In Debussy and Wagner (1979), Robin Holloway seeks out those passages in Debussy which recall or which can be viewed as quotations of passages in Wagner. Some of the cases seem forced. Some compositions by Holloway himself include references to the music of Debussy and Wagner and others.

Works: Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (83), "Golliwog's Cake-Walk," from Children's Corner (83), La Damoiselle élue (84), Le Martyre de Saint Sébastien (84), Jeux (84-85,88); Holloway: Clarissa (88-90), Scenes from Schumann: Seven Paraphrases for Orchestra (90), Romanza (90-91).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (83-84), Parsifal (84, 88-90); Debussy: Jeux (88-90); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (90-91); Bach: D major fugue from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book Two (91).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

See especially "Folk Music in Iglau," in which Mahler's allusions to folk tunes and folk types are discussed.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

A pentatonic archetypal theme is found in Mahler's music. The archetype may be considered as a private symbol, the "musical expression of some recurrent pattern of exprience." Ninety-two examples of the archetype, often in varied form, are presented. Buddhism and Hegel's concept of das unglückliche Bewusstsein may account for the ubiquity of the idea.

Works: Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer (310), Das Lied von der Erde (311-12, 314-15), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (313).

Sources: Anonymous: La bergère que je sers (310), Frère Jacques (313).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The plots of both works are similar so that Debussy's method of translating poetry into music can be compared. The retrospective character of the prelude is apparent in the evocation of (1) Tristan, (2) Chopin's Nocturne No. 8 in Db major, (3) Saint-Saëns's Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix, and (4) the love music of Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet.

Works: Debussy: Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (227-32), Jeux (232-38).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (232), Chopin: Nocturne No. 8 in D flat (232), Saint-Saëns: Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix (232), Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet (232).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The revival of Bach's music in the Romantic era is of overwhelming historical significance. The stature of his music continues to grow in the twentieth century. Mention is made of two works based upon the theme B-A-C-H: Schumann's six fugues on B-A-C-H (1845) and Liszt's prelude and fugue on the name of B-A-C-H (1860). Liszt also made an organ arrangement of sections of Bach's Cantata No. 21 in 1855. The more general influence of Bach is evident in Mendelssohn's St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846) and in William Sterndale Bennett's oratorio The Woman of Samaria (1867).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bartók's compositions contain numerous "hidden autobiographical elements," quotations from his own and from other composers' works. These can often be revealed only through careful analysis. In Bluebeard's Castle, Bartók quotes an ostinato motive from Bach's St. Matthew Passion and also uses the motive B-A-C-H. The Wooden Prince begins with an evocation of nature modeled upon that which begins Wagner's Das Rheingold except that in Bartók the first seven harmonics are combined (as opposed to the first five in the Wagner) to create the "Bartók chord." Other examples noted include reference to Ravel's Scarbo in Bartók's Allegro barbaro and the reformulation of the slow movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in A Minor, Op.132, in the second movement of Bartók's Third Piano Concerto.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bartók's quotations have never been completely examined. His quotations are rarely made for "effect," but are instead hidden away and are of a personal significance. Many examples are noted with reference to folk melodies and to the works of Haydn, Liszt, Wagner, Bach, Beethoven, Debussy, Ravel, Kodaly, and Stravinsky. Bartók also quotes music from his own earlier works. The quotations discussed are divided into four groups: (1) the reference to the music of other composers, often inspired by similar compositional situations, (2) programmatic and autobiographical quotations, (3) quotations of a humorous or ironic nature, and (4) "shopwork" quotations, themes which recur in several works and are molded to "final perfection." Bartók is viewed as an innovator who at the same time is a great synthesizer of disparate influences.

Works: Bartók: Kossuth (357), Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 1 (357), Scherzo for Piano and Orchestra (357), First Suite for Orchestra, Op. 3 (357), Second Suite for Orchestra, Op. 4 (357), Violin Concerto No. 1 (359), Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (361), Bluebeard's Castle (365), Piano Concerto No. 3 (369), Second String Quartet (371), Allegro barbaro (372), Contrasts (372), Violin Concerto No. 2 (373), Concerto for Orchestra (377), Cipósütés (378).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The identification of Jewish elements in Shostakovich's music is preceded by a definition of what these elements may be considered as being. The understanding of the meaning of these elements in Shostakovich's music depends upon the understanding of the position of Jewish culture in the Soviet Union. Twelve works which include Jewish elements are listed in Table I. Jewish elements often appear in works that employ the self-identification motive of D-S-C-H [D-Eb-C-B] which corresponds to the D. SCHostakovitch of the composer's name in German usage. The use of Jewish elements may be interpreted as concealed dissidence.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

A knowledge of Debussy's earliest works is important to the understanding of the development of his personal style. One can compare the first conception of an idea to its further realization in a later work. Two examples are considered: (1) Fête galante (a mélodie of 1882) and its later revision as the menuet of the Petite Suite (1889); and (2) La Fille aux cheveux de lin (a mélodie of ca. 1882-84) and the prelude for piano (Book I, 1910) of the same title. These works demonstrate that Debussy's personal style is already implicit in his earliest works.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Haydn quotes a particular melody on numerous occasions. The melody is found in many sources from central and eastern Europe and is often called "Der Nachtwächter" or "Hajnal." The melody is often quoted by eighteenth-century composers and often appears in Christmas pastorellas as well. Haydn quotes it in Symphony No. 60; Divertimento a nove (Hoboken II/17); Sextet for Horns and Strings in Eb (original versions of H.II/21); the canonic setting of Hagedorn's Wunsch (H.XVIIb/13), Baryton Trio No. 35 (H.XI/35), Piano Sonata in C# minor (H.XVI/36), and Baryton Duo No. 19 (H.XII/19). Other passages in which the melody is quoted by Haydn may well exist. Haydn's characteristic use of folk material is well demonstrated in these works. Eleven versions of the melody as it appears in the sources are given in examples and all the known sources are listed in the appendix.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Stravinsky's use of conventions involves the defeat of the expectations set up by those conventions. The reference to earlier conventions may or may not involve thematic allusions. Pulcinella is based upon borrowed materials while the Symphony in C is not. In the case of the symphony, however, the presentation of the first theme (in its I-II-V sequence) does recall the presentation of the first theme in Beethoven's First Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Ravel himself acknowledged his great debt to the music of Chabrier. There are few works by Ravel which do not to some extent echo one or another work by Chabrier. Some specific allusions are noted. Ravel's harmonic procedures are also influenced by Chabrier.

Works: Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte (547), Jeux d'eau (550), "Ondine" and "Scarbo" from Gaspard de la Nuit (550), Alborada del graciozo (550), Rapsodie espagnole (550), Vocalise en forme de habanera (550), La Valse (550), Histories naturelles (551).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The music of Wagner exerted a strong influence on Elgar. This influence is evident in the thematic cohesion and chromatic harmony of Elgar's music. It is also evident in the many allusions and reminiscences of particular passages in Wagner, listed here in pairs (Elgar/Wagner): (1) Froissart, Op. 19/love duet from Die Walküre and "Prize Song" from Die Meistersinger; (2) The Black Knight, Op. 25/Prelude to Siegfried and "magic sleep" from the Ring; (3) The Light of Life, Op. 29/Act 2/2 and Act 3/2 from Parsifal; (4) Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 3O/Die Meistersinger; (5) Te Deum/"trial song" from Die Meistersinger; (6) Caractacus/the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Act 2 from Die Meistersinger, Act 2 from Siegfried, and Tannhäuser; (7) The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38/start of Parsifal and the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre; (8) Second Symphony, Tristan (final cadential progression). Most of these allusions are probably subconscious, although Elgar was consciously aware of the significance of Wagner to his creative workings. Wagner had a profound influence on Elgar, especially in his first two periods of composition. Elgar had the opportunity to both hear and perform many of Wagner's works, and Dennison discusses these and Elgar's comments on Wagner in great detail. Many of Elgar's quotations from Wagner only bear superficial resemblance. Very often, however, Elgar uses a Wagnerian leitmotif in passages with similar programmatic or dramatic implications. Elgar is also heavily indebted to Wagner for many compositional techniques. In his later compositions Elgar does not rely on Wagner as often, but sometimes draws specific parallels for dramatic or psychological effect. Dennison includes an appendix of works by Wagner heard or performed by Elgar.

Works: Elgar: The Black Knight, Op. 25; The Light of Life, Op. 29; Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 30; Te Deum and Benedictus, Op. 34; Caractacus, Op. 35; The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38; Second Symphony, Op 63.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler, Will Sadler

Beethoven considered his Op. 35 to be entirely original, but in fact the theme and many significant details of the work are based upon C. P. E. Bach's Rondo in E flat. Beethoven came in contact with Bach's keyboard works in his years at Bonn. The theme of Op. 35, derived from the Bach, is also used in the Contredanse in E-flat WoO 14/7, the finale of the music for The Creatures of Prometheus, Op. 43, and the finale of the Third Symphony (Eroica). In the dynamics of long-term memory, several specific items are remembered in the context of a more general memory and reproduction of the memory involves elaboration and revision. Both of these aspects in the workings of long-term memory are evident in Beethoven's unconscious recollection of the work by Bach.

Works: Beethoven: Variations in E-flat, Op. 35 (passim), Contredanse in E-flat, WoO 14/7 (48, 53), Prometheus, Op. 43 (48).

Sources: C. P. E. Bach: Rondo in E-flat, W. 61/1 (passim).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mozart did not create music wholly anew for every work, but in some cases reused material in various genres. Die Zauberflöte is especially marked by affinities with the works of Mozart's own past. Pamina's aria, "Ach, ich fühl's," is related to the Trennungslied, K. 519, the String Quintet in G Minor K. 516, and the Piano Concerto K. 466. The melody in the Adagio introduction to Act II Scene 28 and its variant in the final chorus (Act II Scene 30) are related to some seventeen other works by Mozart. The two complexes of related melodies are most likely the result of Mozart's conscious practice of "the technique of composing and arranging melodic units with formular intent."

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Both musical and literary quotations are present in Berio's work. In Laborintus II, quotations are drawn from Dante, Pound, the Bible, Eliot, and Sanguineti; furthermore, an added text recalls a work by Isidore of Seville. The texts are presented in collage technique. In Sinfonia, musical and literary collage is involved. The third section is primarily based on Mahler's scherzo of the Second Symphony for the musical and on writings of Beckett for the textual continuity. The fifth section presents a collage of elements from the previous sections. Another work in which musical and textual collage is present is Recital I (for Cathy).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Forte mentions the relationship between the second song of the Kindertotenlieder and the Adagietto of the Fifth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The finale to the second act of Don Giovanni includes the famous (and identified) quotations of Martin y Soler's Una cosa rara ("O quanto un si bel giubilo," from the last part of the finale of Act I), Giuseppe Sarti's Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode ("Come un' agnello," from Act I, scene 7), and Mozart's own Figaro "Non più andrai"). These quotations are from the operatic "smash hits" of the 1780's. The overall scene is modelled upon the analogous scene in the Gazzaniga-Bertasi version of Don Giovanni. The use of a wind octet (with cello), combined with the quotations, alludes to the common practice of arranging popular operas for wind ensembles. The melody of "Non più andrai" returns in the last year of Mozart's life in the first contra-dance of K. 609. The practice of quotation and self-quotation is as old as composition itself although each age uses the borrowed material to its own ends.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Members of the Bach family copied out each others music and also borrowed musical ideas from one another in their compositions. Several instances of the latter practice are noted. Instances include the similar treatment of a hymn tune and the direct borrowing of musical ideas.

Works: Johann Bernhard Bach: Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend (366), Suite for Solo Violin and Strings in G Minor (366); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (366); Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach: Einchöriges Heilig in C Major (369); Johann Sebastian Bach: Organ Concerto in D Minor (370); Johann Christoph Friedmann Bach: Die Kindheit Jesu (372), Wachet auf ruft uns die Stimme (372); Johann Christian Bach: Violin Sonata in B flat, Op. 10, No. 1 (372); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mit fried' und Freud' ich fahr dahin (372).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bernstein has been concerned with theological meaning in his symphonic works. The acceptance of faith in God is consistently associated with a specific motive (a descending fourth followed by the further descent of a whole- or half-step). This motive invariably appears in the closing and/or opening moments of a work. It appears in Symphony No. 1 (Jeremiah), Symphony No. 2 (The Age of Anxiety), the "Spring Song" from The Lark, Symphony No. 3 (Kaddish), Chichester Psalms, Mass, and Dybbuk. The use of this particular motive may be related to Bernstein's youth since it is common in the liturgy of the High Holy Day music and is also present (as a final cadence) in the Three Festivals of Sukkoth, Passover, and Shavuot. The motive then, "could seep into and take hold of the impressionable mind of a growing musician." It is probably an unconscious association on the part of Bernstein.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Debussy's early works involve explicit reliance on existing models while in his later works the models become more tacit and personalized. This process can be observed in his formulaic openings to works. There are three main categories of such openings: (1) monophonic openings, (2) modal/chordal openings, and (3) introductory sequences and expansions. Numerous examples are cited for each. Such formulas are primarily a mid-to-late nineteenth-century phenomenon. Hepokoski invokes Dahlhaus's concept of originality and the influence of the Symbolists.

Works: Debussy: Printemps (46), La Damoiselle élue (48).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Berio's aesthetic is one of communication and commentary. The third movement of the Sinfonia is first and foremost a setting and interpretation of the main text, Beckett's The Unnamable. Mahler's scherzo from the Second Symphony is the cantus firmus of the movement. An understanding of the song upon which Mahler based his movement, "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" from Des Knaben Wunderhorn, aids in the understanding of the Berio movement. A discussion of quotation and allusion includes reference to James Joyce. In the cases of Beckett, Mahler, Joyce, and Berio, "the artist has become the subject of art." A complete analysis of Berio's movement is beyond the scope of the article. Allusions to Schoenberg, Debussy, Mahler, Hindemith, Berg, Brahms, Ravel, Strauss, Berlioz, Stravinsky, Berio himself, Pousseur, Beethoven, Boulez, Webern, Stockhausen, and perhaps Schumann are pointed out. In music of the 1970s, especially in the music of American composers, quotation is the rule rather than the exception.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Allusions to well-known tunes or passages may (1) deliver a concealed comment (as in a theatrical "aside") and (2) depend on the listener's knowledge of the source if the comment is to be effective or even noted. Several categories can be differentiated: incidental thematic quotation, topical thematic reference (to tunes such as the Marseillaise and to less familiar tunes), and quotation of vocal works in which the text is of significance. Commentarial quotation is distinguished from self-quotation (here with reference to Mahler, Rossini, and Beethoven) since in the latter knowledge of the source is of no significance. Commentarial quotation is a predominantly Romantic phenomenon and fits in with the desire to be exclusive and the tendency to refer to things outside the work of art.

Works: Elgar: Enigma Variations (473); Saint-Saëns: Carnival of Animals (473), Danse Macabre (474); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (474); Schumann: Die beiden Grenadieren (474); Weber: Jubilee Overture (474), Battle Symphony (474); Brahms: Song of Triumph (474), Academic Festival Overture (474); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (474); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (474); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (474); Liszt: Totentanz (474), Dante Symphony (474); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death (474); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (474), Variations on a Theme by Paganini (474); Schelling: A Victory Ball (475); Wagner: Parsifal (476), Die Meistersinger (477), "Wesendonck" Songs (477), Siegfried Idyll (478); Puccini: Il Tabarro (479); Mozart: Don Giovanni (480), The Marriage of Figaro (480); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (481), Capriccio (482); Sterndale Bennett: Études Symphoniques, Op. 13 (483).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (473); Berlioz: Dance of the Sylphs (473); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (474); Arne: God Save the King (474); Luther: Ein feste Burg; Anonymous: Gaudeamus Igitur (474), Dies Irae (474); Rossini: "Una voce poco fa" from Barber of Seville (475), "Di tanti palpiti" from Tancredi (475-76); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (477-78); Strauss: Death and Transfiguration (480); Martín: Una Cosa Rara (480); Sarti: I Due Litiganti (480); Marschner: The Templar and the Jewess (483).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Beethoven's use of specific sonorities in the Missa Solemnis (Credo and Benedictus) and in the Ninth Symphony (Finale). Most significant is an Eb Major sonority first heard at the start of the Credo. This sonority takes on a symbolic meaning in both the Credo and Benedictus since it is associated with texts which evoke celestial regions. This symbolic association holds in the Ninth as well. The musical ideas involved are also evident in the String Quartet in Eb Major, Op. 127, which is the final work in which these ideas are treated. These referential sonorities, then, bind together three of Beethoven's late works.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mozart's Die Zauberflöte is related to earlier compositions by Mozart himself and to those by other composers. The opera may be considered as a "pot-pourri." The examples of the "melodic sources and affinities" are virtually endless. An explanation for the extent to which the opera presents a synthesis of musical ideas may involve consideration of the processes of musical creation and musical psychology. Such a consideration can only be speculative as of yet, but it may be noted that Mozart, like Brahms, was steeped in tradition. Furthermore, Mozart possessed an extremely retentive musical memory. Most of the borrowings were probably unconscious. Evidence in the string quartet autographs indicates that Mozart sometimes found it necessary to refer to earlier works as he began a new one; this habit of drawing on earlier works may have become subconscious. Die Zauberflöte is drawn from "the pool of memory and experience" and demonstrates the unity of life and art in the creative genius.

Works: Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Sources: Mozart: König Thamos (242, 249, 254), Idomeneo (243-46, 249, 251, 254), Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K. 504, Prague (243), Allegro for Piano, K. 498a (243), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, K. 570 (243), Le nozze di Figaro (244, 251, 254) Violin Sonata in F Major, K. 377 (244), String Quintet in G Minor, K. 516 (244), Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 279 (244); Haydn: Mondo della Luna (244, 252), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Hob. XVI:42 (244); Gluck: Die frühen Gräber (244); Gassmann: I Viaggiatori ridicoli (245); Benda: Ariadne (245); Wranitzky: Oberon (245, 249); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (245, 248) String Quintet in E flat Major, K. 614 (246), German Dances, K. 602 (246), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (246); Gluck: Alceste (246); Philidor: Bucheron (246); Mozart: Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425 (247); Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht (247); Mozart: Divertimento in E flat Major, K. 252 (248), Piano Sonata in A Minor, K. 310 (248), La Finta semplice (248), Don Giovanni (248), Sonata in F Major for Two Pianos, K.497 (249), Concerto in E flat Major for Two Pianos, K. 365 (249), Serenade in E flat Major, K. 375 (249), Als Luise, K. 520 (249), Violin Sonata in E flat Major, K. 481 (249); Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride (249); Haydn: Symphony in B flat Major, Hob. I:85, La Reine (250); Mozart: Piano Concerto in E flat Major, K. 271 (251), Violin Concerto in A Major, K. 219 (251), String Trio in E flat Major, K. 563 (251), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 281 (251), Clarinet Quintet in A Major, K. 581 (252), Die Maurerfreude, K. 471 (253), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 282 (254), Divertimento in F Major, K. 253 (254).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Chopin's Prelude in A Minor is related to recurrent patterns evident in the music and literature of the early nineteenth century. Among these patterns is that of self-quotation and Romantic representations of memory. Thus Shelley in Adonais refers to his own Ode to the West Wind, and Schubert in the String Quartet in A Minor refers to his own music to Rosamunde and to his own setting of Schiller's Die Götter Griechenlands: "Schöne Welt, wo bist du?" (This particular pattern is not, however, evident in the Chopin Prelude.)

Works: Schubert: String Quartet in A Minor (146).

Sources: Schubert: Rosamunde (146), Schöne Welt, wo bist du?, D. 677 (146).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mahler's Kindertotenlieder, written in the aftermath of the nearly fatal hemorrhage of February 24, 1901, may be considered dirges for his own death. The work is thus autobiographical to an important extent. Several musical connections between the Kindertotenlieder cycle and other of Mahler's works are noted. The phrase at mm. 12-15 in "Nun will die Sonn' so hell aufgehn" is used in the Funeral March movement of the Fifth Symphony. The melodic idea at the beginning of "Nun seh' ich wohl" is reshaped to become the principal idea of the Adagietto of the Fifth Symphony and of the song "Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen." Connections exist between the cycle and the Sixth Symphony as well. Important musical relationships exist between the first and last songs of the cycle (p. 345).

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (330-31), Symphony No. 5 (348), Symphony No. 6 (348, 353).

Sources: Mahler: Kindertotenlieder.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

One finds quotation in almost every epoch. Quotation must be distinguished from parody technique, contrafactum, variation, transcription, phantasy on known themes, paraphrase, pasticcio, metamorphosis, and stylization. Some thirteen criteria for quotation are listed (pp. 365-67). Four aesthetic functions of quotation are discussed with numerous examples of each: (1) a quotation may serve as the symbol for a well-defined expressive character; (2) a quotation may be used not so much as a symbol but rather as a means of expressing the content of a programmatic work (quotation as commentary); (3) a quotation may serve as an allusion or reference which will be more or less understood by the listener; and (4) a quotation may express parody, irony, or grotesquerie. The significance of quotation must be considered in relation to the genre in which it appears, such as pure instrumental music, vocal music, opera and ballet, music for film, and Jazz.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (368); Britten: Albert Herring (368); Bax: Tintagel (368); Berg: Lyrischen Suite (368); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (369); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (369); Prokofiev: Aleksander Newski (369); Shostakovich: Symphony No. 12 (369); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (369); Liszt: Dante Symphony (369), Totentanz (369); Rachmaninoff: Die Todesinsel (369); Dallapiccola: Canti di prigionia (369); Miaskowski: Symphony No. 6 (369); Schubert: Der Tod und Das Mädchen (369); Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (370), Don Juan (370), Tod und Verklärung (370), Don Quixote (370), Also Sprach Zarathustra (370), Til Eulenspiegel (370); Offenbach: Orpheus (371); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (372).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The presence of history and of the past is very powerful in the music of today and is made evident in quotations. Quotations can function as associative symbols, as a means of representing past times, as symbols of fear, as reminiscences of specific ideas, or as parodies. Examples of each of these functions are given (see p. 26). Collage technique is also discussed with reference to works by Zygmunt Krause, Luciano Berio, Arvo Pärt, Enrique Raxach, Vittorio Galmetti, and Charles Ives. In the end, Lissa comes down hard on collage technique, wondering if it perhaps indicates an inability on the part of the composer to speak with an individual voice and stating that collage technique also devalues art by placing the quotation of artworks on the same level as street noises.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (26); Britten: Albert Herring (26); Berg: Lyric Suite (26); Tchaikovsky: The Queen of Spades (26); Liszt: Dante Symphony (26); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (26); Strauss: Heldenleben (26), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (26); Mussorgsky: Klassiker (26); Hindemith: Nusch-Nuschi (26); de Falla: The Three Cornered Hat (26); Stravinsky: Pulcinella (26); Krause: Recital (28); Berio: Sinfonia (29); Pärt: Collage sur Bach (29); Raxach: Inside Outside (29); Galmetti: L'opera abandonnata (29); Ives: Symphony No. 4 (29), Concord Sonata (29).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mahler and Freud were both interested in the dynamics of dreams. Mahler's Third Symphony and Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams both involve dream images. Freud had a "dream of the stately house" (not included in his book) which makes reference to a nationalist song written by August von Binzer in 1819. The beginning of this song largely corresponds to the beginning of Mahler's Third Symphony, such that the latter is viewed as an allusion to the former. The song was sung in 1878 upon the government's dissolution of an influential youth organization to which Freud belonged and of which Mahler was aware. The shared interest of Freud and Mahler in the youth culture of the 1870s is revealed in their references to this song.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mahler's Third Symphony may be interpreted in terms of the philosophy of Schopenhauer. Mahler quotes the adagio of Beethoven's String Quartet Op. 135 at the beginning of the last movement and quotes Wagner's Parsifal at the end of the same movement.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3.

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135; Wagner: Parsifal.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Stravinsky's ballet Le Baiser de la Fée is based upon thematic material borrowed from Tchaikovsky and upon music written in the manner of Tchaikovsky. Fourteen works by Tchaikovsky served as major sources of material while several others were possible sources referred to in passing in the music. The search for sources is often difficult because of the nature of the piece; even Stravinsky cannot always tell what music was by Tchaikovsky and what music was by him but written in the manner of Tchaikovsky. In the end, the ballet is more Stravinsky's than it is Tchaikovsky's.

Works: Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée.

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Berceuse de la tempête, Op. 54, No. 10 (315-16), Soir d'hiver, Op. 54, No. 7 (316-17), Humoresque, Op. 10, No. 2 (317-18), Rêverie du soir, Op. 19, No. 1 (318-19), Le Paysan joue à l'accordéon, Op. 39, No. 12 (319), Au village, Op. 40 (319-20), Natha-Valse, Op. 51, No. 4 (319), Tant triste, tant douce, Op. 6, No. 1 (320), Symphony No. 5 (320-22), Scherzo humoristique, Op. 19, No. 2 (322), Feuillet d'album, Op. 19, No. 3 (322), Sleeping Beauty (323), Serenada, Op. 63, No. 6 (323), Polka peu dansante, Op. 51, No. 2 (323-24), Ah! qui brûla d'amour, Op. 6, No. 6 (324).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The story of the Frei aber froh motive and its significance in Brahms's music is not valid but is instead the invention of Max Kalbeck. The examples of the F-A-F motive which Kalbeck points to are not persuasive. The Frei aber einsam motive (associated with Joachim) is of course valid and appears in the scherzo movement of the F-A-E sonata as well as in correspondence between Brahms and Joachim and in Des Jungen Kreislers Schatzkästlein (the notebook in which the young Brahms noted down his favorite literary quotations).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In his late works, Fauré returns to themes of his earlier works. These ideas can be placed in distinct groups such that each forms a sort of musical chain of references. There are three main groups or chains: (1) the Lydia Group which originates in an early song of the same title; (2) the Soir Group which originates in the song of 1894; and (3) the Ulysse Group which is named after the character in the opera Penelope. Nectoux traces these referential chains as the various ideas return in later works and in different guises. Numerous works are mentioned and discussed. The self-borrowings are not evidence of a lack of melodic inspiration since the ideas are always transformed and re-worked. Rather, these references to his earlier works in the late works are "similar in function to the memories of his youth with which his last letters are full"; they relate to the Romantic representation of memory. The chains of references also reveal a unique continuity in his work. "Fauré's output is highly unified."

Works: Fauré: La Bonne Chanson (232), Prométhée (232), Sonata for Violin, Op. 13 (232), Piano Quartet, Op. 15 (232), Elégie (232), Chanson d'Ève (236), Violin Concerto, Op. 14 (237), Symphony in F (or Orchestral Suite), Op. 20 (237), Symphony in D Minor, Op. 40 (237).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Brahms's Schumann Variations, Op. 9 refer to the theme of Schumann's Variations Op. 9. The influence of Schumann is evident in Brahms's approach to variation form, in his association of certain variations with certain characters, and in the allusion to other pieces by Schumann besides the variation set. Variations 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 all refer in some way or another to works by Schumann. Variation No. 10 refers to Clara Schumann's Romance upon which Schumann based his Impromptus, Op. 5. Furthermore, Clara Schumann's Variations Op. 20 are based on the first Albumblatt of Schumann's Bunte Blätter, Op. 99. In his Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4, Brahms refers to Carnival and includes the A-S-C-H motto. This also constitutes reference to his own Op. 9, No. 11.

Works: Brahms: Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (266), Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4 (268); Clara Schumann: Variations, Op. 20.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Eliot's literary quotations are drawn from many sources and are invested with personal meaning. This situation is also to be found in the music of Ives, Stravinsky, Copland, Crumb, Rochberg and others. Specific examples, such as Ives's reference to the beginning of Beethoven's Fifth in his Concord Sonata (the "Alcotts" movement), Stravinsky's allusions to Bach, Pergolesi and others in his neo-classic music, and Berg's Tristan quotation in the Lyric Suite, are mentioned. The significance of music to Eliot's poetry is discussed. A parallel between the poetry of Eliot and the music of Stravinsky is drawn.

Works: Ives: Concord Sonata (194); Berg: Lyric Suite (194).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Both Elgar and Mahler make use of march rhythms and military music (fanfares). The Finales of the two first symphonies are comparable is some respects. Elgar's Second Symphony includes a very Mahleresque passage. The end of Elgar's Falstaff is compared to the end of Mahler's Ninth Symphony. Both composers are viewed as expressing the "foreboding of terror which hangs over most of the art of the years 1900-14."

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The theme of Beethoven's Contredanse in Eb Major, upon which the finale of the symphony is based and which is also present in Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus and the Piano Variations, Op. 35, has its ultimate source in the opening phrase of Clementi's Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 7, No. 3 (a work Beethoven probably knew in his Bonn days). Ringer also discerns the presence of the idea in the Septet, Op. 20 and in Christus am Ölberg. Clementi himself used the theme again in the finale of his Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14, No. 3. The influence of other sonatas by Clementi upon Beethoven is also noted. Elements of Clementi's G Minor Sonata (not just the opening phrase) are evident throughout the Eroica as a result of Beethoven's use of his own contredanse as a "reference theme." (The use of a reference theme, here a Russian theme, is also evident throughout the String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1.) The Prometheus music, the Variations, Op. 35, and the Eroica are viewed as "three successive responses to the same 'underlying idea,' each conceived in terms of a different 'poetic idea.'"

Works: Beethoven: Eroica (454), The Creatures of Prometheus (454), Piano Variations, Op. 35 (454), Septet, Op. 20 (460), Christus am Olberg (460), String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1 (464).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Rochberg's references to earlier compositions are discussed in the course of this general overview of his music. Numerous examples of quotation and self-quotation in his works are mentioned. His musical collages employ materials from a variety of works by others and by himself. In Rochberg's Contra Mortem et Tempus (1965), for instance, the allusions include those to Boulez, Berio, Varèse, Berg, Ives, and himself. With the composition of Music for the Magic Theater (1965), Rochberg has gained full independence from the past by so fully absorbing the music of the tradition that the music is no longer a burden on the present but instead points the way to the future.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The melodic source material which Haydn uses provides insight into the creative process. Special attention is paid to the sources which Haydn draws upon (either consciously or unconsciously) in the slow introductions and allegro themes of the symphonies written during or after 1785. The use of these sources arises "naturally from [the composer's] storehouse of material in order to create certain effects or types of character." Slow introductions often show the influence of folk songs and hymns. Allegro themes have an affinity with dance music. Haydn draws upon his national heritage to create works of a strong individual cast. Statements by Mahler and Ravel indicate that Haydn is by no means unique in the manifestation of an aesthetic in which national heritage and individual consciousness meet.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 26 (499), Symphony No. 64 (500), Symphony No. 103 (508).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bizet's Symphony in C was composed in 1855 but was not performed until 1935. The symphony has often been cited as being reminiscent of earlier composers' music. Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Rossini, Schubert, Mozart, and even Brahms (!) have been mentioned. Bizet in fact wrote his symphony with a specific model in mind, the Symphony in D by his teacher and friend Gounod. Almost all of the conspicuous features of the Bizet can be traced back to Gounod. Gounod's symphony had been a great hit in Paris, and this may indicate that Bizet chose not to have his symphony performed upon completing it for fear of being charged with imitation. Bizet did quote a fragment of his symphony in his opera Don Procopio. (He also quoted this opera in two later operas, Les Pêcheurs de perles and La jolie fille de Perth.)

Works: Bizet: Symphony in C Major (462), Don Procopio (474), Les Pêcheurs de perles (474), La jolie fille de Perth (474).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The principal theme which never appears in the Enigma Variations is identified as being drawn from Brahms's Vier ernste Gesänge. The opening motive of the variations can be combined with a passage in the second song while the Nimrod tune can be combined (once a change of key is made) with a passage in tbe fourth. Other allusions which appear on the surface of the music in the variations are to Bach's Pedalexercitium (eleventh variation) and to B-A-C-H (in the Enigma theme itself) as well as to the slow movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op. 13 (ninth variation). The Enigma theme may also refer to the first of the Vier ernste Gesänge such that the Brahms was Elgar's point of departure.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mozart heard Bach's motet Singet dem Herren ein neues Lied in 1789. The chorale "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" is prominent in this motet. The history of this chorale melody is discussed. Bach himself used the melody in some ten works (listed on pp. 216-17). Mozart may have known several of these works besides the motet which he certainly heard and another he may have heard; four of the works were published during his lifetime. The melody of lines 6-7 of "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" as set in Singet dem Herren largely corresponds to the beginning of Papageno's Lied "Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen" in Die Zauberflöte. (The melody has also been discovered in Haydn's Mondo della Luna.) The strong impression made upon Mozart by Bach's music (evident in Mozart's increased interest in counterpoint in several works) is here made manifest in the form of a quotation.

Works: Bach: Cantata No. 17, Cantata No. 28,Cantata No. 29, Cantata No. 51, Cantata No. 167, Motets Singet dem Herrn and Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren, Chorales Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 389) and Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 390), Organ Prelude Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV, Anhang, No. 60); Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The practice of recomposition, in which compositions from earlier periods are absorbed and modified in new ones, is evident in many works of the twentieth century. In Stravinsky's Pulcinella, Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra, and Webern's orchestration of the Ricercare from Bach's The Musical Offering, a post-tonal musical structure is imposed upon a tonal model. In the Schoenberg the first movement is a recomposition of Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7; the last three movements are fantasias on material drawn from Handel. Schoenberg's recomposition enhances the motivic structure of the model. "Motivic saturation" is also evident in Schoenberg's orchestration of the Bach Chorale Prelude, Schmücke dich (BMW 654). The Stravinsky is a recomposition of music by Pergolesi and others. Recomposition is also evident in Stravinsky's orchestration of Bach's Canonic Variations on Vom Himmel Hoch. He also recomposed two songs by Wolf and worked on setting selected preludes and fugues of The Well-Tempered Clavier. In general, these twentieth-century recompositions force us to rehear each model as a network of motivic associations.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Stuckenschmidt points to two similar (he calls them "identical") passages in the music of Debussy and Berg. Each passage involves five chords in which the top voice moves from G to Eb while the bass moves by fourths and fifths as follows: Bb-Eb-ab-Db-Gb. The passages occur in Debussy's Six épigraphes antiques composed in 1914 (a suite for piano duet; the passage is in the fourth piece, "Pour la danseuse aux crotales") and in Berg's Vier Lieder, Op. 2, completed in 1909 (the passage is in the last song). The Debussy suite incorporates music he had written some fourteen years earlier for Pierre Louy's Chansons de Bilitis, the passage in question, however, is not present in the earlier music. It appears, therefore, that Debussy is referring (probably unconsciously) to Berg. A famous precedent for this sort of reference occurs as an unusual chord in Ravel's Habanera (1895) is repeated literally in Debussy's "Soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes (1903).

Works: Debussy: "Soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes (1903) (459); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 6 (456).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Dozens of works by Schubert from 1816 on echo Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. Many examples are mentioned in the article. Special reference is made to the allusions to the Allegretto of the symphony. Schubert seems to associate the music with death. The main focus of the article is upon the harmonies in the trio and especially upon Schubert's appropriation of the eight-six chord on the dominant which is given such emphasis in the trio. This chord is created as a series of thirds descending over a dominant pedal. Schubert's allusions to this passage are noted and are called "unconscious reminiscences." Schubert's characteristic tendency toward interchangeability of mode is evident in these reminiscences. Schubert adopts what had been a commonplace harmony and invests it with a literary meaning. Traditional analysis is ill-equipped to identify what is significant in Romantic harmony.

Works: Schubert: Wanderers Nachtlied, D. 489 (143), Der Geistentanz, D. 494 (143), Der Tod und das Mädchen, D. 531 (143), Gesang der Geister über den Wasser, D. 538 (143), Thirteen Variations for Piano Solo, D. 576 (144), Schwanengesang, D. 744 (144), Die Liebe hat gelogen, D. 751 (144), Du liebst mich nicht, D. 756 (144), Entr'acte from Rosamunde, D. 797 (144), Wanderer Fantasy, D. 760 (144), Death and the Maiden Quartet, D. 810 (144), Quartet in A Minor, D. 804 (144), Symphony in C Major (144), Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (145), Die Götter Griechenlands, D, 677 (145), Fantaise-Sonata in G, op. 78 for piano solo, D. 894 (145), Ländler in Ab, D. 790 (149).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Several allusions to pre-existent works which appear in Mahler's music are noted: a tune by Thomas Koschat in the Fifth Symphony, Beethoven's Violin Sonata Op. 96 in "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" from the Second Symphony, Schubert's Piano Trio in E-flat Major, D. 929 in Mahler's Third Symphony, the Piano Sonata in G Major, D. 894 in "Lob des hohen Verstanden" from the Wunderhorn Lieder, the D Major Piano Sonata, D. 850 in the finale of the Fourth, and the E-flat Major Piano Sonata, D. 568 in the first movement of the same symphony. A whole group of quotations is drawn from Schubert's Piano Sonata in A Minor, D.784. The allusions to this work are most prevalent in the First and Seventh symphonies. Mahler was well acquainted with this sonata as a performer so that the allusions to it are of biographical (read autobiographical) significance. Mahler's involvement with the Schubert sonata, both as performer and composer, spans some thirty years; the references to it in his own music are identified as largely unconscious. Various other allusions by Mahler both to others and to himself are noted.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (256), "Lob des hohen Verstanden," from Wünderhorn Lieder (256), Symphony No. 4 (256), Symphony No. 7 (259), Symphony No. 1 (260), "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt," from Symphony No. 2 (262), Symphony No. 5 (263).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

This article explores the dynamics of unconscious quotation. The main theme of Rachmaninoff's Third Piano Concerto is based upon a chant of the Russian Orthodox church. Rachmaninoff probably heard the chant during a visit to the Kievan-Petchersk Lavra in 1893. The concerto was composed in 1909. Thus it took some sixteen years for the tune to be unconsciously regenerated as the theme for his concerto. Of special interest is Rachmaninoff's reply to a letter sent to him by Yasser which demonstrates that Rachmaninoff was not conscious of the relationship between his theme and the chant. Rachmaninoff did, however, acknowledge the influence of liturgical and folk music on his music.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler