Manuel de Falla’s Homenaje a Debussy functions not only as a tribute to the French composer but also as a tribute to the guitar through its ending quotation of Debussy’s Soirée dans Grenade, prominent habanera rhythm, and scoring for solo guitar. Debussy’s influence on Falla cannot be quantified but can be heard in a number of his pieces. Falla wrote his homage shortly after Debussy’s death and coupled the composition with a tributary article that highlighted Debussy’s compositional talents as well as his connection to Spain and Spanish music. Around this same time, Falla had recently become interested in the guitar. Having previously turned down requests from friend and guitarist Miguel Llobet to compose a piece for the instrument, Falla saw an opportunity to satisfy his and his friend’s interests while also paying tribute to Debussy, who was equally fascinated with the Spanish guitar. In addition to writing for solo guitar, Falla links Debussy to the instrument and to Spain by using harmonies common to the Andalusian tuning of the guitar. Homenaje a Debussy makes prominent use of the habanera rhythm, which Debussy used frequently in his Spanish-inspired pieces. Falla’s quotation of Soireé dans Grenade reinforces Debussy’s musical connection to Spain.

Works: Manuel de Falla: Homenaje a Debussy.

Sources: Debussy: Soirée dans Grenade (5).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Varying definitions and expectations about the fantasy as a genre have resulted in a devaluation of both Tchaikovsky and his music, but a survey of nineteenth-century fantasies and an examination of definitions of the term show that the techniques for which Tchaikovsky is often criticized in his symphonic works were consistent with a contemporary understanding of the fantasy. The term “fantasy” was applied to works based upon their design rather than their use of borrowed or original material. There are four main processes that are important to the fantasy: the overall structure’s relationship to established forms, developmental processes within the fantasy, types of interruption, and methods of linkage. Methods of linkage are especially important because of the fantasy’s discontinuous nature, and in works based on existing themes, transitional passages tend to link incongruous sections. Historically, fantasies have been divided into various categories, including a four-fold typology by Czerny that considered the “Fantasia Forming a Pot-pourri” as his fourth category; this category consisted of “beautiful melodies of favorite operas, tastefully and connectedly strung together.” These fantasies were valued for their use of variation in linking passages. Marx also considered the musical potpourri as a type of fantasy. The melodies in Francesca da Rimini resemble many of the motives found in Wagner’s Die Walküre, and while the works share topical similarities such as forbidden love, the strong resemblances may be read as acknowledgement of Tchaikovsky’s desire to free himself from the expectations of conventional symphonic form.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (170, 181-88).

Sources: Wagner: Die Walküre (183-85).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

A comparison of Charles Ives’s Concord Sonata with his Essays Before a Sonata shows shifts in Ives’s compositional practice from a patterned linearity of German classicism to coloristic explorations of the Romantic form and new models based on perception. Ives’s innovations, including cumulative form, sonic exuviation, and a mixing of voices (heteroglossia), have European precursors. The Concord Sonata can be interpreted as a further development of the virtuosic piano works by several European composers, a piece where Ives pushed the boundaries of form and sound while simultaneously breaking from earlier European models. The use of cumulative form in the Concord Sonata shows Ives’s rejection of the strict European sonata form; it can be seen also as a move toward psycho-perceptual models possibly derived from Liszt’s Sonata in B Minor. In addition, the use of stylistic traits such as the development and manipulation of motives and the modeling of visual sound, found in the solo piano works of Beethoven, Debussy, Chopin, and Scriabin, indicates Ives’s stylistic competency in canonic solo piano repertoire. Ives’s Essays Before a Sonata, published together with the Concord Sonata, offers an Emersonian insight into the potential method and purpose of the sonata. Historically and aesthetically speaking, Ives is similar to American poets Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson, and an understanding of the poetics and ideology of these literary figures is necessary for understanding Ives’s own ideology and musical innovations.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord, Mass., 1840-60) (75-117), Violin Sonata No. 3 (81), The Unanswered Question (87).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (82, 84, 86-87, 92, 102, 114), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (82-84, 91, 95-99, 102); Liszt: Piano Sonata in B Minor (82, 88-90, 92-93, 96-99, 102); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (83, 85, 94, 114-15); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (83, 85, 87, 94, 114); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (94, 114); Chopin: Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (100), Ballade No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 52 (100), Étude in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 12 (Revolutionary) (100-101), Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 35 (100), Piano Sonata in B Minor, Op. 58 (103), Prelude in G Major, Op. 28, No. 3 (100); Debussy: Arabesques (103), Estampes (103), Images (103-5), L’isle joyeuse (104-5), Des pas sur la neige (104), Bruyères (104), Etudes, Book 2, No. 11 (“Pour les arpèges composes”) (107); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 5 (107-8), Piano Sonata No. 8 (107, 109), Piano Sonata No. 10 (109-11).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Franz Liszt’s piano transcription of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique has been long recognized as a high point of Liszt’s exceptional pianism and technique. Liszt and Berlioz were close friends in the early 1830s, and written correspondence between the two reveals an active collaboration which shaped Liszt’s transcription and possibly even Berlioz’s own revisions to his symphony. Liszt treated this transcription as a means to push his pianistic technique to new extremes, and the Parisian critics praised his ability to magnify the best elements of Berlioz in his arrangement. Liszt’s transcriptions of Symphonie fantastique and other Berlioz works draw attention to the performer and to the original music, and thus promote both Berlioz the composer and Liszt the artistic, musically sensitive virtuoso in a concert setting. Their respective successes ultimately affected each other, and Liszt’s constant stage presence undoubtedly increased Berlioz’s popularity. After distancing himself from Berlioz in the late 1830s, Liszt still applied some of what he had learned in his Symphonie fantastique project to his later arrangements of Schubert and others, using his transcriptions to promote both the original music and his own virtuosity and musical prowess.

Works: Liszt: Grande Symphonie fantastique de Hector Berlioz (195-213, 216-35), Ouverture des francs-juges de Hector Berlioz (212-14), Ouverture du roi Lear de Hector Berlioz (212-16).

Sources: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (195-213, 224-28), Les francs juges (212), Le roi Lear (212).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone, Christine Wisch

Pablo de Sarasate and Franz Waxman both composed fantasies for violin based on Bizet’s Carmen. Despite the similarities in thematic content and sectional structure, when compared directly against each other, Sarasate’s fantasy can be seen as highlighting the themes from the opera, while Waxman’s version focuses on the technical skill of the violinist. As both a genre and a style, the fantasy underwent a number of changes from its Baroque origins to the nineteenth century. As the genre developed, composers made fantasies increasingly virtuosic and added idiomatic passages that displayed technical prowess. Carmen proved to be an attractive subject for a violin fantasy because its many lyrical vocal melodies transferred easily to the violin. Sarasate and Waxman use many of the same themes from Carmen for their fantasies, but they ornament these melodies differently. Sarasate’s borrowing of melodies is more direct, as he maintains phrase structure and rhythmic values, while Waxman manipulates the melodies by changing rhythmic durations and adding interpolations. Unlike the Sarasate fantasy, each section of Waxman’s fantasy ends with a violin cadenza. Although Waxman borrowed many of the same techniques that Sarasate used, as a whole, the Waxman fantasy is more demanding of the player.

Works: Pablo de Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy (2, 5, 21, 25, 30-63); Franz Waxman: Carmen Fantasie (2, 5, 21, 25, 54-63).

Sources: Bizet: Carmen (1-3, 22-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Ives’s eighteen German songs form an important link between his earlier and later works. The songs demonstrate his wish to conform to prevailing art music trends in Europe while also exhibiting his determination to be original and push inherited musical idioms to the limit. Ives’s German language songs were likely a personal project, influenced by his previous composition of sentimental ballads. His rich harmonic language in these sentimental ballads deviated from the norms of the genre, an approach Ives continued in his German songs by using unorthodox harmonies, forms, and melodies. His German songs may be classified in three categories based on approximate composition date: 1894-1897, 1897-1898, and 1898-1902. Songs from the first group are the most conservative and are most similar to sentimental ballads. Those from the second group use poems that were associated with earlier settings by European composers and thus invite direct comparison with the European masters. Songs from the third group continue the ideas Ives initiated in the second group and use increased dissonance and chromaticism in the service of text expression. A table of all of Ives’s German songs lists reworked and alternate titles, text incipits, authors, and sources.

Works: Ives: Leise zieht (144-47), An Old Flame (149, 155), At Parting (150-55, 158), My Lou Jennine (153-56), Feldeinsamkeit (157-62), Zum Drama “Rosamunde” (159, 163), Du bist wie eine Blume (159-60), Wiegenlied (160), Wie Melodien zieht es mir (160-62), Ich grolle nicht (157-63), Die Lotosblume (160), Mir klingt ein Ton (160-61), Weil’ auf mir (163-64).

Sources: Grieg: Gruß (144-47); Mendelssohn: Gruß (144-47); Robert Franz: Leise zieht durch mein Gemüth (144-46); James Rogers: At Parting (150-53); Schumann: Ich grolle nicht (161); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit, Op. 86, No. 2 (162-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein, Amanda Jensen, Christine Wisch

Since the public premiere of Ernesto Halffter’s Sinfonietta, critics and scholars alike have sought to trace the influence of Halffter’s teacher, Manuel de Falla, on the work, as the piece bears striking similarities to various pieces by Falla. Although Halffter had studied previously with Falla, a thorough examination of correspondence between the two composers shows that despite attempts by Halffter to show the piece to Falla, the latter did not become acquainted with the Sinfonietta until after a first version was premiered. From 1926 to 1927 Halffter received advice from Falla about revisions to the work, but it is unclear what suggestions Falla made. In any case, it is clear that Halffter emulated his teacher in the Sinfonietta. Halffter modeled the work on the music of Falla, particularly on Falla’s Concerto for Harpsichord and El sombrero de tres picos. A comparison of passages from the Sinfonietta with these pieces by Falla shows that Halffter borrowed and reworked melodic outlines, accompanimental textures, ostinato rhythms, cadential chord progressions, rhythmic motives, and meters. Subtle allusions to El sombrero de tres picos can also be found in the Sinfonietta. Due to Halffter’s great familiarity with the music of Falla, the striking resemblances between the Sinfonietta and the music of Falla were undoubtedly intentional.

Works: Ernesto Halffter: Sinfonietta.

Sources: Manuel de Falla: Concerto for Harpsichord (158-62, 165), El retablo de maese Pedro (162-65), El sombrero de tres picos (165-66).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Romantic piano works based on operatic paraphrase have largely been ignored by scholars and performers because of a current emphasis on composer originality. Because composers chose to paraphrase only a few themes of an opera rather attempt a summary of all themes in an opera, comparison of different settings and analysis of the themes chosen reveal narratives unique to each composer’s setting. Comparison of seven different paraphrased settings of Mozart’s Don Giovanni demonstrates that different narratives and meanings result from selecting different themes and from arranging them in particular orders. William Vincent Wallace’s Souvenir de Mozart: Fantasie de Salon sur l’opera Il Don Giovanni, is little more than a piano reduction of selected themes, which are presented in the same order as they appear in the opera, with the exception of “Il mio Tesoro intanto” and “Finch’ han dal vino,” which are reversed. This reversal is likely due to Wallace’s desire to end his work with a more exhilarating number. Sydney Smith’s Grand Fantasy uses five distinct themes from Don Giovanni, but only one of these themes involves a female character, a decision that may reflect the Victorian atmosphere in which Smith performed and composed. Although Smith’s setting retains the original narrative by using the themes mostly in their original order, the setting of themes, manners of modulation between sections, elimination of female (Zerlina’s) vocal lines, and arrangement of arias all reinforce Victorian ideals. Joachim Raff divides his Reminiscenzen aus “Don Juan” into three sections in an act of deliberate re-organization of thematic material that highlights literary themes and interactions between pairs of characters. Raff’s choice of themes highlights social struggles in society and wanton desires, while offering commentary on the social themes of Don Giovanni. Ignace Leybach’s Fantasie Brillante is less clear in its organization, as a lengthy introduction features its own potpourri of themes and motives drawn from throughout the opera in addition to original material by Leybach that is similar in style to nocturnes by Field and Chopin. Most notable of Leybach’s piece is his decision to transpose many of the selections, his inclusion of “Batti Batti, o bel Masetto,” and the omission of both “Finch’ han dal vino” and the Commendatore’s “Di rider finirai”; these details suggest that Leybach eschewed virtuosity in favor of a more restrained aesthetic and romantic narrative. The versions by Thalberg and Ignacy Feliks Dobrzynski, both of which are constructed as sets of variations, are notable for their virtuosity but offer little insight into Mozart’s narrative. Unlike the two variation-based paraphrases, the most famous of the Don Giovanni paraphrases, Liszt’s Réminiscences de Don Juan, offers great insight into Mozart’s opera. Through both his selection and setting of arias, Liszt depicts the progression of lust over love and Don Giovanni’s defiance, ultimately presenting him as a misguided hero rather than a chauvinistic fool.

Works: William Vincent Wallace: Souvenir de Mozart: Fantasie de Salon sur l’opera Il Don Giovanni (22-25); Sydney Smith: Grand Fantasy (25-37); Joachim Raff: Reminiscenzen aus “Don Juan” (37-49); Ignace Leybach: Fantasie Brillante (49-65); Thalberg: Fantaisie sur la Sérénade et le Menuet de l’Opera: Don Juan de Mozart (65-76); Ignacy Feliks Dobrzynski: Hommage à Mozart (76-78); Liszt: Réminiscences de Don Juan, S. 418 (78-131).

Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Roberto Gerhard’s ballet Soirées de Barcelone incorporates a number of Catalan folk songs and folk-like melodies to create a nationalistic ballet that was particularly Catalan (Republican) in sentiment. Many of the folk songs that are paraphrased in the ballet are drawn from Berga, a region of Catalonia. Often the functions of these songs in their original context (many are from the festivities of Saint John’s Eve) or their original texts relate to the dramatic events on stage. Although the referenced songs were likely found in published song books such as the Obra del Cançoner Popular de Catalunya and Cancons Populars Catalanes, many of them would have been known to contemporary audiences and are still recognized in Catalonia. In addition to referencing specific Catalan folk songs, Gerhard also adopted Bartók’s techniques of abstracting folk songs to create accompaniments that contained key elements of Catalan folk song such as modal chromaticism. In adapting the folk songs for orchestra, Gerhard sometimes kept similar instrumentation, as in his paraphrasing of Els Segadors, a rousing patriotic song originally performed by Catalan wind bands, which Gerhard scored for winds and double bass only.

Works: Roberto Gerhard: Soirées de Barcelone.

Sources: Anonymous: Tocata de Gralla (12); Anonymous: De les Nines de Surroca (12-14); Anonymous: Aquestes Muntanyes (12-14); Anonymous: L’hereu Riera (14-15); Anonymous: La filla del marxant (14-16, 18, 20); Anonymous: Sant Ramon (17); Anonymous: La Mare de Déu quan era xiqueta (17-18); Anonymous: Muntanyes del Canigó (18); Anonymous: Els Segadors (18-21); Anonymous: La Fi d’en Toca-son (19); Morera: Nit de Sant Joan (20); Garreta: Juny (20); Anonymous: Balledeta de l’àliga (20); Anonymous: El Romeu I la Romea (21, 72).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch