Quoted musical fragments are as deep in symbolic content as Freudian symbols of "dream-text" fragments. A distinction is made between quoted musical matter that involves words and quoted musical matter that does not. Quotations of untexted music, such as "Westminster Chimes" in Ives's Second String Quartet and the opening motive of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in Ives's Second Piano Sonata ("Concord"), evoke philosophical associations but not literary meaning. But quoting texted music, such as the songs Ives uses in his Fourth Symphony and his song West London, provides a deeper meaning if the listener knows the original words. Different structures of meaning exist for various listeners in a work that utilizes borrowed materials: (1) abstract, which concerns purely musical relationships; (2) programmatic, eliciting extra-musical associations; and (3) musico-philosophical, uniting all levels of perception and transcending both abstract musical relationships and programmatic images. Ives's Central Park in the Dark and Washington's Birthday illustrate the way in which these levels work. Although in some cases Ives may have borrowed material for structural and thematic reasons, he was still undoubtedly exploiting the connotations of this borrowed material to incorporate different levels of meaning into his music.

Works: Ives: String Quartet No. 2 (171-72), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (172), West London (173-74), Fourth Symphony (174-76).

Sources: "Westminster Chimes" (171-72); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (172); "There is a fountain" (173-74); Lowell Mason: "Bethany" (174-75), "Watchman" (175); Arthur Sullivan: "Proprior Deo" (175-76).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh, Fredrick Tarrant, Paula Ring Zerkle

Humor and programmatic effect are the two primary reasons for Debussy's musical borrowings. Debussy draws his borrowed material from classical music, popular songs, and national anthems. These points are illustrated through detailed analyses of pieces in which Debussy incorporates national anthems.

Works: Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (20); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake-walk" from Children's Corner (20), "La Boite à joujoux," from Images oubliées (20), "Jardins sous la pluie" from Estampes (20), "Rondes de printemps" from Images (20), 9th Prelude (Book II) (20), Berceuse heroique (20, 22-23), En blanc et noir (second piece) (20, 23-26), "Feux d'artifice" from Préludes, Book II (21); Fauré: Fantasie en forme de quadrille sur des motifs du Ring (20); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (20); Clementi: Symphony No. 3 in G Major, "Great National Symphony" (21).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (20); Mendelssohn: "Wedding March" from Midsummer Night's Dream (20); Arne: God Save the King (20-22); Campenhout, François van: "Brabançonne" (20, 22-23); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (21-22, 24, 26); Luther: Ein feste Burg (24-25); Haydn: Symphony in G Major, Hob. I:100, "Military" (24)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

The compositions of Josquin des Prez remained influential in the musical world long after his death. In Palestrina's time, Josquin's works were used as material for parody compositions, and his works were an integral part of the musical repertoire of Italian churches in the 16th century, as evidenced in the motet Dum vastos Adriae fluctus by Jachet di Mantova. This motet, which is primarily in the style of mid-16th-century Netherland or French composers, contains material from some of Josquin's best-known motets: Praeter seriem rerum, Stabat mater, Inviolata (et integra), Salve regina, and Miserere mei. There are no borrowings of full polyphonic sections, but merely allusions to characteristic features of the original motets, namely a motive or rhythmic pattern. Jachet then weaves these musical ideas into his motet in a free, imitative fashion.

Works: Jachet di Mantova: Dum vastos Adriae fluctus.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

A letter written in response to a previous correspondence by Frank Hill on Shostakovich's borrowings (Oct. 1983 Gramophone). Hall wants to clarify that over 115 composers have used the tune of the British National Anthem in their compositions, in over 125 works of all types. No specific works are mentioned, but the list of composers includes J. C. Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Liszt, Verdi, Brahms, Ives, and Stockhausen.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

It is difficult to define the term "parody mass," because it encompasses a technique that underwent great development throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. This article discusses and illustrates this growth through the works of Netherland composers of this time period. The development of parody techniques begins with mass composers such as Barbingant and Josquin, who focused primarily on the melodic elements of their original source and composed works with techniques similar to that of cantus firmus masses, and continues with composers such as de la Rue, who borrowed small polyphonic fragments from the original, and later Monte, who incorporated larger, more polyphonic structures from the source, often in conspicuous places.

Works: Barbingant: Missa Terriblement suis fortunée (412); Pierre de la Rue: Missa à 6 Ave Sanctissima Maria (413-14); Josquin: Missa Fortuna desperata (415), Missa Malheur me bat (415), Missa Una musque de Buscava (415); Monte: Missa Reviens vers moi (418), Missa a 5 Cara la vita mia (418); Lassus: Missa Entre vous filles de quinze ans (417); Willaert: Missa Mente tota (416).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Isaac was a prolific composer and well-known in his time. The idea of contrafacta was widespread among composers of the period, and there are many instances of this procedure in Isaac's works. One particularly striking example is found in his Missae Wohlauf, Gesell, von hinnen, one for four voices, the other for six voices. Noblitt shows that the Mass for six voices is largely a contrafactum of the version for four voices, with the movements of the original rearranged and expanded for the later work.

Works: Isaac: Missae Wohlauf, Gesell, von hinnen.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

This article lists many works by Debussy and the sources of their quotations, but provides no musical examples or measure numbers and offers no insights into the whys and hows of Debussy's musical borrowing.

Works: Debussy: Hommage à S. Pickwick, Esq. P.P.M.P.C. (22), Feux d'artifice (22), Berceuse héroique (22), Caprices en blanc et noir (22), Pierrot (22), La terrasse des audiences au clair de lune (22), "Jardins sous la pluie" from Estampes (22), Rondes de printemps (22), "Jimbo's Lullaby" from Children's Corner (22), La boite à joujoux (22), Les cloches (23), "Gigue" from Images (23), "Golliwog's Cake Walk" from Children's Corner (23, 34), Le petit nègre (34), Marche ecossaise (34).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Despite Brahms's reputation as a composer of "absolute" music, his music incorporates motivic borrowings and extramusical ideas. The first Piano Concerto and Requiem illustrate Brahms's use of existing material and musical symbols, which were primarily derived through his interaction with Robert and Clara Schumann. A chart suggests use of these ideas in other works by Brahms, providing a point of departure for further exploration into this subject.

Works: Brahms: Piano Quartet, Op. 60 (3), Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 15, German Requiem, Op. 45, String Quartet No. 1 (7), Symphony No. 1 (8), Variations on a Theme by Schumann (21), Ballade, Op. 10, No. 2 (21), Piano Quartet in A Major, Op. 26 (21), Die schöne Magelone, Op. 33, No. 1 (21), Ballades (duets), Op. 75, Nos. 2 and 3 (21), Violin Cncerto, Op. 77, first movement (21), Symphony No. 3, Op. 90, first movement (21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Michael Tippett's compositional process is revealed through a discussion of the writing of his Symphony No. 3. Tippett perceives four distinct stages in this process: conception, where ideas are often inspired by other music or sounds; gestation, a period of mental development of the piece; development of form, both large and small, at which time some actual composing may begin; and the final stage, which is the writing of the score. In his Third Symphony, Tippett takes the idea of a vocal finale from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and includes three quotations from Beethoven's final movement. The finale of Tippett's symphony is related in subject matter to Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde, and the musical style is based loosely on the blues as sung by Bessie Smith in St. Louis Blues with Louis Armstrong.

Works: Tippett: Symphony No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Just after the turn of the 17th century, Aquilio Coppini published three consecutive books of spiritual madrigals which were sacred contrafacta of madrigals by Monteverdi. In all the examples discussed in this article, most of the character, structure, syntax, melody, and words of the Italian originals are preserved in the new sacred Latin versions. Inspiration for these sacred recompositions probably came from a request by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, who, in following the sacred reforms instigated by his cousin and predecessor, Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, saw value in using the music of composers of the new baroque style in order to entice worshipers to the faith.

Works: Coppini: Maria, quid ploras (170), Te, Jesu Christe (170), Qui pietate tua dirupisti (170), Qui laudes tuas cantat (170), Luce serena (170), Plorat amare (171), O Jesu mea vita (171).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

It is well known that Handel in his Grand Concertos Op. 6 borrowed musical material from the Componimenti musicali of Gottlieb Muffat. In eight examples Handel may also have incorporated music from the Essercizi per cembalo of Domenico Scarlatti. There is no firm evidence that Handel actually saw these particular works of Scarlatti, since he and the Italian composer had no direct contact after Handel left Italy. However, the Scarlatti pieces were published in London between April 1738 and January 1739, and it seems likely that Handel would have maintained an interest in the newest works by his former colleague. Handel wrote his Concertos during September-October 1739. The similarities in themes, key, meter, phrase structure, and register together prove that Handel did see the Essercizi before the composition of several portions of his Grand Concertos.

Works: Handel: Grand Concertos Op. 6: Nos. 1, 5 (93), No. 3 (93-94).

Sources: D. Scarlatti: Essercizi per cembalo: Sonatas nos. 2, 26 (93), Sonata no. 30 (93-94), Sonata no. 15 (94); Muffat: Componimenti musicali (93-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle, Felix Cox

Bruckner may have had in mind a motive in Wagner's Tristan und Isolde for part of his melody in his song Ave Maria. This article includes musical examples and some historical background.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Brahms's "first maturity" consists of the period up to 1865. Influence of Schubert is evident in Brahms's sonata form, particularly in the juxtaposition of major and minor tonalities, closed forms with lyrical melodies, double second themes, structural use of remote keys, and the transformation of these elements in the recapitulation. Webster is able to relate at least one or two works by Schubert to each early work of Brahms mentioned in this article. Some of the comparisons are general and can be interpreted as stylistic tendencies of the time, rather than specific characteristics of Schubert, but some direct quotations are used and discussed as well.

Works: Beethoven: Sonata Appasionata (58, 68), Symphony No. 2; Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 3, Op. 5 (68), Piano Quintet in F Minor, Op. 34 (52, 53, 65-69), String Sextet in B-flat Major, Op. 18 (52), Piano Quartet in G Minor, Op. 25 (52, 62-65), Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 15 (53), Piano Sonata, Op. 1 (58), Trio in B Major, Op. 8 (58, 59), Serenade in D Major, Op. 11 (54, 59-60), Serenade in A Major, Op. 16 (54, 59-60), Sextet in B-flat Major, Op. 18 (61), Piano Quartet in A Major, Op. 26 (62), Sextet in G Major (68-70), Cello Sonata in E Minor (68-69), Horn Trio (68), Symphony No. 3 (70), Tragic Overture (70), Symphony No. 2 (70), Academic Festival Overture (70), Cello Sonata in F Major, Op. 99 (70), Clarinet Trio (70), Clarinet Sonata in F Major, Op. 120, No. 1 (70); Schubert: Wanderer Fantasy (58), Am Meer (58), Die Stadt.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle