroica and the second movement of Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 as employing similar compositional techniques.

Works: John Cage: Cheap Imitation.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

A fairly extensive catalogue of Berlioz's re-use of his own compositions in later works. Macdonald reaches several important conclusions: (1) Berlioz's borrowings show "a gradual perfecting and distillation of a musical idea which is notably enhanced in detail and in aptness at each appearance" (p. 41). This idea explains to a great extent why Berlioz destroyed many of the earlier versions of pieces that were borrowed. (2) Berlioz generated most of his borrowed materials in the earliest period of his career (1825-30) in which he produced only one major work, but which yielded material that he drew upon when "time, money, or the immediate stimulus of a new literary movement . . . were lacking" (p. 39). Conversely, in his later pieces he borrowed insignificantly, if at all. (3) Berlioz did not always borrow music with the same specific programmatic elements, but instead re-used music with similar extramusical connections wherever he felt the occurrence of a similar idea. For this reason the same music is used for "the sentiments of the Abruzzi brigands boasting of their spoils [Harold in Italy], and those of the heroes of Napoleon's army returning home from their victories [Rob Roy]." (p. 41).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

The common assumption that Ives's use of borrowed material is primarily programmatic is not valid. Ives himself differentiated between "mannered" quotation, or the use of "local musical sources merely for surface effect," and the creation of meaning, substance, and compositional structure in a work through various types of quotation, paraphrase, and motivic and structural development related to borrowed material. The juxtaposition of sacred hymns with ragtime in the second and fourth movements of Ives's First Piano Sonata provides an example. Ives used both the formal and melodic organization of three hymns, I Hear Thy Welcome Voice, Bringing in the Sheaves, and Happy Day, as a basis for the ragtime movements. The simultaneous use of both sacred and secular music may be a result of Ives's Transcendentalist philosophy, which prompted him to draw on the entire range of music he knew. But Ives also selected his sources for quotation according to the motivic relationships present in the borrowed material. For example, the hymn tune Missionary Chant plays an important role in the Second Piano Sonata ("Concord") because of its melodic similarity to the opening motive from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. In The Fourth of July, Ives uses the patriotic song The Red, White, and Blue throughout, a procedure that is comparable to the chorale preludes of J. S. Bach.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 1 (46-53), Orchestral Set No. 2 (46), Piano Sonata No. 2, "Concord, Mass., 1840-60" (54), The Fourth of July (54-56).

Sources: Ives: Set of Four Ragtime Pieces (46); Hartsough: "I Hear Thy Welcome Voice" (46-47, 49-50); Minor: "Bringing in the Sheaves" (46, 48, 50-53); Rimbault: "Happy Day" (46, 49-53); Zeuner: "Missionary Chant" (54); David T. Shaw: "The Red, White and Blue" (55-56); William Steffe?: "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" (55-56).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

This article is designed primarily to introduce the music of Crumb to its English readership on the occasion of Crumb's appearance at the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival. The author discusses Crumb's use of quotation on two levels: (1) the art of allusion to other works or styles, and (2) actual quotation. Crumb's use of quotation is primarily seen as the inclusion of tonal elements in atonal surroundings to give them new meaning. Steinitz describes these quotations as "in major keys of either several sharps or flats whose comforting warmth contrasts with the hard-edged or bleakly desolate surroundings" (p. 845).

Works: Crumb: Eleven Echoes of Autumn,Black Angels,Voice of the Whale,Makrokosmos I,Makrokosmos II,Night of the Four Moons,Music for a Summer Evening.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler