Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Danger Mouse (producer Brian Burton) recorded a performance of Jay-Z’s The Black Album in his 2004 The Grey Album, which challenges traditional notions of individual authorship. He produced The Grey Album by taking an a cappella recording of Jay-Z’s The Black Album and remixing portions of The Beatles’ The White Album as the instrumental backing. Because a mashup is a combination of two or more recordings onto a single track, it can be difficult to decide what type of art the mashup actually is, or what its creator has really done in making it. The Grey Album differs from A+B mash-ups such as Smells Like Booty (which combines Nirvana’s Smells Like Teen Spirit with Destiny’s Child’s Bootylicious) in multiple ways. First, unlike A+B mash-ups, The Grey Album is unequal in its borrowing. The entirety of Jay-Z’s lyrics are preserved, while The Beatles’ music is cut up and reconfigured to fit the lyrics. Second, The Grey Album deliberately obscures the incongruity of its sources. The aim of the album is to reinforce or reinterpret the lyrics, not to use them for comedic effect, and as a result, this borrowing has more in common with art music techniques than with existing popular mash-ups. Because the lyrics are clearly the focus of the album, it is not an independent composition, but rather a performance of The Black Album. Burton’s creative process connects him to the larger tradition of musical borrowing as The Beatles’s music served as Burton’s interpretative tool for his performance of Jay-Z’s album.

Works: Danger Mouse: The Grey Album; Soulwax: Smells Like Booty (8-9); Anonymous: Oops... The Real Slim Shady Did It Again (9); Berio: Sinfonia (11); Greg Gillis/Girl Talk: Feed the Animals (11); John Oswald: Plunderphonic (12).

Sources: Destiny’s Child: Bootylicious (8-9); Nirvana: Smells like Teen Spirit (8-9); Eminem: The Real Slim Shady (9); Britney Spears: Oops! I Did It Again (9); Jay-Z: The Black Album (10-23); The Beatles: The White Album (10-23).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman, Matthew Van Vleet

Celtic punk band the Dropkick Murphys create a hybrid Irish American identity through the appropriation of traditional folk songs and instruments, connecting their real home town of Boston with a fantasized homeland of Ireland. The Dropkick Murphys often perform and record covers of Irish folk songs. Their cover of the ballad The Fields of Athenry, about a man forcibly removed from his homeland, thematically fits in with their original material about the importance of home, family, and nationality, and supports the band’s working-class “underdog” image. Bagpipes, tin whistles, and other elements of traditional Irish folk music are frequently used by the band. In comparison, references to Boston are much more specific in Dropkick Murphys songs. Specific Boston sports teams, public transit lines, music venues, and individuals are mentioned to create a sense of the specific Irish American community of the band’s hometown. The hybrid identity created by the Dropkick Murphys reimagines what it means to be Irish American for a new generation further removed from their familial homeland.

Works: Dropkick Murphys: The Fields of Athenry (24-25), The Wild Rover (25), The Rocky Road to Dublin (25).

Sources: Traditional: The Fields of Athenry (24-25), The Wild Rover (25), The Rocky Road to Dublin (25).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

The technology of digital sampling challenges our traditional understanding of authorship, and the resulting ambiguities are reflected in our cultural and political environment. For instance, when the group Frankie Goes to Hollywood sampled Led Zeppelin's drummer John Bonham for their recording of Relax, who was the author? Was it John Bonham (who was deceased at the time)? Was it the sampling software? Donna Haraway, in her "Manifesto for Cyborgs," has argued that high-tech culture problematizes many of the binarisms built into our culture, and such destabilization can be politically useful. One artist who has exploited technology for politically useful ends is Laurie Anderson. In her film Home of the Brave she opens by lecturing the audience through a synthesized "male" voice, blurring the binarism of gender. She also samples the voice of William S. Burroughs, who is also silently present for one scene, playing with the dualism of recording and "liveness." Throughout her film, she goes on to challenge other dualisms such as speaking/singing, self/other, author/reader, and person/machine. Anderson's work provides a glimpse of the effect that technology can have on politics and culture.

Works: Frankie Goes to Hollywood (Peter Gill, Holly Johnson, Brian Nash, Mark O'Toole): Relax (31); Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Ula Hedwig (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Bette Midler (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Laurie Anderson: Home of the Brave (37-41).

Sources: Bobby Freeman (songwriter), Bette Midler (performer): Do You Wanna Dance (33); Bobbie Freeman (songwriter and performer): Do You Want to Dance (33).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Through the simulation and essentialization of recognizable folk-musical traits, several Eastern European nations competing at the Eurovision Song Contest in the early 2000s were successfully able to represent, misrepresent, or brand the ethnic folk traditions of their home nation. The Eastern European countries that consistently won the contest between 2001 and 2007 played upon Western stereotypes of the East by incorporating stylized national music, instruments, and ethnic musical characteristics into their song entries. In doing so, they created a distinctively alternative sound to the modern musical styles (such as pop, rock, or disco) featured in the Western countries’ entries. In particular, the Ukrainian singer songwriter Ruslana exemplifies this kind of simulation and essentialization, with her winning entry Wild Dances making use of various traditional instruments, folk-inspired performance practices, and stylistic allusions to Hutsul traditional music that she collected during her ethnographic field work in the Carpathian Mountain region. Her entry is both an example of simulation, as she is presenting a commercialized and stylized version of traditional folk music, and an example of essentialization because her entry only represents a small demographic within Ukraine. Other winning entries, such as Željko Joksimovi’s Lane Moje, also incorporate ethnic folk elements and folk musical tropes.

Works: Ruslana: Wild Dances (175-77, 180, 184); Željko Joksimović: Lane Moje (178), Lejla (178), Call Me (178); Boris Novković: Vukovi umiru sami (179-80).

Sources: Damir Lipošek, Vedran Božić, and Husein Hasanefendić: Moja domovina (179-80).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

In a discussion of three of his saxophone concertos, David Baker describes Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra as "an attempt to capture the spirit and feel of Duke Ellington." In the first movement, the piece features quotations of the A sections of Ellington's Caravan,Drop Me Off in Harlem, and Minnehaha, while fragments from other songs are used as linking materials. The second movement uses Ellington's All Too Soon not only as one of the themes but also as music heard underneath the saxophone solo. Movement III introduces Ellington's It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing in the introduction. Baker describes his treatment of the theme as "Morse-code-like." He then presents six variations on the borrowed tune's ground bass, which he refers to as a passacaglia.

Works: Baker: Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra.

Sources: Ellington: Caravan (106), Drop Me Off in Harlem (106), Minnehaha (106), All Too Soon (106), It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing (107).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

In a study of George Gershwin's historical relationship with jazz, it is suggested that the composer's songs continue to be attractive to jazz musicians because of their rhythmic, melodic, harmonic, and formal characteristics. For instance, Gershwin tended to repeat notes in his melodies, allowing for the performer to embellish harmonically and rhythmically, as was exemplified by Billy Holiday's recording of Oh, Lady Be Good! In other instances, Gershwin songs are favored because their harmonies can be separated from their melodies, as in Nice Work If You Can Get It. Songs like Somebody Loves Me and The Man I Love contain repeated four-measure phrases, a characteristic musical succinctness that improvisers have long found inviting.

Works: George Gershwin: How Long Has This Been Going On? (188, 200), I Got Rhythm (188, 190, 201), They Can't Take That Away From Me (188-90, 200), A Foggy Day (188-90, 198, 201), Fascinating Rhythm (188,199), Oh, Lady Be Good! (189-90, 193-94, 196-97, 200), Nice Work If You Can Get It (190, 195-96, 198, 201), Bess, You Is My Woman Now (193, 200), The Main I Love (193-94, 197, 200-201), But Not For Me (193), Summertime (195,197, 201), Embraceable You (197, 199, 200-201), Somebody Loves Me (197-98, 200-201), Liza (198), Someone To Watch Over Me (198), Soon (198), Our Love is Here To Stay (198), 'S Wonderful (200).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

In the current “post-sampling” era of digitalized popular music production, the practice of sampling exists withing a spectrum of musical practice, and the intermingling of practices has implications for the legal, moral, and aesthetic aspects of sampling. The basic legality of sampling—is a copyrighted recording cleared to use or not—is a technical question, but often the similarity between a musical work and the source of a sample is marginal at best (unlike in examples of plagiarism). Sampling law also favors copyright holders over the musicians whose contribution is sampled. The morality of sampling is discussed by musicians across genres, with significant overlap in how originality and copying are treated in other forms of musical borrowing. Distinctions between legitimate and illegitimate practices are made through generic codes, but there are grey areas to consider. The wide availability of digital sampling has made the sampling aesthetic a significant part of popular music production. The resulting cultural shift in attitudes toward sampling—post-sampling—is widespread but unevenly realized in moral and legal discourse.

Works: The Verve: Bittersweet Symphony (225-26).

Sources: Rolling Stones: The Last Time (225-26).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

By borrowing a musical passage from his film score Hangman also Die within the opening of his song Auferstanden aus Ruinen, Hanns Eisler utilized the same music for two extremely different political and social circumstances—a paradox that illustrates music's ability to mediate meaning through cultural encoding. The 1943 motion picture Hangmen also Die by Fritz Lang is a product of the Hollywood entertainment industry and American capitalism, whereas Auferstanden aus Ruinen is a patriotic song adopted by the communist German Democratic Republic as its national anthem. In the film, the story centers on the struggle of the united Czech people to overcome the brutal Nazi occupation; the relevant musical passage is heard in a scene in which the leading Czech resistance leader lies on his deathbed after a Nazi raid. The slow, syncopated rhythm in the bass line and the three-note descending sequential figure in the melody symbolize the patriotism and heroism of the Czech people fighting against fascism. Eisler borrows these same gestures in the opening of the anthem, and in both cases exploits the emotional power of music to mediate a political and social message. The paradox of Eisler's self-borrowing emphasizes music's ability to cross social and political boundaries.

Works: Eisler: Auferstanden aus Ruinen.

Sources: Eisler: Score for Hangman also Die.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Stephen Sondheim’s Sweeney Todd is not a musical, but an opera, and has suffered by not being performed by opera companies for opera audiences. In Sweeney Todd, Sondheim shows his knowledge of the Western art music tradition through musical borrowing, leitmotif-like motivic recurrence, stylistic allusion to canonic composers and popular musics, harsh dissonance and bi-tonality, mixed meter, and other techniques. Such techniques provide the work with dramatic cohesion and musical integrity.

Works: Stephen Sondheim: Sweeney Todd.

Sources: Anonymous: Dies Irae (20, 24-25).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

From the earliest beginnings of jazz, classical music has played a role in its development. Early and pre-jazz musicians were known to have performed classical music publicly, and others, such as Scott Joplin, studied with European teachers. As jazz moved into the twentieth century, the borrowing of classical music instrumentation became prominent. In the 1950s, jazz musicians employed fugal writing, as exemplified by Dave Brubeck's Fugue on Bop Themes, among other works. In the 1960s, twelve-tone rows were utilized, as exemplified by Bill Evans's T.T.T. Also, the procedure known as "jazzin' the classics" has been a constant feature within jazz tradition, from Jelly Roll Morton's recording of a version of the Misere from Il Trovatore through Joe Walsh's synthesized arrangement of Ravel's Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty. An appendix includes selective annotated discography.

Works: Brubeck: Fugue on Bop Themes (22); Lewis: Vendome (23), Three Windows (23), Concorde (23), Versailles (23); Hampton: Fugue (23); Williams: Prelude and Fugue (23); Ferguson: Passacaglia and Fugue (23); Johnson: Music for Brass (23); Schuller: Abstraction (23); Bank: Equation Part I (23); De Franco: 12-Tone Blues (23); Giuffre: Densities I (23); Farberman: . . . Then Silence (23); Smith: Elegy for Eric (23); Schifrin: The Ritual of Sound (23); Coltrane: Miles Mode (24); Evans: T.T.T. (24-25); Heckman: The Twelves (26); Waller: Russian Fantasy (26); Morton/Verdi: Misere (26-27); Gershwin: The Man I Love as performed by Paul Whiteman (27); Ellington: Ebony Rhapsody (27); Walsh/Ravel: Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty (30); Ginastera: Toccata as performed by Emerson, Lake, and Palmer (30).

Sources: Liszt: Rigoletto Concert Paraphrase (26); Rossini: William Tell Overture (26); Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite (26); Rachmaninoff: Prelude in C sharp Minor (26); Verdi: Il Trovatore (26-27); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (27); MacDowell: To a Wild Rose (27); Rimsky-Korsakov: Song of India (27); Wagner: Tristan and Isolde (27); Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (27), Passacaglia in C (27); Stravinsky: Rite of Spring (28, 30); Ginastera: Toccata (30); Ravel: Mother Goose Suite (30).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan’s 1945 recording of Stone Cold Dead in the Market, a reworked Barbadian folk song about an abused wife murdering her husband, was able to become a rhythm and blues hit in part because the Caribbean styling produced an exoticized cultural mask which allowed for frank portrayals of taboo subjects. The Barbadian folk song, usually known as Murder in the Market or Payne Dead, has been collected in several versions and was likely known in Trinidad by the 1910s. The first commercial recording of the song was made by calypso artist Wilmouth Houdini in 1939. Houdini’s version, called He Had It Coming, had modified lyrics aimed at an American audience, making it an early example of calypso crossover. Fitzgerald and Jordan’s Stone Cold Dead is a re-recording of He Had It Coming that changes the song in several ways to make it a more popular American hit. Fitzgerald and Jordan’s arrangement is faster than Houdini’s and includes instrumentation (muted trumpet, maracas, and claves) typical of post-war Americanized calypso and “Latin” music. They also modified the lyrical structure of the song, repeating the refrain and title line to create a verse-chorus structure with a clear melodic hook. Some lyrics were also changed to be in first-person perspective, and Fitzgerand and Jordan sing with affected West Indian accents. Several artists recorded cover versions of Stone Cold Dead, occasionally with nods to Houdini’s version or earlier folk variations. Although the song addresses the often-unspoken issue of domestic violence, it does so through stereotyping and exoticizing West Indian culture.

Works: Wilmouth Houdini: He Had It Coming (9-13); Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (13-15); Betty Mays and Her Orchestra: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (He Had It Coming) (15); Grace Berrie: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (15-16); Alan Lomax: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (16); Maya Angelou: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (16).

Sources: Traditional: Murder in the Market / Payne Dead (9-13, 16); Wilmouth Houdini: He Had It Coming (13-15); Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (15-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

One significant contributing element to musical meaning is the principle of association, which can be modeled in five steps: (1) recognizing familiar elements, (2) recalling other music that uses those elements, (3) perceiving associations the other music may carry, (4) noticing what is new or changed, and (5) interpreting what this means. One method of testing this model is to analyze several pieces whose meaning can in part be derived from their association with military bugle calls. Military calls themselves have specific arbitrary meanings. Hearing a military call can evoke memories that suggest emotional associations. Some music, like Charles Ives’s Decoration Day, uses listeners’ familiarity with certain tunes (in this case, Taps) to convey specific meaning. Other music relies on familiarity with a general melodic shape or style; George M. Cohan’s World War I song Over There uses a figure that is recognizable as a bugle call (perhaps a cross between Taps and Reveille), but is not actually a quotation of a bugle call. Aaron Copland’s Fanfare for the Common Man recalls the familiar timbre and texture of a bugle call, giving the piece an associative meaning of military dignity, nobility, and duty. Alternatively, other meanings for Fanfare for the Common Man arise if one hears it as reminiscent of Richard Strauss’s Also sprach Zarathustra. In absolute music, the generic, formal, or internal conventions of a familiar reference in a piece—a fanfare topic in a Mozart sonata, for instance—can also generate meaning. Meaning related to musical syntax can also be examined with the association model. There are several implications of this associative model of musical meaning: (1) meaning depends on what the listener knows, (2) music acquires meanings through use, (3) the most familiar music is often the most meaningful, (4) meaning depends on context, (5) meaning depends on interpretation, (6) musical meaning can change as listeners learn, and (7) this model provides a framework for communicating about musical meaning.

Works: Ives: Decoration Day (83-84); George M. Cohan: Over There (85); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (89-93)

Sources: Anonymous: Taps (83-85), Reveille (85); Lowell Mason: Nearer, My God, to Thee (83-84); Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra (89-93)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Musicians use a broad spectrum of practices to make new music out of old: performance, including everything from making performing choices to improvising variants or added material; creating a new version of a piece by arranging it, transcribing it for different media or setting it with a new accompaniment; borrowing material from one or more existing pieces to use in a new one; building a new piece out of schemas, shared routines that can be deployed in endless new combinations; using topics, references to familiar styles and types of music, to delineate form and create meaning through association; and other forms of intertextuality, which encompasses these and other kinds of relationships between and among pieces of music. Borrowing has been a subject of musical scholarship for centuries, and in the past four decades scholars have developed parallel fields of study focused on the others. Each of these approaches is useful, drawing our attention to significant and longstanding practices in our musical tradition and to ways creators shape music and listeners understand it. Moreover, all of these scholarly approaches and musical practices are related, serving to demonstrate how central to our tradition are our many ways of making old music new.

Works: Franz Liszt: William Tell Overture, S. 552 (72); Bob Rivers: Not So Silent Night (72-73, 78); Stravinsky: Pulcinella (73), The Fairy’s Kiss (73); Josquin Desprez: Missa Pange lingua (74); Charles Ives: Symphony No. 2 (74, 78)

Sources: Rossini: William Tell Overture (72); Franz Xaver Gruber (composer), John Freeman Young (English lyricist): Silent Night (72-73, 78); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (74); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where are the Verdant Freshmen? (78)

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Analysis of visual and musical elements of Michael Jackson's video for his song Black or White reveals it as a series of intertextual references that generate meaning through allusions to aspects of popular culture. Intertextuality is defined according to Gerard Genette's theories of transtextuality and therefore is taken to be a relationship between "two or more texts existing or showing their presence within a work," including quotation, plagiarism, and allusion as types of intertextuality. In every scene of the video, intertextual references can be found, including the use of quintessential heavy metal guitar and drum sounds, cinematic allusions to Hitchcock and the film Raising Arizona, evocation of the militant political groups the Black Panthers as Jackson morphs into a panther, a rhythmic reference to Buddy Rich drum solos, and the inclusion of a brief section of rap.

Works: Bill Botrell and Michael Jackson: Black or White.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Artistic authenticity is a central concern in the genre of rock music. "Covering" previously recorded songs directly involves rock and popular bands' rendering of a cover song as either authentic or artificial (inauthentic). Two cover songs by the Pet Shop Boys exemplify two opposing notions of authenticity. Their cover of U2's Where the Streets Have No Name casts the original version as artificial, as the Pet Shop Boys ignore the original song's emphasis on individuality, undermine the structural importance of motivic elements, recast the song in a quasi-disco style, and make other significant musical changes. On the other hand, the Pet Shop Boys' version of Go West heightens the authenticity of the Village People's version. The song evokes the climate of "1970s urban gay culture," with an emphasis on community and the freedom to be liberated by going west. The Pet Shop Boys' cover not only recaptures the Village People's message, placing it in its 1970s pre-AIDS culture, but also uses musical devices to also evoke the song's new context in an post-AIDS culture. For example, the interaction among the musicians seems more formally restrained, which resembles the heightened sense of caution members of the gay community must take in an AIDS-stricken world. Ultimately, the Pet Shop Boys' Go West celebrates the history of gay culture and casts the Village People's version as authentic.

Works: Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Where the Streets Have No Name as performed by the Pet Shop Boys (4-7); Henri Belolo, Jacques Morali, and Victor Willis: Go West as performed by the Pet Shop Boys (7-15).

Sources: Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Where the Streets Have No Name (2-6); Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio: Can't Take My Eyes Off You as performed by Frankie Valli and by Boystown Gang (5-6); Henri Belolo, Jacques Morali, and Victor Willis: Go West (7-12); Pachelbel: Canon in D (13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Musical artists within the Jewish American "hipster" scene (ca. 1986-2006) drew on conventions from rap and hip-hop as a means of negotiating a new Jewish identity. Of the many strategies to draw on the conventions of rap, one common tactic was parody. For instance, parody artist Shlock Rock parodied Aerosmith and Run DMC's Walk This Way (1986) and created Wash This Way, now a song about the Jewish hand-washing ritual. Despite the different lyrics, Shlock Rock's parody borrows vocal inflection, instrumentation, and even attitude. Although humor and parody were common reasons to incorporate rap and hip-hop into Jewish music, the Yeshiva-educated duo Black Hattitude used rap to promote a political and controversial program. Drawing on the stylings of rap, the duo included spoken tracks, took polemical points of view, and sampled artists such as Led Zeppelin. Such music provided a site in which young Jews could simultaneously negotiate a new Jewish identity and preserve and transmit their culture through such change.

Works: Lenny Solomon and Etan Goldman (songwriters), Shlock Rock (performers): Bless On It/Boogie in the Shul [Synagogue] (5), Wash This Way (5); Black Hattitude, R.E.L.I.G.I.O.N (7); Etan G (Etan Goldman): South Side of the Synagogue (8).

Sources: Newcleus: Jam On It/Boogie in the Club (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Aerosmith (performers): Walk This Way (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Run DMC (performers): Walk This Way (5); Led Zeppelin (Jimmy Page, Robert Plant, John Bonham, and John Paul Jones) and Willie Dixon: Whole Lotta Love (7, endnote 11); Peter Gabriel: Sledgehammer (7, endnote 11); Lenny Solomon (songwriter), Shlock Rock (performers): Yo Yo Yo Yarmulke (8), Recognize the Miracles (8).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

The 1978 NBC "docudrama," The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash, is a humorous satire of the music and history of the Beatles. According to Schopenhauer, an amused reaction arises as a response to the "recognition of incongruity between a representation and a concept." Thus, for a listener to experience an amused response to musical satire, he or she must possess "stylistic competencies" that allow for the recognition of the congruity-incongruity dialectic in the music. The fictitious Rutles's Hold My Hand is modeled on three Beatles songs, and it incorporates elements of lyrics, pitch, rhythm, harmony and instrumentation from the sources. Evidence of modeling in Ouch!, a parody of the Beatles' song, Help!, is found in instrumentation and in formal and harmonic similarities to the source. The harmonic parallelism is such that a dialogue between Ouch! and Help! emerges, which is facilitated by diminution of the model's harmonic rhythm and partial reordering of the harmonic progression. Leonard Meyer's theory of style, in combination with the semiotic theory of intertextuality, can become a powerful analytic device in explaining musical satire. The humor arises from the listener's recognition of the model and the clever alterations and juxtapositions of the original material. This recognition must take place on three different levels of specificity: dialectic or general style (e.g., British invasion), individual idiom (e.g., early Beatles style), and intraopus style or the style within a single work (e.g., the style of Help!).

Works: Neil Innes: Hold My Hand (124-32), Ouch! (133-37).

Sources: John Lennon and Paul McCartney: I Want to Hold Your Hand (124-32), She Loves You (124-32), All My Loving (124-32), Help! (133-37).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey, Sarah Florini

The term "cover" does not accurately describe the history behind or motivations for an artist recording a previously recorded song. In the 1950s, listeners did not make the same associations between song and singer that they make today; therefore re-recording a song was not understood as a reference in any way to the earlier artist. "The music itself" existed independently of its realization; therefore multiple versions of a song could circulate and not be considered to be referential. Re-recording a song that was circulating at the time was known as "hijacking a hit." It was not until Elvis re-recorded older R&B records that were no longer circulating that the cover song in the modern sense of the word came into existence.

Works: Chuck Willis (songwriter), Derek and the Dominos (performers): It's Too Late (151-52); Otis Redding (performer): It's Too Late (151-52).

Sources: Chuck Willis (songwriter and performer): It's Too Late (150-52); Otis Redding (performer): It's Too Late (151-52).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Since its premiere in Gershwin's 1930 musical Girl Crazy, the song I Got Rhythm has been performed, arranged, and recorded countless times. In these subsequent realizations of Gershwin's song three approaches can be identified in which the original material is treated as (1) a song played and sung by popular performers, (2) a jazz standard, a piece known and frequently played by musicians in the jazz tradition, and (3) a musical structure, a harmonic framework upon which jazz instrumentalists have built new compositions. These new compositions, called contrafacts, include examples such as Duke Ellington's 1940 Cotton Tail, Charlie Parker's 1940 Steeplechase, Parker and "Dizzy" Gillespie's 1945 Shaw 'Nuff, and many others. Tables listing titles of Parker I Got Rhythm contrafacts and recordings of I Got Rhythm contrafacts (up to 1942) are included.

Works: Ellington: Cotton Tail (229-30), Parker: Steeplechase (232), Red Cross (232), Moose the Mooche (233), An Oscar For Treadwell (233); Parker and Gillespie: Shaw 'Nuff (239).

Sources: Gershwin: I Got Rhythm (213-44).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

According to Charles Seeger, folk music represents the epitome of plagiarism. Since rap music relies so heavily on digital sampling, rap and folk music are therefore linked through similar processes of musical borrowing. The explanation for such borrowing is not plagiarism but a new definition of creativity: creativity as synthesis of existing materials. Rap and folk music are also extensions of oral traditions, which value synthesis over novelty.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Recording labels in Nashville demand that recording artists be singer-songwriters: that is, that musicians write and perform their own songs. Critics and fans believe that writing and performing one's own songs is the best measure of the legitimacy of a musician's abilities. This expectation ignores the potential value of cover songs and the interpretive skill of covering artists. Not only can a cover song provide a new interpretation of a song, but it may introduce music to new listeners who are unfamiliar with the original because of separation by time or genre. For covering artists, cover songs are important for three reasons: (1) the song has a proven track record of commercial success, (2) the song can act as a nod or tribute to an important influence on the artist, and (3) it can provide audiences with familiar music as they hear a new artist.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Plunderphonics—the technique of sampling and then dramatically editing those samples of existing music—challenges traditional notions of property rights, individual creativity, and originality, and thus calls for news modes of discourse. When recorded music becomes the sole source material for a new composition (the re-edited work), the concept of origination no longer matters; this radically subverts art music narratives of creative geniuses and autonomous artworks. Instead, plundering is a form of positive plagiarism that does not fit into the current modes of discourse on originality and property rights or existing copyright laws that emphasize the creation of a work by one author from nothing. Recording undermines the core of the classical art tradition because it bypasses notation, allowing the finished music itself to become the raw material of a re-edited work. Instead of creativity being the sole province of the composer in the art music tradition, recorded sounds and plundering place the impetus of creativity on the listener as new art can be made solely through listening without the constraints of notation. In order to better understand how musical plundering operates within popular and, more rarely, art music, we need to develop new frameworks of engaging with these issues of copyright and creativity.

Works: John Oswald: The Great Pretender (139), Plexure (153); Michael Jackson: Will You Be There? (139); John Coltrane (performer): My Favorite Things (142); John Cage: Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (145), Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (145), Imaginary Landscape No. 5 (145); Ottorino Respighi: Pina di Roma (145); Pierre Schaeffer: Etude aux tourniquets (145); James Tenney: Collage No. 1 (145), Viet Flakes (147); Frank Zappa: Absolutely Free, Lumpy Gravy, We’re Only in it for the Money (148); The Beatles: Tomorrow Never Knows (148), Revolution 9 (148); Stockhausen: Opus 1970 (148); The Residents: Third Reich and Roll (148), Beyond the Valley of a Day in the Life: The Residents Play The Beatles/The Beatles Play The Residents (149); Richard Tryhall: Omaggio a Jerry Lee Lewis (148).

Sources: Dolly Parton (performer): The Great Pretender; Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (139); Richard Rodgers (composer), Oscar Hammerstein II (lyricist): My Favorite Things from The Sound of Music (142); Elvis Presley (performer): Blue Suede Shoes (145); Jerry Lee Lewis: Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On (148).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Although the tango originated in Buenos Aires, several Ashkenazi Jewish songwriters in Europe soon adopted this genre as their own, either by giving existing tango melodies new lyrics in Yiddish or by composing new ones. The Ashkenazi Jews soon exported their Yiddish tangos to cities like New York City and Buenos Aires, where they became staples of Yiddish theater and musical productions. During World War II and after, the tango became an especially symbolic and even painful genre for Jews, as Nazis sometimes forced prisoners in concentration camps to play tangos when other prisoners were killed. Despite this, the tango genre also offered Jewish prisoners a medium for expression and a tie to their heritage, and the familiar melodies allowed the prisoners to easily remember their new lyrics. For instance, songs like Kinder yorn and Makh tsu di eygelekh include musical gestures that allude to the tango, while the contrafact camp song Yiddish Tango was adapted and reworked from Shpil zhe mir a lidele in yidish as a song of resistance.

Works: Anonymous: Death Tango (116); Anonymous: Der Todesfuge (116); Dovid Beigelman: Kinder yorn (117), Makh tsu di eygelekh (117); Ruven Tsarfat: Yiddish Tango (118); Rikle Glezer: Es iz geven a zumertog (118); Anonymous: Niewolnicze tango (118); Mary Sorianu: Tango fun libe (118).

Sources: Eduardo Bianco: Plegaria (116); Julio César Sanders: Adios Muchachos (111); Ángel Villoldo: El Choclo (111); Dovid Beigelman: Ikh ganve in der nakht (114); Henech Kon: Shpil zhe mir a lidele in yidish (118); Herman Yablokoff: Papirosn (118); Gerardo Matos Rodríguez: La Cumparsita (118).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Patti Smith's version of Van Morrison's Gloria transforms the meaning of the original through the use of textual tropes and altered vocal performance that ultimately decenters the "dominant male rock singer" to clear out creative space for herself. In her version, Gloria in excelsis deo, Smith adds a great deal of text to the original lyrics but retains some of Morrison's text without changing the male perspective, deliberately playing up the male sexual undertones. Smith also utilizes a number of subtle vocal inflections to emphasize specific words and phrases and bring out meaning in the text. These vocal performance techniques include qualities such as "raspy," "hard/nasal," "breathy," or "creaky," as well as exaggerated or closed vowel sounds and pitch inflections. An appendix contains the text to Morrison's Gloria and a transcription of Smith's version featuring both traditional staff notation and the author's notation for indicating vocal performance techniques.

Works: Van Morrison and Patti Smith: Gloria in excelsis deo.

Sources: Van Morrison: Gloria.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The commercially available samplers invented in the 1980s have a long history that can be seen to include the early digital (but not binary) technology of the telegraph up until the invention of modern digital technology. After World War I inventors constructed and patented musical instruments based on available sound recording technologies as well as early versions of magnetic tape recorder dictating machines. This is generally considered the first "sampler." By 1948, Pierre Schaeffer initiated musique concrète and developed a technique similar to the later tape loop, the sillon fermé. Influenced by the invention of magnetic tape, Schaeffer transferred all of his disc recording techniques to the medium of magnetic tape and patented his Phonogène in the 1950s. In 1964, the first successful instrument based on magnetic tape technology, the Mellotron, was marketed. The first digital sampling instruments appeared in the early 1970s, and by the second half of the 1980s digital sampling technology had become a standard part of every electronic piano, organ, or synthesizer. Musicians have explored extensively the possibilities of the manipulation of recorded sound. The phonograph has been used for works like John Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 5 as well as "scratching" by DJs in the popular music tradition. Other works have used this technology to manipulate pre-existing recorded works by other artists, generating conflict with copyright law. Among these works are James Tenney's Collage No. 1 ('Blue Suede') and John Oswald's Plunderphonics. Live manipulations of prerecorded magnetic tape material, such as Laurie Anderson's Tape Bow Violin, have also been explored. Commercial digital samplers are now used in a variety of contemporary composers' works, such as Michel Waisvisz 's The Archaic Symphony or Nicolas Collins's Devil's Music.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Rumel Fuentes’s cover of Doug Sahm’s song Chicano authenticates the original through Allan Moore’s typology of authenticity. Moore proposes a three-part typology of authenticity in popular music, consisting of first-, second-, and third-person authenticity that is constructed by the act of listening. Sahm, born in San Antonio of German descent, speaks in the first person in Chicano, which raises concerns about his capacity to speak for the Chicano community. In Moore’s typology, Sahm’s performance of Chicano is inauthentic in the first-person (authenticity of expression) and third-person (authenticity of execution) senses. The history of American popular music is full of racial crossing, so Sahm’s adoption of a Chicano persona is not unprecedented. Fuentes, also a Texas native and heavily involved in the Chicano movement of the 1970s, recorded a cover of Chicano in 1972 (although it was not released until 2009). Fuentes modifies some of the original lyrics to declare his Chicano identity more assertively, including adding an additional verse. He also alters the rhythm section to use a traditional conjunto line-up rather than the hybrid instrumentation of Sahm’s band. The gritos (screams) in Fuentes’s vocal delivery further add to his cover’s working-class aesthetic. Fuentes’s cover lends Sahm’s Chicano a greater sense of second-person authenticity (authenticity of experience) by validating that Chicano resonates with the experiences of Mexican-American audiences.

Works: Rumel Fuentes (performer), Doug Sahm (songwriter): Chicano (87-91).

Sources: Doug Sahm: Chicano (87-91).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the United Kingdom, the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 does not except parody from copyright violation. Since then, both the Gowers Review of Intellectual Property in 2006 and the Intellectual Property Office in 2008 stated that including an exception for parody would be in the best interests of producers and consumers. In 2009 the Intellectual Property Office reversed their position, rejecting an exception for parody. Yet such an exception should be made, as demonstrated by considering the conditions for parodic use under the current laws and the arguments for and against the exception of parody. In certain situations, direct borrowing of significant portions of music is necessary for the success of the parody, and often the necessity directly depends on various factors surrounding each individual case; this is where copyright fails to protect the parodist.

Works: Rick Dees: When Sonny Sniffs Glue (792); 2 Live Crew: Pretty Woman (792); Saturday Night Live: I Love Sodom (794).

Sources: Jack Segal and Marvin Fisher: When Sunny Gets Blue (792); Roy Orbison: Oh, Pretty Woman (792); Steve Karmen: I Love New York (794).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Hip-hop draws influence directly from 1970s African American culture. Many prominent hip-hop artists, including Public Enemy, Ice Cube, and the Fugees, mention this decade in their music as one in which blacks began to assert themselves politically and culturally. This is demonstrated primarily by hip-hop musicians and producers borrowing the music of Blaxploitation films, which often portrayed African American pimps and drug dealers fighting against white authority. Hip-hop borrows musically and culturally from these Blaxploitation films’ introductory theme music for the main characters, politically charged content, and focus on the ghetto. While these films and their music do not uniformly glorify or demonize black poverty, drug abuse, and violence, the hip-hop community has borrowed their material almost exclusively to show street credibility.

Works: Jay-Z: Reservoir Dogs (49); Smoothe Da Hustler: Hustler’s Theme (49); Snoop Doggy Dogg: Doggystyle (52); Dr. Dre: Rat Tat Tat Tat (53); Ol’ Dirty Bastard: Got Your Money (54).

Sources: Isaac Hayes: Theme to Shaft from Shaft (49); Curtis Mayfield: Freddie’s Dead from Super Fly (49); Willie Hutch: Brother’s Gonna Work It Out from The Mack (53); Rudy Ray Moore: The Signifying Monkey from Dolemite (54).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, 2000s, Jazz, Popular

Many different kinds of popular music can create dramatic moments in film, both diegetically and non-diegetically. The temporal aspects of most popular music, its steady beat and generally common time meter, affect the resulting film differently than classical film scoring does. Through creating new popular-style music for films (scoring), editing exiting popular music to fit a film, or editing filmic images to fit existing popular music (tracking), many different techniques and styles are possible. The Beatles, with their pop music films in the 1960s, changed how popular music worked in movies, as well as inherently changing the way film musicals functioned. Although there were earlier films that used popular music, such as King Creole (1958) and Rock Around the Clock (1956), the Beatles’ films were the first where pop music was not mixed with traditional film music techniques; the resulting films were a hybrid of documentary style with the drama of feature films. Different styles of music can accomplish different things; for example, psychedelic music is often used to signify surrealism or drug use, while rap music is used as a dramatic shock tactic and older popular music signifies an earlier time period. Regardless of the type of music or approach, pop music also invites a tension between creativity and commerce that did not previously exist with classical film music techniques.

Works: Joe Massot (director): Wonderwall (5, 19, 39-42, 53, 124); Roger Corman (director): The Trip (5, 34-36, 38, 42-43); Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg (directors): Performance (5, 41-42, 53, 93, 122); Albert and David Maysles (directors): Gimme Shelter (5, 63-64, 66-67, 72); Michael Wadleigh (director): Woodstock (5, 64, 66, 72); George Lucas (director): American Graffiti (5, 106, 138-41); Barry Shear (director): Across 110th Street (16, 79, 83, 86); Richard Lester (director): A Hard Day’s Night (19-25), Help! (19, 25-29); George Dunning (director): Yellow Submarine (19, 38-39); John Boorman (director): Catch Us If You Can (22); Mike Nichols (director): The Graduate (33); Woody Allen (director): What’s Up Tiger Lily (33); Richard Rush (director): Psych Out (35, 43); Dennis Hopper (director): Easy Rider (36-37, 53); Bob Rafelson (director): Head (37); Barbet Schroeder (director): More (45, 49-50, 52-56), La Vallée (45, 53, 56); Michelangelo Antonioni (director): Zabriskie Point (45, 52-53, 55, 58); Alan Parker (director): Pink Floyd - The Wall (45, 57); Peter Sykes (director): The Committee (45, 53-54, 58); Peter Whitehead (director): Tonite Let’s All Make Love in London (53); Roy Battersby (director): The Body (55); David Elfick (director): Crystal Voyager (56); Martin Scorsese (director): The Last Waltz (63, 73, 76); D. A. Pennebaker (director): Don’t Look Back (63-66, 72); Gordon Parks (director): Shaft (79, 81, 84, 86-88, 91); Melvin Van Peebles (director): Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song (79, 81, 84, 86-87); Gordon Parks Jr. (director): Super Fly (79, 81, 84, 86, 88-92); Ossie Davis (director): Cotton Comes to Harlem (81-82); Larry Cohen (director): Black Caesar (81, 90-91); Leslie H. Martinson (director): Batman (105, 107-111); Tim Burton (director): Batman Returns (105, 112-14); Joel Schumacher (director): Batman Forever (105, 114-17), Batman and Robin (105, 115, 117-18); Richard Loncraine (director): Brimstone and Treacle (140); Lawrence Kasdan (director): The Big Chill (141); Bruce Robinson (director): Withnail and I (141); David Green (director): Buster (141-42); Tony Scott (director): Top Gun (143); Michael Mann (director): Manhunter (143); Howard Deutch (director): Pretty In Pink (145); Quentin Tarantino (director): Pulp Fiction (146); Oliver Stone (director): Natural Born Killers (146); Robert Zemeckis (director): Forrest Gump (146); Danny Boyle (director): Trainspotting (148); Nicolas Winding Refn (director): Bronson (150); Wes Anderson (director): The Royal Tenenbaums (150); Abel Ferrara (director): Bad Lieutenant (154-61).

Sources: The Beatles: I Should Have Known Better (21, 24), Tell Me Why (24), If I Fell (24), She Loves You (24), She’s A Woman (26-28), Ticket to Ride (26-27), Help! (27), I Need You (27), The Night Before (27); The Seeds: Two Fingers Pointing at You (35); Strawberry Alarm Clock: Rainy Day Mushroom Pillow (35), Pretty Song from Psych-Out (35); Electric Flag: Flash, Bang, Pow (36); The Monkees: The Porpoise Song (37); The Beatles: It’s All Too Much (39); Pink Floyd: Interstellar Overdrive (53), Careful with that Axe, Eugene (54, 58); Curtis Mayfield: Pusherman (88-89), Freddie’s Dead (88-89); James Brown: Big Daddy (90-91), Down and Out In New York City (90-91), Mama’s Dead (91); Prince: Batman (108-11); Siouxsie and the Banshees: Face to Face (112); The Flaming Lips: Bad Days (115-16); The Offspring: Smash It Up (116); The Coasters: Poison Ivy (118); Goo Goo Dolls: Lazy Eye (118); Moloko: Fun for Me (118); Sting: Spread a Little Happiness (140-41); Marvin Gaye: I Heard it Through the Grapevine (141); Rolling Stones: You Can’t Always Get What You Want (141); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (141); Phil Collins: Groovy Kind of Love (142); Phil Collins and Lamont Dozier: Two Hearts (142); Berlin: Take My Breath Away (143); Kenny Loggins: Danger Zone (143); Shriekback: The Big Hush (143); Iron Butterfly: In-a-Gadda-Da-Vida (144); Robert Gordon: The Way I Walk (147); L7: Shitlist (147); Creedence Clearwater Revival: Fortunate Son (147); Beatles: A Hard Day’s Night (148); Iggy Pop: Lust for Life (148); Schoolly D: Signifyin’ Rapper (154-61); Led Zeppelin: Kashmir (156-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

The largely forgotten history of the folk song M.T.A. (most famously recorded by the Kingston Trio in 1959) reveals how music can be used as a political tool to popularize radical ideas and how popular culture can purge these radical ideas of their intended meaning. M.T.A. was written in 1949 by the Boston People’s Artists (Sam and Arnold Berman, Al Katz, Jackie Steiner, and Bess Hawes, née Lomax) in support of Massachusetts Progressive Party leader Walter O’Brien Jr. in his campaign for Boston mayor. One of O’Brien’s major positions was a rollback of the fare increase that funded creation of the Metropolitan Transit Authority (M.T.A.) in 1947. While Steiner wrote most of the lyrics, M.T.A. borrowed its tune from The Train That Never Returned by Hawes’s earlier group, The Almanacs, which itself was based on Henry Clay Work’s 1865 song The Ship That Never Returned and Vernon Dalhart’s 1924 song The Wreck of the Old 97. Although O’Brien’s campaign was ultimately unsuccessful (he received just 1% of votes cast in the election), M.T.A. outlived its origins as a campaign song to become a folk standard. The first of a new generation of folk singers to revive M.T.A. was Will Holt, who recorded the song in 1957 and soon after saw it dropped from radio rotation for glorifying the “communist” O’Brien. The Kingston Trio recorded M.T.A. in 1959, adding a spoken introduction, making minor lyric changes, and replacing the reference to the real-life Walter O’Brien with fictional George O’Brien. This new version saw significant commercial success and positive press attention for the Kingston Trio, and it cemented M.T.A. as a folksong classic, especially in Massachusetts. It has since been used by such disparate performers as Celtic punk band the Dropkick Murphys and Republican governor Mitt Romney.

Works: Dropkick Murphys: Skinhead on the M.T.A. (4); Boston People’s Artists, Jackie Steiner (lyricist): M.T.A. (12-16); Almanac Singers: The Train That Never Returned (13-14); Will Holt (performer): M.T.A. (24-26); The Kingston Trio (performers): M.T.A. (26-27)

Sources: Boston People’s Artists, Jackie Steiner (lyricist): M.T.A. (4, 24-27); Almanac Singers: The Train That Never Returned (12-16); Henry Clay Work: The Ship That Never Returned (13); G. B. Grayson and Henry Whitter (songwriters), Vernon Dalhart (performer): The Wreck of the Old 97 (13)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In composing Canada’s national anthem, O Canada, Calixa Lavallée used multiple musical models including the March of the Priests from Mozart’s Magic Flute, crafting a patchwork of paraphrased segments to convey the national spirit. Lavallée, who was born near Montreal but spent much of his musical career performing in the United States, composed O Canada in 1880 on a commission from the Congrès Catholique Canadiens Français. Around 1936 it began to be used as Canada’s semi-official national anthem, and it was officially recognized as such in 1980. Critics have long noted the similarities between the opening eight measures of O Canada and March of the Priests, with the two prevailing positions being that this is a case of unintentional borrowing or a coincidental use of a common musical figure. The identical first three notes, the strikingly similar harmony and contour, and the thematic relevance of Mozart’s tune to a national anthem together make a strong case that Lavallée deliberately chose to use Mozart as a model. Liszt’s Festklänge (1853) also appears to be a source for Lavallée as it too uses the same triadic opening as well as a distinctive transition phrase sharing both contour and function. A model for the second eight bars of O Canada can be identified as well. This passage closely resembles Wach auf from Wagner’s Die Meistersinger (1868) in melody and pedal point. While it is difficult to know for sure that Lavallée was familiar with Festklänge and Wach auf, both pieces were readily available and popular in their own right, and Lavallée was a well-traveled musician with contemporary taste. The final section of O Canada also closely resembles another popular tune: Matthias Keller’s Speed Our Republic (or The American Hymn). In constructing a new composition out of paraphrases of several sources, Lavallée created a patchwork, a fact that should not diminish his anthem’s importance as a musical symbol of Canada.

Works: Calixa Lavallée: O Canada (12-22)

Sources: Mozart: The Magic Flute (12-16); Liszt: Festklänge (16-18); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (18-20); Matthias Keller: Speed Our Republic (20-22)

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Due to his formal musical training and informal musical upbringing, Billy Joel was equally adept at incorporating both classical and popular styles in his songs depending on the expressive context of the lyrics. Many of his songs deliberately quote popular tunes, while others are either modeled after specific songs, especially by the Beatles, or are modeled after the general style of different popular artists (as shown in the appendix). Likewise, Joel was known to quote classical works in some of his songs, and many other songs exhibit a harmonic or contrapuntal language reminiscent either of classical style in general or of specific classical composers, especially Chopin. These learned and vernacular styles are exemplified particularly in two songs, James (1976) for the learned style and Laura (1983) for the vernacular style, and the personae of these two titular characters reflect the expressive correlations of their particular musical styles.

Works: Billy Joel: Storm Front (106), Lullabye (Goodnight, My Angel) (106), Modern Woman (106), All You Wanna Do Is Dance (106), C'etait toi (You Were the One) (106), Laura (106, 122-24), The Great Suburban Showdown (106), Uptown Girl (106), Captain Jack (107), Scandinavian Skies (107), A Room of Our Own (107), Just the Way You Are (107), Attila (album) (107), Why Judy Why (107), If I Only Had the Words (To Tell You) (107), 52nd Street (album) (107), This Night (110), Leningrad (110), Souvenir (110), The Ballad of Billy the Kid (111), She's Got a Way (111), James (119-22).

Sources: Harold Arlen: Stormy Weather (106); Duke Ellington: Mood Indigo (106); Ethelbert Nevin: Mighty Lak' a Rose (106); John Lennon and Paul McCartney (songwriters), The Beatles (performers): Rubber Soul (album) (106), Here, There, and Everywhere (106), Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds (107), I Am the Walrus (107), Glass Onion (107), I Will (107), Birthday (107), Her Majesty (107); George Harrison (songwriter), The Beatles (performers): Something (107); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (110); Robert Schumann: Piano Concerto in A Minor, Op. 54 (110); Chopin: Prelude in D-flat Major, Op. 28, No. 15 (110), Prelude in E Minor, Op. 28, No. 4 (111-12); Copland: Appalachian Spring (111).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Supernatural metaphors are often used to describe the practice of phonographic sampling in hip-hop music in both complimentary and critical ways. By studying magic as performance by stage magicians (such as Penn and Teller) rather than as supernatural phenomena, new parallels emerge between how the two practices create their effect. Both hip-hop musicians and stage magicians rely heavily on the manipulation of time to command the attention of their audiences. The structure of an effective magic trick and hip-hop sampling are also similar in how they turn ordinary materials into something extraordinary. For example, several tracks by acclaimed producers J Dilla and Madlib introduce a relatively unmodified sample before demonstrating their skill in manipulating the sample. Exerting control over music recordings (which in turn exert a kind of magical control over sound) is recognized by hip-hop producers and audiences alike as a kind of “magical” effect. Stage magic scholars categorize subgenres based on the relationship between methods (materials), effects, frames, and the contract with the audience. Hip-hip sampling can be similarly categorized, particularly when considering the affordances of different sampling technologies. Phonographs allow for “real” documentary capture of sounds, multitrack recordings allow for “hyper-real” sonic illusions, and sampling technologies allow for “meta-real” juxtapositions of illusions. Examples of “meta-real” practice include tracks that create the illusion of live turntablism, which in turn creates illusions by juxtaposing “hyper-real” music recordings. It is perhaps the creation of impossible soundscapes through sampling that makes hip-hop so moving. The experience of conflict between rational belief and experiential “alief” (to use Szabo Gendler’s term) is crucial to the magical quality of hip-hop music.

Works: Gang Starr (producer DJ Premier): Code of the Streets (36), Deadly Habitz (36); J Dilla: Lightworks (37); Madlib (as The Beat Konductah): Filthy (Untouched) (37); KRS-One and Marley Marl: Musika (43-44)

Sources: Melvin Bliss: Synthetic Substitution (36); Monk Higgins: Little Green Apples (36); Beside: Change the Beat (36); Steve Gray: Beverly Hills (36); Raymond Scott: Lightworks (37); Vivien Goldman: Launderette (37); Thom Bell: A Theme for L.A.’s Team (43-44)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

ORCH5, a digital sample of a single chord from Igor Stravinksy's Firebird created on the Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument, became one of the first recognized samples used in popular music. It was used as a sample in some eclectic electronic music in the early 1980s, but gained fame as the orchestral sound that began Afrika Bambaataa's seminal 1982 song Planet Rock. This song also prominently samples music from the German electronic group Kraftwerk, including a chromatic Weltschmerz theme from their song Trans Europe Express. Taken together, these two samples--a digital orchestral sound and a melody with intentional commentary on the decay of German music--create some unintended resonances of the decline of classical music in the Western world. While the use of ORCH5 in Planet Rock signals the decay of classical music in popular culture, the sample is also given new life by being appropriated into both the Afro-futurist movement and especially the early stages of hip-hop sampling, where it is used in the same capacity as a DJ's vinyl scratch.

Works: Kate Bush: The Dreaming (343); The Art of Noise: Close (to the Edit) (343); Afrika Bambaataa &the Soulsonic Force with Arthur Baker and John Robie: Planet Rock (343-54).

Sources: Stravinsky: The Firebird (341-54); Kraftwerk: Trans Europe Express (344-54), Numbers (344-54).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

African-American music has continually used the troping of texts in blues, jazz, and other popular traditions. Two examples of troping occur in the use of the spiritual "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" and the riding train. Troping of the spiritual has occurred on the textual and musical level. Furry Lewis tropes the idea of a motherless child in his piece "Big Chief Blues." Washington "Bukka" White also creates his trope relating to the motherless child in "Panama Limited" while singing about being far from home. Musical troping can be found in George Gershwin's repetition of the tune of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" in the piece "Summertime" from the opera Porgy and Bess. Gershwin tropes the spiritual's intervallic structure, rhythm, melodic structures, and beat structure throughout "Summertime." David Baker and Olly Wilson also trope the music and text of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child." The train trope deals in the sounds created by a passenger train throughout the United States. Duke Ellington's composition "Happy-Go-Lucky-Local" tropes the passenger train through its use of chugging rhythms, whistles, and sounds of steam locomotives through orchestration. These tropes display an evolution in African-American music through repetition and revision of texts and music.

Works: Traditional: Big Chief Blues as performed by Furry Lewis (36-37); White: Panama Limited (37); Gershwin: "Summertime" from Porgy and Bess (37-43); Baker: Through This Vale of Tears (43-44); Wilson: Sometimes (44-45); Ellington: Happy-Go-Lucky-Local (46-47); Logan: Runagate Runagate (47-50).

Sources: Traditional: Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child (35-45).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Isadora Duncan’s dances set to the music of Beethoven and other German composers greatly dismayed the German musical press, who saw her appropriation of classical music as threatening the barriers between high musical art and common vaudeville entertainment. When Duncan performed in Germany from 1902 to 1904, she achieved great public success and enthusiasm for her barefoot dancing style. Duncan’s aim of elevating the art of dance was often met with derision in certain press circles who framed her work as pretentious. Theater composer Oscar Straus’s contribution to the vaudeville dance-satire Die Tugendglocke lampoons Duncan’s intrusion into classical music spheres. His parody became so popular that he created a piano arrangement of the scene, titled Isadora Duncan: Musikalische Parodie. Several famous themes from great (mostly German) composers are deformed and combined with a simplistic “eins, zwei, drei” dance theme. The understanding of this parody necessitates the audience knowing of Duncan’s dances as well as the backlash she received in critical circles. Duncan was particularly vilified in the German classical music press—among her harshest critics was composer Max Reger—for her use of Beethoven’s music, often described in the sexist terms of “corrupting” the masculine ideal of German high art. This reaction underscores the transgressive nature of Duncan’s dance.

Works: Edmond Diet, Julius Einödshofer, Curt Goldmann, Max Schmidt, O. Translateur, and Oscar Straus: Die Tugendglocke (90); Oscar Straus: Isadora Duncan: Musikalische Parodie, Op. 135 (90-99)

Sources: Edmond Diet, Julius Einödshofer, Curt Goldmann, Max Schmidt, O. Translateur, and Oscar Straus: Die Tugendglocke (90); Wagner: Tannhäuser (93-99); Gluck: Orfeo (93-99); Chopin: Polonaise in A-flat Major, Op. 53 (93-99); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (“Moonlight”) (93-99); Johann Strauss: On the Beautiful Blue Danube (93-99)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The legality of sampling in hip-hop and other musical genres has been understood through two models of copyright law: the “pure market substitute” model and the “market enhancement” model, which better serves the goal of copyright law. Sampling case law in US federal courts hinges on the applicability of fair use, the right to use copyrighted material without permission, which in turn is decided primarily by looking at market harm and transformative use. In hip-hop, the cultural importance of sampling as signifying is at odds with copyright law and the system of licensing, both of which favor copyright holders. Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music (1994) applied a transformative use test to rap group 2 Live Crew’s parody of Roy Orbison’s Oh, Pretty Woman and found it to be fair use. Since then, some courts have used the pure market substitute model, ruling that fragments of sound recordings are protectable derivative elements. Other cases have taken a broader view on fair use, ruling that audiences for different musical genres (hip-hop and jazz in the case of Abilene Music v. Sony Music Entertainment, 2003) are distinct enough that market harm is mitigated. The market enhancement model shifts away from this framework. Some courts have ruled that sampling can enhance the marketability of the original work by exposing it to a new audience. A broader adoption of the market enhancement model would relax strict copyright laws for musicians and other media producers who frequently borrow material. Potential drawbacks of expanded fair use include misuse by large corporations at the expense of artists and minimizing an artist’s ability to claim moral harm. Despite these imperfections, the market enhancement model would help achieve a legal balance between expressive freedom and commercial incentives.

Works: 2 Live Crew: Pretty Woman (600-601); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (602); LMFAO: Party Rock Anthem (609, 612); Ghostface Killah, Raekwon the Chef, and the Alchemist: The Forest (610).

Sources: Roy Orbison: Oh, Pretty Woman (600-601); Rick Ross: Hustlin’ (609, 612); Bob Thiele (as George Douglas) and George David Weiss (songwriters), Louis Armstrong (performer): What a Wonderful World (610).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Despite the prevalence of nonsense syllable singing in a broad range of genres in music traditions around the globe, there is little in terms of aesthetic theory on the phenomenon. The eeph trope and eephing as a practice, found in several genres of American music in the early twentieth century, is one phenomenon that can help contextualize the larger practice of nonsense syllable singing. Unlike other nonsense syllables (such as fa-la-la), the phrase eepha-soffa-dill has a reported, albeit murky, origin with the blackface vaudeville duo Williamson and Stone in the 1890s. The phrase (in several spelling variations) first appeared in a 1902 recording by the Kilties’ Band of Canada, listed without a composer. It first appeared in sheet music in 1903, attributed to Harry Von Tilzer, Andrew Sterling, and Bartley Costello and dedicated to “the original Epha-A-Sof-A-Dill,” Frank Williamson. Five Tin-Pan-Alley songs published between 1903 and 1922 employ the eeph trope, demonstrating a fairly consistent lyrical and melodic convention. The phrase’s later appearance in Broadway tunes still suggests its origins with blackface vaudeville acts through its connotations of stuttering and baby-talk associated with offensive stereotypes of African Americans. Gene Greene’s recorded versions of King of the Bungaloos connect the eeph trope to a budding eephing practice, associating the eeph phrase with mouth percussion sounds. Imitations of Greene’s eephing style appear in several disparate recordings through the 1930s as the eephing practice diffuses into other musical genres. Jimmy Riddle’s 1963 country hit Little Eefin Annie demonstrates how Greene’s eephing practice is absorbed by country music’s nonsense syllable tradition. Riddle’s version of eephing drops the eeph phrase and attaches Greene’s eephing mouth percussion to similar syllables. Although the eephing tradition is similar to the scatting tradition in that they are both nonsense syllable practices, conflating the two practices diminishes the significance of both. The development of the eeph trope into an eephing tradition from the 1890s onwards provides the context for the broader development of scat singing as an approach to vocal jazz.

Works: George M. Cohan: Cohan’s Rag Babe (347-348, 350, 353, 355), The American Ragtime (349, 353); Maurice Abrahams (music), Grant Clarke and Edgar Leslie (lyrics): When the Grown Up Ladies Act Like Babies (347-349, 357-58); Cliff Friend (music) and Billy Rose (lyrics): You Tell Her, I Stutter (349, 357-58, 362); Irving Berlin (as performed by Gene Greene): From Here to Shanghai (361); Jimmy Riddle: Little Eefin Annie (360-64)

Sources: Kilties’ Band of Canada (no listed composer): Ephasafa Dill (Iffa Saffa Dill) (1901-1902) (346); Nick Brown: Iffa-Saffa-Dill (A Negro Oddity) (346); Harry Von Tilzer (music), Andrew Sterling and Bartley Costello (lyrics): Ephasafa Dill (346-47); Charles Straight (music) and Gene Greene (lyrics) (as performed by Gene Greene): King of the Bungaloos (354-357); Butter Boy (performer): Old Aunt Dinah (363); Harmonica Frank Floyd: Swamp Rock (363)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The field of modern competitive barbershop singing is in a state of crisis over falling membership and popularity, and repertoire is one variable being considered as a means of increasing the appeal of barbershop music. This particular genre tends to blur the distinctions between composer, arranger, and performer. As a result, the product of that network, the musical work, acquires an equally fluid identity. A question of ownership arises: what is "the work" and to whom does it belong? Arrangements vary in their fidelity to an original published tune, and a certain amount of improvisation or rearranging is expected in barbershop, at the very least in the form of tags or codas at the end of a chart.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Hip-hop’s joining together of samples to create a sonic whole is not done to express a “postmodern” stance mocking the linearity and rationality of modernism, but is done to honor black funk musicians of the past, especially James Brown and George Clinton. “Live” in black culture can mean “excellence,” and in recordings connotes a live-performance aesthetic which is contrary to the polished sound of the recording industry. Brown and Clinton sought to create this live aesthetic in their recordings through crowd noise and other signifiers of live performance. Comparing James Brown’s Make It Funky to Public Enemy and producer Hank Shocklee’s Fight the Power (which samples the Brown track) shows that the funk ideals of the 1970s are utilized in hip-hop. Thus, “live” in hip-hop is not in a binary with recorded sound, but is an act of “re-memory,” or a piecing together of a history by “remembering” critical pieces of the past.

Works: Eric B &Rakim: I Know You Got Soul (117); Janet Jackson: That’s the Way Love Goes (118); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (119-20).

Sources: James Brown: Papa Don’t Take No Mess (118), Make It Funky (119).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Vaporwave, a genre of surreal music built on collages of background music and highly processed vocals that is popular in online forums, produces an audio-visual aesthetic of remembering for the sake of remembering that can be understood through theories of nostalgia and catharsis. The music of vaporwave artist 18 Carat Affair and discussions of vaporwave music on Reddit forums provide a case study. Vaporwave music is characterized by repetitive structure, slow speed (70-90 beats per minute), self-conscious sampling, and heavy reverb effects. It emerged in the early 2010s as one of many genres of heavily intertextual electronic music circulating exclusively in online networks. The main aesthetic of vaporwave music is memory play through compensatory nostalgia, or nostalgia dealing with fuzzy memory in a landscape of media saturation. The music of 18 Carat Affair exemplifies the vaporwave aesthetic, sampling music from late 1980s and early 1990s consumer entertainment (such as the 1992 Sega Mega Drive videogame Streets of Rage II) and using digital processing to add a veil of lo-fi reverb. There is a deliberately liminal quality to vaporwave’s presentation with artists obfuscating the origins of sampled material and confabulating the sonic past. Vaporwave also often deals with memory play and nostalgia associated with cultural trauma. By digging up the waste products of consumerism—old VHS tapes, advertisements, corporate training videos, and similarly disposable media—vaporwave processes the chronic obsolescence and emptiness of consumer culture. At the heart of vaporwave is the extensive repurposing of Muzak to evoke the lingering unease of the artistically “dead” consumerism often associated with the brand. Vaporwave extends the modernist modes of fractured memory and collage present in the Dada and Surrealist movements of the early twentieth century. The visual style of vaporwave art mimics the collage techniques of Dada, Surrealism, and subversive Video Art from the 1950s-1970s. The visual and musical collage aesthetics of vaporwave constitute a process of remembering deformed by the collective trauma of the collapse of memory in corporate capitalist society.

Works: 18 Carat Affair: Home Box Office (105), New Jack City II (105)

Sources: Bill Conti: Theme from Dynasty (105); Yuzo Koshiro: Soundtrack for Streets of Rage II (105)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Sampling techniques in popular music give credence to Walter Benjamin's theory of the "age of reproduction." Recent trends in popular music have seen the resurrection of older popular music through two means: new digital reproductions of otherwise unavailable records; and the integration of samples from older music into new music. There are so many references in today's pop music that we now have references to references of original sources. Authorship and authenticity are problematized in the process. Some popular artists claim that samples and references preserve a popular music archive, but by reproducing these sounds digitally, the human element of original production is lost.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Spain’s rap music scene was influenced by the dramatic increase of immigrants who settled in the country at the beginning of the twenty-first century, particularly immigrants from Africa. Because music is widely considered the most important medium for articulating black identities, the music of Spanish MCs Frank T and El Chojín are effective case studies for us to examine how rap artists carve out identities for themselves and others. Paul Gilroy explores such diasporic trends from Africa across the Atlantic, but his model is not broad enough to include other routes of cultural exchange or non-Anglo-Saxon experiences. Therefore, a more nuanced reading of Gilroy’s idea of a Black Atlantic as the Spanish Black Atlantic makes room for nationality beyond race. The hip-hop performed within this Spanish-black conceptual space is less about creating new texts than about creating new meanings and interpretations of existing texts.

Works: Frank T: An Optimist and a Dreamer (516), To Timeless Music (516), Humor Negro (516), Better Than You, Worse Than You (516), Afrika (517); El Chojín: Things That Happen, That Don’t Happen and That Should Happen (516), He’s Crazy (516), N.E.G.R.O. (516), Sólo para adultos (517), No More (Málaga version) (518); Violadores del Verso: Only Solace Remains (517).

Sources: Louis Armstrong: We Have All the Time in the World (515); Eddie Bo: On Work (516); Anonymous: Damn, Bro’/Bad Luck (516), Skills (516), Things that Happen (516); Jimi Hendrix: Voodoo Child (Slight Return) (516); The Spinners: It’s a Shame (516); David Axelrod: The Warning Talk (Pt. 4) (516); Galt MacDermot: Harlem by Day (516); Riz Ortolani: Teresa L’illusa (516); Bob Cranshaw and Donald Byrd: House of the Rising Sun (517); Baro´n Ya bu´ k-lu and Frank T: Mama Afreeka (517); Charlie Parker: Cosmic Rays (517); Raphael: No Matter What They Say (518).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Nepalese “mix music” utilizes the latest technologies to produce music which borrows sound bites and sonic styles from both foreign popular music and indigenous music. These “mixes” rapidly juxtapose musical styles without an organizing form, and seek to celebrate sonic multiplicity instead of idiomatic unity. Yet despite the sonic similarity or sameness of the new work and its source materials, the meaning of the new music becomes different from that of the sources’ cultural and contextual meanings. These differences in meaning are illuminated through ethnographic methods, as can be seen in Nepalese heavy metal and in Nepalese mixes.

Works: Mongolian Hearts: Unbho Unbho (178-79); Brazesh Khanal: Deusee rey extended mix (180-82).

Sources: Anonymous: Deusee rey (180).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

The importance of drums in hip-hop is often overlooked, but the drums establish the groove, emphasize the vocal style, and enhance the music beyond its vocal content. Ingrid Monson's discussion of repetition in African diasporic musics and Olly Wilson's concept of the heterogeneous sound ideal in African and African American musics can both be applied to the sonic role of drumming. Both sampling and drum machines play integral roles in hip-hop drumming, but the drum machine is more flexible than a sample because drum machines allow subtle changes to the beat without the necessity of a live performer. A Tribe Called Quest's Everything Is Fair, for example, mimics the delivery of Clyde Stubblefield's drum break in James Brown's Funky Drummer, but incorporates further syncopation and a pause before the downbeat emphasis.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Everything Is Fair (268-70).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (261-63, 268-70).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Cover versions of songs invite analysis of the effects of musical change, particularly when cover versions cross lines of gender, sexuality, race, place, class, and language. For example, Judy Collins's cover of Bob Dylan's Just Like a Woman can be read as a monologue, a lesbian version, an address to another woman, or a strict rendition of the original because Collins does not change any of the gendered pronouns from Dylan's original lyrics. Additionally, covers across race lines may either appropriate stylistic elements from the original or rewrite the cover version in a different style. International or cross-language covers often designate English as the hegemonic norm and raise questions about the use of another language as merely an exotic type of instrument. A discography of all music discussed is included.

Works: Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Thelma Houston (performer): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Communards (performers): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Roberta Flack (performer): Just Like a Woman (52-53); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Judy Collins (performer): Just Like a Woman (53-54); John Gluck, Wally Gold, and Herb Weiner (songwriters), Bryan Ferry (performer): It's My Party (54); Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Elvis Presley (performer): Hound Dog (55-56); Little Richard (songwriter), Pat Boone (performer): Long Tall Sally (55-57); Hank Williams (songwriter), Ray Charles (performer): Your Cheatin' Heart (55, 57, 59-60); Paul Simon (songwriter), Simon and Garfunkel (performers): Bridge Over Troubled Water (58-59); Paul Simon (songwriter), Aretha Franklin (performer): Bridge Over Troubled Water (59).

Sources: Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Harold Melvin and the Bluenotes with Teddy Pendergrass (performers): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Bob Dylan: Just Like a Woman (52); John Gluck, Wally Gold, and Herb Weiner (songwriters), Lesley Gore (performer): It's My Party (54); Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Big Mama Thornton (performer): Hound Dog (55-56); Little Richard: Long Tall Sally (55-57); Hank Williams: Your Cheatin' Heart (55, 57, 59-60); Claude Jeter (songwriter), Swan Silvertones (performers): Mary Don't You Weep (58-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

The popularity of the mash-up, a product of what Wired magazine has termed "cut and paste culture," can be evaluated with regard to Plato's Phaedrus. The idea of writing as a method of fixing an original performance maps onto recording technology and its practice of fixing an aural event in a recording. The mash-up manipulates a recording, undermines its originality and authority, manufactures copies from copies, and combines seemingly incompatible components. For example, Danger Mouse's Grey Album mashes the vocal track of Jay-Z's Black Album with instrumental samples from the Beatles' White Album. The mash-up also appears consistent with Theodor Adorno's assertion that most popular music is easily replicated and substitutable. Mash-ups delight in all of the elements deemed negative by Plato, such as plagiarism, inauthenticity, and repetition.

Works: Danger Mouse (Brian Burton): The Grey Album (490, 498, 502); Mark Vidler: Ray of Gob (491, 497-99).

Sources: The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Ringo Starr): The White Album [The Beatles] (490, 498); Jay-Z: The Black Album (490, 498); Madonna: Ray of Light (497-99); Sex Pistols: Pretty Vacant (497-99), God Save the Queen (497-499).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Snyder and Berlin’s “coon song” That Opera Rag is a strong case study for examining the complex attitudes towards class, race, nationality, and gender in the early 1900s. That Opera Rag, despite its many conventional features, has three which defy expectations: a mediant relationship between the two tonal areas of A minor and F major, operatic (as well as popular) quotations, and irregular phrase lengths resulting from the opera quotations. This song perhaps began as an instrumental example of “ragging the classics” by combining highbrow operatic music with lowbrow ragtime conventions, and can be heard as a spoof of operatic grandeur. The lyrics, which utilize minstrelsy misspellings, “humorously” portray black housepainter Sam Johnson as an opera neophyte who misidentifies the quotations. Johnson’s recognition of operatic music represents a contemporary fear for white Americans that African Americans were asserting cultural aspirations through the appreciation of opera. Yet That Opera Rag was also used in the Broadway play Getting a Polish, in which a (white) Montana widow tries to transcend her “common” status by seeking refinement in Paris. May Irwin, the star of Getting a Polish, used That Opera Rag as an unconventional vehicle to stardom by performing these racist songs in a masculine fashion; she gained much renown and success despite being a woman and not being traditionally attractive. Thus, critical interpretation of the song renders multiple levels of commentary which represent the coexisting and contradictory cultural spaces that existed in America in the early twentieth century.

Works: Ted Snyder and Irving Berlin: That Opera Rag; Irving Berlin: When the Midnight Choo Choo Leaves for Alabam’ (389).

Sources: Verdi: Miserere from Il Trovatore (387-88); Bizet: Toreador Song from Carmen (389); Donizetti: Sextet from Lucia di Lammermoor (389); Henry Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! from Clari, or the Maid of Milan (389); Ted Snyder and Irving Berlin: That Opera Rag (389-90).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

After the Met’s infamous one-night-only premiere of Richard Strauss’s Salome in 1907, a fad for stage and song representations of Salome and her Dance of the Seven Veils (dubbed “Salomania” by the New York Times) hit America. The reception of Salome in America was contextualized by an earlier fascination with “exotic” Egyptian dancing on display at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair as well as a trend of Salome-themed vaudeville acts. Because of this earlier exposure, songwriters during the Salomania craze tended to be more aware of the inauthenticity of Orientalist dancing and poked fun at the scandalous opera and vaudeville interpreters alike. A popular theme was the artifice of Salome’s exotic seduction. Many Salome songs used the Salomy [sic] melody, a minor-key tune built from a 1–flat 7–5 core that came to be associated with pseudo-oriental dancing. The earliest known examples of the Salomy melody appear in Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (1907) and I’m Going to Get Myself a Black Salome (1908), although it is likely these songs quote an unknown earlier tune. Moreover, songs about a black Salome are likely referencing a real individual, vaudeville dancer Aida Overton Walker, who attempted to perform a restrained Salome as a springboard to artistic legitimacy but was rejected by audiences. After Strauss’s Salome returned to American opera houses in 1909, Salomania reached its peak and interest began to decline. Clarice Vance’s 1909 parody routine “Salome” and others like it lampooned the Salome craze itself. In the aftermath of Salomania, the Salomy melody receded into a general orientalist trope, used indiscriminately to evoke exoticism but not Salome herself.

Works: Harry Von Tilzer: Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (642, 647, 659-60); Stanley Murphy and Ed Wynn: I’m Going to Get Myself a Black Salome (658-64); Ben M. Jerome and Edward Madden: The Dusky Salome (660, 663-65); Archibald Joyce: Vision of Salome (660, 677-80); Jimmie V. Monaco and Joe McCarthy: Fatima Brown (661, 682-84); Abner Silver and Alex Gerber: Becky from Babylon (661, 683-85); Richard Howard: When They Play That Old ‘Salomy’ Melody (661, 686-88); Gus Kahn and Bud De Sylva: Moonlight on the Nile (661, 688-89); Ted Lewis and Frank Ross: Queen of Sheba (661, 688); Sigmund Romberg: Fat, Fat, Fatima (661, 688); Orlando Powell and John P. Harrington: Salome (671-74)

Sources: Unknown: Salomy melody (659-65, 677-88); Harry Von Tilzer: Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (659-60, 676); Felix Mendelssohn: Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 62, No. 6 (Spring Song) (673-74); Richard Strauss: Salome (677-81); Georges Bizet: Carmen (688); Edvard Grieg: In the Hall of the Mountain King from Peer Gynt (688)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The 2011 viral music video Rebecca Black—Friday, the widespread derision aimed at the video and Black herself, and the later success of “cover” videos that alter Black’s contribution to the song are part of a larger phenomenon in digital pop culture that sees “girlhood” as a problem. The music video, performed by thirteen-year-old Rebecca Black and produced by Ark Music Factory in 2010, first garnered widespread attention in March 2011 after it was posted to sites like the Daily What and Reddit and mocked by users. By the end of March, legacy media outlets were reporting on the trend and the original YouTube video received a record-breaking 1.192 million dislikes. The hyperbolic criticism the video attracted online—its designation as bad music—is due in part to a mismatch between the intent of the performer and the appraisal of the online audience resulting in an instance of what media theorists call context collapse. Much of the abuse was aimed directly or indirectly at Black’s feminine voice, which mirrored gendered critiques of contemporary popular music as vapid, inauthentic, and feminine. Fueled by YouTube’s “Recommended Videos” feature, a body of reaction and cover videos circulated alongside the original. The most successful covers of Friday are genre-reset covers, which effectively aim to solve the problem of the song’s girlishness by erasing or replacing Black’s voice. The reactions to these masculinized cover versions, even when engaging in ironic humor, overwhelmingly regard the song as improved or redeemed with the removal of Black’s vocals. In the aftermath of the song’s viral success, the initial scorn towards Friday has softened to ambivalence and even begrudging affection, and the process by which this happened reveals how girlhood and pop music fit within 2010s viral internet culture.

Works: @Toxin08 (YouTube channel): Rebecca Black—Friday [DUBSTEP Remix] (228-29); @dannydodgeofficial (YouTube channel): Death Metal Friday (229-30); @HeyMikeBauer (YouTube channel): Rebecca Black—Friday, as performed by Bob Dylan (230); Stephen Colbert, Jimmy Fallon, and The Roots, featuring Taylor Hicks: Friday (233); Adam Anders and Peer Astrom (arrangers), Glee (TV) cast: Friday (232-33)

Sources: Clarence Jey and Patrice Wilson (performed by Rebecca Black): Friday (227-33)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Jazz pianist Uri Caine quotes extensively from symphonic and vocal works by composers in the classical or art music tradition. On his albums Dark Flame (2003) and Urlicht/Primal Light (1997), Caine's borrowing from Mahler takes a variety of forms, ranging from quotation of a full piece to selective quotation of important and sequential melodic fragments in order to mimic the structure of Mahler's original in a more condensed form. Mahler is a particularly appropriate source for the jazz artist's borrowing, as the earlier composer's use of "folk" materials provides a model for Caine's own appropriation of musical material to explore Jewish identity. Caine's use of Mahler's music is not simply a matter of performance, or of arrangement for different voices; rather, Caine's borrowing is a reflection upon Mahler, history, and subjectivity. Even so, Caine's borrowing within a jazz context raises valuable questions about the validity of the frequently assumed dichotomy between composition and improvisation.

Works: Uri Caine: Dark Flame (230-31, 237-38, 241, 248, 250-52), Urlicht/Primal Light (230-31, 233, 237-39, 241-42, 248-52).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (237, 238), Symphony No. 1 (237, 242, 247), Symphony No. 2 (238, 250), Des Knaben Wunderhorn (238, 241), Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (238, 250), Das Lied von der Erde (239, 241, 248), Fünf Rückertlieder (241); Anonymous, Frère Jacques (237).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Reflexive parody is a genre of musical comedy that can, through the musical and comedic devices it employs, both honor and satirize an artist or genre of music. Comedy in music often employs musical borrowing, either in small-scale interjections or in large-scale musical structures like quodlibets, medleys, and parodies. Reflexive parodies are distinct in that they re-examine genre conventions by transposing song into a disconnected musical genre. Heavy metal and rat pack swing are two genres often paired together in reflexive parody, creating a vehicle for comedic points about virtue, vice, and masculinity. Richard Cheese (created by Mark Jonathan Davis) and Bud E. Luv (created by Robert Vickers) are two characters that perform “swankified” heavy metal music with an exaggerated rat pack lounge singer persona. In doing so, they strip away the imagery of hegemonic masculinity inherent to heavy metal and replace it with another form of exaggerated masculine imagery associate with 1950s swing. By poking holes in the self-seriousness of heavy metal, Davis and Vickers uncover the underlying musical quality of heavy metal. Humor is created in their acts in several ways. Recognition of the source material is treated as part of the joke, as are interjections of other familiar tunes. Lyrics are not usually altered, as the dissonance of a clean-cut lounge singer voicing brazen profanity is also comedic, but occasional in-character changes are made. Musical quotations from genres beyond heavy metal or swing can also heighten the comedic absurdity. For example, Richard Cheese’s version of Closer by Nine Inch Nails includes snippets of the theme to Sesame Street, Linus and Lucy, and Old MacDonald Had a Farm. Reflexive parody is different from genre reinterpretations in that it relies on the comedic mediator or buffer of the comedian’s persona. Self-reflexive humor, along with the interpretive space it opens up, emerges from the sum of its musical parts.

Works: Beatallica: Sandman (63); “Weird Al” Yankovic: Angry White Boy Polka (63); Tom Lehrer: The Elements (63); Tim Minchin: Beelz (64), Rock and Roll Nerd (64); Barenaked Ladies: Grade 9 (64); Robert Vickers (as Bud E. Luv): Iron Man (70), Paranoid (70), Whole Lotta Love/Free Bird (70); Mark Jonathan Davis (as Richard Cheese): I’m Only Happy When It Rains (70), Enter Sandman (70), Bust A Move (70), People Equals Shit (70-71), Welcome to the Jungle (71), Girls, Girls, Girls (71), Closer (71-72); Lee Presson and the Nails: Mr. Crowley (71).

Sources: The Beatles: Taxman (63); Metallica: Enter Sandman (63, 70); System of a Down: Chop Suey (63); Disturbed: Down With the Sickness (63); Arthur Sullivan (composer), W. S. Gilbert (lyricist): I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major General from The Pirates of Penzance (63); Charlie Daniels: The Devil Went Down to Georgia (64); Rush: Tom Sawyer (64); Led Zeppelin: Stairway to Heaven (64); Garbage: I’m Only Happy When It Rains (70); Nacio Herb Brown (composer) and Arthur Freed (lyricist): Singing in the Rain (70); Pat Ballard: Mr. Sandman (70); Slipknot: People Equals Shit (70-71); Guns N’ Roses: Welcome to the Jungle (71); Solomon Linda: The Lion Sleeps Tonight (71); Mötley Crüe: Girls, Girls, Girls (71); Van Morrison: Brown Eyed Girl (71); Ozzy Osbourne Mr. Crowley (71); Europe: The Final Countdown (71); Nine Inch Nails: Closer (71-72); Joe Raposo (composer), Jon Stone, Bruce Hart, and Joe Raposo (lyricists): Can You Tell Me How to Get to Sesame Street (71-72); Vince Guaraldi: Linus and Lucy (71-72); Thomas d’Urfey (composer), Frederick Thomas Nettlingham (lyricist): Old MacDonald Had a Farm (71-72).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Advances in technology in the twentieth century, such as the reproduction and manipulation of sound, have led to controversies regarding intellectual property, copyright law, and even the very definition of the "musical work." Modern sampling techniques allow artists to appropriate pre-existing musical material and then alter its codes of meaning through processes of recontextualization and alteration. This act of generating meaning through the use of existing "musical artifacts" can be highly subversive, as is the case with John Oswald's 1989 CD Plunderphonics and subsequent CD Rubaiyat (Elektrax). For Rubaiyat (Elektrax), commissioned by Electra records for the company's fortieth anniversary, Oswald utilized pre-existing material recorded by Electra artists as raw material that was then altered using various techniques that undermine and change the work's original meaning. Oswald's techniques include recontexualization of familiar material, the restoration of a previously controversial or "banished" text, and encouraging the listener to create similar works at home with available technology.

Works: John Oswald: O Hell (25-28), Vane (28-29), Mother (29-30), Plunderphonics (24-25), Rubaiyat (Elektrax) (25-34).

Sources: John Densmore, Robbie Krieger, Ray Manzarek, and Jim Morrison [The Doors]: Hello, I Love You (26-28), When the Music's Over (26-28); Carly Simon: You're So Vain (28-29), You're So Vain as performed by Faster Pussycat (28-29); Michael Davis, Wayne Kramer, Fred "Sonic" Smith, Dennis Thompson, and Rob Tyner [MC5]: Kick Out the Jams (29-30).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Though sampling only emerged with the invention of digital technology in the 1980s, it is best understood as part of the long history of musical borrowing. Specific melodic quotation, akin to literal sampling, can be found throughout western art music in the works of composers like Bach, Berlioz, Tchaikovsky, and Ives. In this repertoire, the context in which the quotation appears imposes commentary or new meaning on the original. A similar process occurs with digital sampling where meaning is often generated through recontextualization and juxtaposition of samples. In attempts to generate a "taxonomy" of sampling practices, scholars David Sanjek, Thomas Porcello, and Chris Cutler have created classification systems based, respectively, on reconcilability of the source, procedural methods, and in terms similar to Christopher Ballentine's "musical-philosophical" ideals. The central difference between digital sampling and traditional borrowing is that "the timbre is appropriated in addition to pitch and rhythm." In addition to illustrating the role of recontextualization of sampled material in creating meaning, John Oswald's works Plunderphonics and Plexure demonstrate the role of timbre in conveying musical meaning. For example, Oswald experiments with the timbre of Michael Jackson's voice in the piece "DAB" on Plunderphonics.

Works: Alex Paterson and Youth [Orb]: Little Fluffy Clouds (18-19); James Tenney: Collage #1: Blue Suede (19); John Oswald: Plunderphonics (20-23), DAB (21-22), Plexure (23-24).

Sources: Ennio Morricone: Score for Once Upon a Time in the West (18-19); Steve Reich: Electric Counterpoint (18-19); Carl Perkins: Blue Suede Shoes as performed by Elvis Presley (19); Michael Jackson: Bad (21-22).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Duke Ellington’s and James P. Johnson’s concert jazz compositions of the 1930s and 1940s embody an urban-entertainment vision for racial uplift developed a generation earlier that promotes the high art potential of Harlem’s popular music. Ellington’s 1935 concert film Symphony in Black: A Rhapsody of Negro Life exemplifies the glorified entertainment aesthetic and symphonic jazz idiom developed in Tin Pan Alley and Harlem musical theater in the 1920s. An early example of symphonic jazz emerging from entertainment circles is Will Marion “Dad” Cook’s 1924 stage revue Negro Nuances. The production (which predates Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue) presents a version of the Africa-to-Dixie-to-Harlem narrative later used by Ellington in Black, Brown, and Beige. Musically, Negro Nuances is a pastiche of recycled material—some by Cook himself—arranged for Cook’s twenty-five-piece orchestra. The vaudeville aesthetic of the late 1920s and early 1930s was also influential in establishing stylistic formulas for arranging spirituals and vernacular music for an orchestral idiom. J. Rosamond Johnson’s choral arrangements of W. C. Handy’s St. Louis Blues for a 1929 short film of the same name and Rhapsody in Blue for the 1931 review Rhapsody in Black: A Symphony of Blue Notes and Black Rhythms exemplify the shifting textures and spectacle of musical theater arranging. For Ellington and James P. Johnson, both of whom worked in the entertainment space, the leap to symphonic jazz works was relatively small. James P. Johnson’s Mississippi Moan: Symphony Poem, Drums: Symphonic Poem, and Ellington’s Symphony in Black all closely adhere to the production number model and incorporate the sonic tropes of the Harlem stage. A critical understanding of these symphonic jazz works in terms of Afrological vernacular modernism highlights their artistic value and cross-cultural exchange.

Works: Will Marion Cook: Negro Nuances (330-333); Spencer Williams: Moan, You Moaners! (Fox Trot Spirituelle) (336-37); J. Rosamond Johnson: score to St. Louis Blues (337-42), Rhapsody in Blue from Rhapsody in Black: A Symphony of Blue Notes and Black Rhythm (345-47); Duke Ellington: The Blackberries of 1930 (344-45); James P. Johnson: Mississippi Moan: Symphonic Poem (347-51)

Sources: James P. Johnson: Runnin’ Wild (330-333); Anonymous: Deep River (336-37); W. C. Handy: St. Louis Blues (337-42); Stephen Foster: Swanee River (344-45); George Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (345-47); Perry Bradford and James P. Johnson: Echoes of Ole Dixieland (348-49), Mississippi River Flood (348-51); James P. Johnson: Yarnekraw: A Negro Rhapsody (350)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Progressive rock, a loose label for music which combines elements of rock and roll with those of various forms of art music from around the world, has in the past been viewed by critics and scholars as being most successful (or most appalling) when elements of “high” and “low” culture are synthesized. However, Emerson, Lake, and Palmer’s popular “free transcription” of Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky frequently shifts between different styles, suggesting that its success is due not to stylistic synthesis but an “ever-changing, channel-surfing quality.” Pictures at an Exhibition, which was played at every Emerson, Lake, and Palmer concert from 1970 to 1988, allowed fans to react to the changes in texture as they happened, dancing when it was appropriate and cheering when Emerson would destroy his organ in the final “Great Gate of Kiev” movement. These fans showed an interest in being “present” at concerts, enjoying each subjective moment as it happens now, like the counter-cultural hippies from the 1960s. This is related to Susan Sontag’s call in “Against Interpretation” for greater focus on “presentness” in art criticism, and to Tom Gunning’s “cinema of attractions” concept, which states that in films before 1908 the audience’s focus was not on the plot narrative but on the moment-to-moment spectacle.

Works: Emerson, Lake, and Palmer: Pictures at an Exhibition (247-53).

Sources: Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (247-53).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

When the Ku Klux Klan was revived in the early twentieth century, music co-opted from Protestant hymns, patriotic songs, folk songs, and popular music became an important tool for recruitment and entertainment. Klan songs, published professionally or at home, most frequently addressed topics of patriotism and Klan fraternalism. Many Klan songbooks printed patriotic songs and Christian hymns unaltered. Retexted versions of hymns with Klan symbols inserted were also frequently printed. For example, the little brown church depicted in The Church in the Wildwood is transformed into a burning cross in a Klan derivative, The Fiery Cross in the Vale. Secular music was often co-opted as well with lyrics changed to reflect the Klan’s anti-immigration, anti-Catholic, and anti-Semitic stances. The Ballad of Casey Jones and tunes by Stephen Foster proved especially popular in this regard. Original songs, printed both with and without overt Klan imagery on the cover, were also published. Surprisingly, African Americans are underrepresented as targets in Klan songs. There are even at least ten examples of Ku Klux Klan blues songs, capitalizing on the genre’s popularity to reach a wider audience. In all, over one hundred songs were co-opted by the Klan for propaganda and profit.

Works: Dora C. Goodwin: The Fiery Cross in the Vale (369-70); Anonymous: The Immigrant (372-73); Claudia P. Randolph: contrafactum on The Sidewalks of New York (373); W. R. Rhinehart (publisher): The Klansman’s Friend (374-75), Junior Boys Klan Chorus (375)

Sources: William S. Pitts: The Church in the Wildwood (369-70); Percy Wenrich and Edward Madden: The Red Rose Rag (372-73); Charles B. Lawlor and James W. Blake: The Sidewalks of New York (373); Eddie Newton, Wallace Saunders, and T. Lawrence Seibert: Casey Jones (374-75); William Charles Fry: Lily of the Valley (375)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Tributism, describing the continuing phenomenon of tribute bands, does not engage historically with its musical sources, but instead presents them atemporally, challenging our ability to locate and validate music. Beginning in Australia during the 1970s, tributism is primarily a “live” phenomenon rather than recorded one, springing from the absence of the original or real musical act. This is different from cover or cabaret bands who perform music by other artists in the presentation of a tribute band as a surrogate for the original without a performing identity of their own. Tribute bands are most successful when emulating the recorded material of their source, creating new “live” versions of a recording. Consequently, bands like The Rolling Stones, who are more famous for their concerts than their albums, do not get as many tribute band as groups like The Beatles, who are most famous for their albums and did not tour for much of their career. Tributism can affect the way an audience views a “real” act as well. Large music festivals, where guests are not inclined to participate with the performance as intimately, can cause re-formed and comeback bands to be received as effectively their own tribute band. Even original bands like Oasis, who co-opt the position and image of The Beatles rather than their music, get mired in tributism. Ultimately, tributism is not self-referential but rather representational, challenging traditional postmodern reading of the phenomenon. The audience of a tribute band effectively becomes more important to the performance than the performers themselves.

Index Classifications: Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Lin-Manuel Miranda’s engagement with the history, culture, and aesthetics of hip hop in Hamilton: An American Musical contributes meaningfully to its retelling of the Founders story and its role in the ongoing struggle to define American identity. The reception of Hamilton as a hip hop musical is vitally important to its widespread appeal, but Miranda borrows from a broad swath of American popular music styles to create a diverse sound. In the musical, the character of Alexander Hamilton undergoes a rags-to-riches arc similar to how many hip hop artists present themselves. Hamilton is differentiated musically by his polysyllabic flow, similar to rappers like Big Pun and Rakim. In addition to stylistically borrowing from various hip hop artists, Miranda explicitly references specific lines from famous tracks. For example, the “Ten Duel Commandments” number in Hamilton is modelled on and borrows the opening countdown from the Notorious B.I.G. track “Ten Crack Commandments.” In interviews about this number, Miranda commented on the similarities between Hamilton and Notorious B.I.G. both rapping about the unwritten rules of illegal activity, framing the hip hop “hustler” trope as the embodiment of American enterprise. The intersection of hip hop, multiracial casting, and framing of American history in Hamilton is further contextualized by the neoliberal politics surrounding its creation and premiere. By focusing on politics of diversity and largely ignoring class and economic politics in favor of a message of success following hard work, Hamilton was able to appeal to liberals and conservatives alike. While its message of diversity gained urgency during the Trump administration, Hamilton remains uncritical of neoliberal power structures.

Works: Lin-Manuel Miranda: Hamilton: An American Musical (468-76)

Sources: Mobb Deep: Shook Ones, Pt. 2 (473-74); Notorious B.I.G.: Ten Crack Commandments (474)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Digital sampling is a specific type of musical borrowing in which one recorded sound is incorporated into a new recorded sound. Sampling, unlike other types of musical borrowing, is able to manipulate the recorded sounds of specific performances. Sampling is a transformative art, rather than a practice of technological quotation. New works, such as Fatboy Slim's Praise You, which samples Camille Yarbrough's Take Yo' Praise, raise questions about creativity, originality, gender, race, and class. An accompanying CD provides recordings of several mentioned works.

Works: Eric B. and Rakim: Lyrics of Fury (137); Philip King (composer), Sinéad O'Connor (performer): I Am Stretched on Your Grave (137); Robert Hunter and Jerry Garcia (songwriters), Sublime (performers): Scarlet Begonias (137); George Michael: Waiting for that Day (137); Paul Lansky: Notjustmoreidlechatter (141-145); Fatboy Slim: Praise You (145-151); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (151-156).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (137, 152, 154): Camille Yarbrough: Take Yo' Praise (145-151); Trouble Funk: Pump Me Up (151, 157).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Turntablism in DJ battles subverts the intended function of musical recordings and demonstrates how users can shape recording technology instead of the other way around. Turntablism is a performative act of manipulating music recordings using a DJ turntable and has its roots in the beginnings of hip-hop. One modern practice of turntablism is DJ battles, in which two DJs taking turns demonstrating their turntable skills, with the crowd determining a winner based on technical and artistic ability. The origins of DJ battles are informal contests in the 1970s in the Bronx; by the mid 80s, formal competitions were organized by groups like the DMC (Disco Mix Club). Modern DJ battles are racially diverse, but are mainly dominated by young men. Despite the metaphorical violence of a “battle,” DJs battles are a safe space for young men to express themselves creatively. There is competition between contestants, but overall the performance and audience participation are more central to the activity. While there is no open discrimination of women in DJ battles, the lack of female participation is an issue. Underlying misogyny in rap music (indirectly related to DJ battles) and the battles themselves (dismissing opponents as “bitches,” for example), as well as a pervasive view of recording technology as gendered male, contribute to the relative lack of female battle DJs.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

John Philip Sousa performed many orchestral transcriptions, leading both his professional band and the US Marine Band before that, but only a handful of these transcriptions still exist today. Despite the lack of material, a number of features of Sousa’s transcriptions become apparent, including keeping wind and percussion parts generally intact, writing for choirs of instruments, using clarinets like orchestral violins, and shifting scoring even when the original doesn’t change. Most of the transcriptions performed by the Sousa Band were written by Sousa’s assistants and copyists, not by Sousa himself. Only five orchestral transcriptions in full score in Sousa’s hand remain today: Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman, Elgar’s Salut d’Amour, Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4, and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time. One significant addition not in Sousa’s hand is Wagner’s Overture to Tannhäuser, which does not share the same scoring practices of Sousa’s own transcriptions. Other existing transcriptions come from keyboard music, for example Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2.

Works: Sousa: transcriptions of Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34), Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61), Elgar’s Salut d’Amour (262–66), Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77), and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Sources: Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34); Wagner: Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61); Elgar: Salut d’Amour (262–66); Massenet: “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77); Leo Sowerby: Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the late 1960s rock began to appropriate values more closely resembling the classical tradition, such as virtuosity, creativity, and originality. One of the complaints leveled against newly emergent disco by proponents of rock was disco's perpetual use of pre-recorded music as the basis of new dance tracks. Reusing existing music was seen as an affront to rock's newly won creativity and individuality and represented a collective approach to music found frequently in African-American musical traditions. Because of its use of musical borrowing, therefore, disco represented a challenge to white hegemony in the production of popular culture.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

In his book Palimpsestes: la littérature au second degree, Gérard Genette addresses intertextual and hypertextual relationships between texts utilizing a theoretical framework that could be enlightening if applied to recorded popular music. Genette defines intertextuality as the "actual presence of a text within another." Thus, the techniques of quotation and allusion fall into this category. Genette goes on to define hypertextuality as the modeling of a new text (the hypertext) on a previous text (the hypotext). Parody, which is defined as the alteration of subject matter while retaining style characteristics, and its converse travesty, in which the subject matter is retained but the style is altered, fall under this category. Also, included in the category of hypertextuality are pastiche, covering, copy, translation, instrumental cover, and various types of remixes. An additional distinction in the categorization of intertextual relationships is the differentiation between borrowings with a "sameness of spelling" or autosonic borrowing (e.g., sampling) and those with a "sameness of sounding" or allosonic borrowings (e.g., a performed allusion or quotation).

Works: John Bonham, Puff Daddy (Sean Combs), Mark Curry, Jimmy Page, and Robert Plant: Come With Me (39-40); Kurt Cobain, Nirvana, and Weird Al Yancovic: Smells Like Nirvana (41-42); Noel Gallagher: Wonderwall as performed by Mike Flowers (42); Arthur 'Big Boy' Crudup: That's All Right as performed by Elvis Presley (46).

Sources: John Bonham, Jimmy Page, and Robert Plant [Led Zeppelin]: Kashmir (40); Kurt Cobain and Nirvana: Smells Like Teen Spirit (41-42); Noel Gallagher [Oasis]: Wonderwall (42); Arthur 'Big Boy' Crudup: That's All Right (46).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

The contrafacta of popular war songs printed in the Girls Scouts of the USA magazine Rally during World War I reflected two narratives of wartime girlhood: one connecting girls to common domestic feminine roles and another placing girls at the center of the narrative as soldiers. Music, including creating parodies of Girl Scout songs, has been a part of the Girls Scouts program since its founding in 1912 even though the specific uses of music are difficult to pin down in extant sources. Contrary to other early-twentieth-century girls’ clubs and lingering ideas of womanhood, Girl Scouts of the USA embraced equality with men. In the contrafact Scouts Yankee Doodle, domestic actions (cooking, growing food, making bandages) are framed in a military call to action (“the stars and stripes bugle call”). Anna Nelson’s contrafact of George M. Cohan’s Over There calls on fellow Girl Scouts to join in and do their parts “over here,” directly paralleling the heroic rhetoric of Cohan’s lyrics. The Rally contrafact of I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier subverts the pacifist sentiment of the original in the manner of other response songs such as America, Here’s My Boy, asserting that the Girl Scouts are “ready to do or die.” These Scout songs exist within the context of contrafacta as a means of organized protest music, a practice common in the Temperance, Suffragist, and Labor movements of the time. Contrafacta of Civil War tunes are particularly meaningful in turn-of-the-century American protest movements, and the Girl Scouts participate in this tradition as well. Adding to their protest nature, the rhetoric of active militarism in the Girl Scouts songs run counter to the passive “angel of the house” trope of girlhood present in published war music. Through these contrafacta, the women and girls in the Girl Scouts engage in a safe form of protest, recasting themselves as active agents in the home front of the war in opposition to their prescribed domestic roles.

Works: Unattributed (lyricist): Scouts’ Yankee Doodle (376, 380-82); Anna Nelson (lyricist): Over Here (Over There) (380, 382-84); Unattributed (lyricist): Why Don’t You Raise Your Girl to Be a Girl Scout (I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier) (384-85); Lois Henderson (lyricist): We’ll Do Our Bit for Our Country (Marching Through Georgia) (380, 389); Henry W. Roby: Marching Together (Marching Through Georgia) (391-92), Woman’s Rights in Dixie (397-98); Minnie B. Horning: Contest Song (392-93); Antoinette Arnold Hawley: Under the Star Spangled Banner (393-94); L. May Wheeler: November Twenty-Two, 1883 (394); Lillian Sunden (lyricist): And Thus We Stand United (Dixie) (394-96)

Sources: Anonymous: Yankee Doodle; George M. Cohan: Over There (382); Alfred Bryan and Al Piantadosi: I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier (384-85); Arthur Lange and Andrew B. Sterling: American, Here’s My Boy (384-85); Henry Clay Work: Marching Through Georgia (389-94); Dan Emmett: Dixie (394-98)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The soundtrack for Easy Rider (1969), compiled by director/writer/actor Dennis Hopper and producer/writer/actor Peter Fonda, illustrates the complexity of rock compilation soundtracks and their potential to generate both inter- and intratextual meaning. When used as film music, rock and popular songs behave differently from traditional underscoring in that they are not easily manipulated and tend to create audiovisual “set-pieces.” Throughout Easy Rider there is a tight integration of song lyrics and images, suggesting a conscious intertextual negotiation by the filmmakers. For example, the shots that accompany Wasn’t Born to Follow by the Byrds mirror the forest imagery and “clear and jeweled waters” presented in the lyrics. This kind of deliberate intertextuality through citation and reference is a hallmark of New Hollywood cinema, of which Easy Rider is an early example. The rock soundtrack also resonates with the countercultural themes and social consciousness of the film. The soundtrack generates meaning through intratextual means; the musical set-pieces interact with the narrative structure of the film as well as each other. For example, in one segment, Fraternity of Man’s country-styled Don’t Bogart Me, accompanied by shots of a bucolic countryside, is interrupted sonically by Jimi Hendrix’s If 6 Was 9 and visually by shots of Louisianan imagery: a river bridge, grand Southern homes, and African American workers, the only black faces in the film. The sonic elements of the soundtrack also mirror the geographical progression of the film West to East, starting in Los Angeles with electric rock (Steppenwolf), then shifting to country rock (The Byrds), faux-country music (Fraternity of Man), and finally ending in Louisiana with blues-tinged electric rock (Jimi Hendrix). The central tragedy and theme of the film—that the idealism of the 1960s was doomed to be corrupted by its commodification—is expressed through song lyrics and is heightened by the self-awareness exemplified in its compiled rock soundtrack.

Works: Dennis Hopper (director), Peter Fonda (producer): compiled soundtrack to Easy Rider (303-28)

Sources: The Byrds: Wasn’t Born to Follow (303-5, 317-19); Fraternity of Man: Don’t Bogart Me (305-6, 313, 316-17); Electric Prunes: Kyrie Eleison (306); Steppenwolf: Born to Be Wild (306, 312-13), The Pusher (313, 323-25); The Jimi Hendrix Experience: If 6 was 9 (313, 315-17); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Roger McGuinn (performer): It’s Alright Ma (I’m Only Bleeding) (325); Bob Dylan and Roger McGuinn (songwriters), Roger McGuinn (performer): Ballad of the Easy Rider (325-26)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Song parodies published in American newspapers were integral to American political culture from the 1790s through the 1810s as they exposed political “truth” in the first party system (Federalists versus Republicans) through mimesis, structural manipulation, and high degrees of intertextuality. Regardless of topic, word play with a model song’s lyrics was a core component of these political parodies. Some parodists just mocked their political opponents, as in Theodore Dwight’s Moll Carey, a parody of Isaac Watt’s psalm Ye Tribes of Adam Join. Others additionally mocked the model song, as in the anonymous Parody of a Federal Song, a parody of the Federalist song Friends to Order—Rise. In both cases, the model was readily apparent and the parodists made additional intertextual references to get their points across. Chains (a parody of a parody) and clusters (multiple parodies of one model) of song parodies demonstrate an even greater level of intertextual references and relationships. The chain of parodies based on Henry Mellen’s The Embargo exemplifies the way partisans on both sides of an issue argued back-and-forth through song parodies. A particularly large set of parodies on Thomas Campbell’s Ye Mariners of England appeared in 1812 debating the prospect of war with Britain. Parodies justifying or opposing the war were met with others serving non-political functions, including John Richard Desborus Huggins’s Ye Shavers of Columbia, a satirical advertisement for his barber services. The tradition of song parodies in early American political culture demonstrates the long-standing efficacy of political rhetoric delivered in an entertaining form.

Works: Anonymous: Parody of a Federal Song (39-42), A Parody Parodied or a New England Aristocratic Song, stripped of its fallacy, &dressed in the becoming garb of ‘native truth and unaffected simplicity (47-48), The Parody on Henry Miller (48-51), A Parody (55-56); Theodore Dwight: Moll Carey (42-46); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (46-47); Unus Plebis: Poetry (48-51); Simon Pepperpot, The Younger: The Embargo Parodied (48-51); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (51-53); Alexander Lucas: Ye Members of Congress (53); John Richard Desborus Huggins: Ye Shavers of Columbia. A Barber-ous Ode (54-55); A Citizen of Monmouth: To the Soldiers of America (55).

Sources: Anonymous: Friends to Order—Rise (39-42); Isaac Watts: Ye Tribes of Adam Join (42-46); John Brown Williamson: The Hobbies (46-48); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (47-48); Henry Mellen: The Embargo (48-51); Thomas Campbell: Ye Mariners of England (51-56); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, Popular

Musicology is in need of generalist methodologies and perspectives for fragments, clichés, and non-sequiturs of classical music that occur in twentieth-century media and culture. Such music is related to the “vernacular imagination,” the shared phenomenon of twentieth-century American (and occasionally European) media audiences in which an artist’s imaginative priorities intersect with the past and with memory. Musicologists can adapt the notion of register, a tool used to locate a work culturally, to study this music in a way that traces the development and intersection of its fluctuating meanings, emphasizing audience reception of an expressive mass media rather than arguing for the absolute value of a musical object.

Works: Barry Manilow: Could it Be Magic (17); Kiss: Great Expectations (17); Billy Joel: This Night (18); DMX: What’s My Name? (34-40); Busta Rhymes: Gimme Some More (34, 38-40); Alan Crosland (director) and Louis Silvers (composer): score to The Jazz Singer (51-55, 73-81, 86, 177); Otto Preminger (director) and David Raksin (composer): score to Laura (42, 44-47, 52, 58-59, 76, 163); Irving Rapper (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Now, Voyager (59-60); Victor Fleming (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Gone with the Wind (69-70); Gregory La Cava (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Symphony of Six Million (86-101); Jefferson Airplane: White Rabbit (122-24); The Doors: Light My Fire (124); Led Zeppelin: Stairway to Heaven (126-27); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (129-39, 149-51); The Swingle Singers: Aria (135-37); Lawrence Kasdan (director) and Meg Kasdan (composer): soundtrack to The Big Chill (152-56); Alfred Hitchcock (director) and Bernard Herrmann (composer): score to Psycho (171-73); Robert Z. Leonard (director): soundtrack to Strange Interlude (181-83); James Whale (director) and Franz Waxman (composer): score to Bride of Frankenstein (190-95); Stephen Herek (director) and Michael Kamen (composer): score to Mr. Holland’s Opus (196-202); William Hanna and Joseph Barbera (directors) and Scott Bradley (music editor): score to Tom and Jerry, no. 29, The Cat Concerto (197-98); Friz Freleng (director): score to Merrie Melodies, episode Rhapsody Rabbit (197, 205); Carlos Santana and Dave Matthews: Love of My Life (214-16); Albert Lewin (director): The Picture of Dorian Gray (216-21); Queen: Bohemian Rhapsody (222-35); Penelope Spheeris (director): soundtrack to Wayne’s World (222-23, 231-32).

Sources: Chopin: Prelude in C minor, Op. 28, No. 20 (17); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (18); Richard Addinsell: Warsaw Concerto (34-35, 41); Bernard Herrmann: score to Psycho (34, 38-40); Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture (51-58), Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74 (59-63); Handel, “Ombra mai fu” from Serse (69-70); Ravel: Bolero (123-24); Johann Sebastian Bach, Air from Suite in D Major, BWV 1068 (133-34), Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 (133-34, 136-37); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (152-56); George Antheil: Symphony No. 4; Dukas: The Sorcerer’s Apprentice (190); Gottfried Huppertz: score to Metropolis (194-95); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (198, 204-6); The Toys: Lover’s Concerto (196, 202-9, 213); The Supremes: I Hear a Symphony (196, 202-4, 213); Brahms: Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (214-16); Chopin: Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24 (217-21); Queen: Bohemian Rhapsody (222-23); Mascagni: Cavalleria rusticana (227); Richard Strauss: Ariadne auf Naxos (227-31).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

In the early 1920s, when public familiarity and associations with jazz were amorphous and inconsistent, Irving Berlin cultivated a sense that his theatrical music defined jazz. In addition to textual and musical references to ragtime or blues characteristics, Berlin used quotations of his own music, which had already gained ragtime associations, to reinforce this idea. One notable example is Berlin's quotation of his earlier songs Alexander's Ragtime Band, Everybody's Doing It Now, and The Syncopated Walk in his 1921 Everybody Step. Berlin's self-borrowing ranged from nearly exact quotation of a full phrase of both music and lyrics to more subtle use of one- or two-measure units of rhythms, fills, or pick-ups that were nevertheless recognizable as being drawn from his earlier pieces. The earlier songs' associations with jazz implied that Berlin's newer music also fit into the genre. To further build upon this personal jazz lineage, Berlin borrowed from Everybody Step in later works.

Works: Irving Berlin: Everybody Step (698-10), The Syncopated Vamp (706, 708), Pack Up Your Sins and Go to The Devil (710-12).

Sources: Irving Berlin: Alexander's Ragtime Band (706-07, 709-10), Everybody's Doing It Now (706, 708-09), The Syncopated Walk (706-09), Everybody Step (710-13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Applying the technique of a "song profile," or the compositional and performance history of a tune that reveals socially constructed meanings, to Irving Berlin's Blue Skies reveals several borrowings that suggest reinterpretation. Many of Berlin's songs reflect a Jewish tradition, incorporating modal mixture and chromatic inflection. Although this tradition is not uniquely Jewish, listeners interpreted as such in Manhattan in Berlin's day. Looking at the tune history of Blue Skies demonstrates the shift from its Jewish origins in the 1920s to subsequent revisions that change its ethnic associations. A performer such as Belle Baker, for example, who sang the song in Betsy, attempted to identify directly with Jewish culture, whereas Al Jolson, who played straightforward and jazzy renditions in The Jazz Singer, gave the song, in addition to its Jewish characteristics, jazz overtones. Benny Goodman and Mary Lou Williams employed allusion; Bing Crosby crooned a slow, balladic version and marketed it toward a broader, Caucasian, middle-class audience. Through contrafact, Thelonius Monk virtually disguised the source in In Walked Bud, while Ella Fitzgerald used scat. Willie Nelson and Pete Seeger reinterpreted the song further to represent an American folk song. Above all, the transcendent power of the tune proves the "assimilative power of Jewish culture" and effectively reinforces its roots.

Works: Rodgers and Hart: Betsy (552-57); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Al Jolson in The Jazz Singer (557-59), Fletcher Henderson and Benny Goodman (559-63); Mary Lou Williams: Trumpet No End, arrangement for Duke Ellington (560-62); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Bing Crosby (563-65); Thelonius Monk: In Walked Bud (566-69); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Ella Fitzgerald (569-70), Willie Nelson (570-71), Pete Seeger (571-72).

Sources: Berlin: Blue Skies (537-38, 540-44, 547, 549-52, 572-73).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Many modern jazz and popular compositions have been written based on the chord progressions of standard popular songs and other jazz compositions. They provide a fresh approach, both melodically and harmonically, to familiar material, and serve jazz musicians in jam sessions as an acceptable common denominator of chord progressions known to all. In addition to brief introductory comments, this book lists groups of compositions (more than one hundred compositions are included) that share the same chord progressions. Compositions based on the twelve-bar blues harmonic scheme and George Gershwin's song I Got Rhythm are not included.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

The enormous variety of borrowing (citation) in free jazz cannot be adequately described by our current rigid and limited terminology. The rhetoric and ideology present in outmoded descriptions of borrowing that use language and assumptions advanced by Philippe Carles and Jean-Louis Comolli obligate us to intervene and create a new system for writing about borrowing. We must do away with mythical and mystical language of inspiration and creation, as well as the inflexible idea that jazz emerged solely from the condition of Black Americans. Furthermore, distinctions between types of borrowing are useless if divorced from the texts--"text" in this case being a flexible term that refers not just to our traditional ideas of notated music, but to any heard performance. If we separate term and text, we slide back towards old unconstructive accusations of copying and plagiarism. The new terminology should incorporate the many types of borrowing that occur, including collage, mélange, collision, juxtaposition, reminiscence, and self-borrowing, as well as the performance conditions and the reason for the use of a particular source.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

By examining the criticism and liner notes written by The Roots’ drummer Questlove (Ahmir Thompson), the notion that sampling is what determines authenticity in hip-hop can be questioned. Though Questlove frequently admits that sampling is highly important to hip-hop, he notes that many of the earliest and some of the most successful hip-hop recordings use studio instrumentalists performing “samples” of hit breaks and grooves. He also notes the ability of producers to sample is severely limited by the amount of money required to license many well-known samples. When performing and recording with The Roots, Questlove has sought to recreate the sound and rhythmic character of sampled drums through various studio techniques and playing in a funk-based, relatively invariable fashion. Examples of this can be found on “Dynamite” and “Double Trouble” from Illadelph Halflife. The Roots have also utilized beatboxers Scratch and Rahzel, who can imitate the sounds of samples and record scratching in their beatboxing. Such efforts to mimic sampled sounds on “traditional” instruments demonstrate both the importance of sampling for hip-hop and the desire to explore other avenues of music making while staying true to hip-hop’s essence.

Works: De La Soul: Transmitting Live from Mars (868); Biz Markie: Alone Again (868); Afrika Bambaataa: Planet Rock (874); Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (874); Sugar Hill Gang: Rapper’s Delight (874); Yes: Owner of a Lonely Heart (876); Common: Like Water for Chocolate (876); The Roots: Concerto of the Desperado (880).

Sources: Jim McGuinn and Gene Clark (songwriters) and The Turtles (performers): You Showed Me (868); Gilbert O’Sullivan: Alone Again (Naturally) (868); Kraftwerk: Trans-Europe Express (874); Funk Inc.: Kool is Back (876); Lionel Bart: Theme from From Russia with Love (880).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, opera selections have had an important place in the repertoire for concert bands, but the recent trend in concert bands away from playing opera transcriptions has been detrimental to the popularity of opera in America. In the 1830s, opera tunes became a dominant genre of popular music thanks to performances by military, civic, and professional concert bands, which represented a significant portion of the music consumed by the public throughout the 1800s. The first celebrity bandleader was Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, who gained national fame in 1872 organizing music for the National Peace Jubilee after the Civil War. Through the late nineteenth century, Gilmore organized a private band with varied programs that included operatic transcriptions. Taking Gilmore’s place in the public spotlight around the turn of the century was John Philip Sousa, who also programmed a variety of music including modern opera repertoire like Richard Wagner. After Sousa’s death in 1932, nationally touring bands of that scale became a thing of the past, especially with the rise of radio and sound recording. While a few professional bands, like the Goldman Band, remained through the mid-twentieth century, performing a traditional mix of music including operatic repertoire, collegiate bands began to replace them as the dominant concert band force. Collegiate bands, especially those modelled on Frederick Fennell’s Eastman Wind Ensemble, began programming more original works for band and distanced themselves from operatic transcriptions. Without the widespread performance of opera by bands, its popularity in American declined.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The electronic collage aesthetic, which originated with musique concrète and tape works such as John Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 5 and Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman's The Flying Saucer, finds its modern incarnation in Danger Mouse's The Grey Album, a mash-up of Jay-Z's The Black Album and The Beatles' White Album. The current mash-up phenomenon is made possible by file-sharing software and readily available mixing programs. The Grey Album presents a legal quagmire because the samples were used without permission of EMI, prompting cease-and-desist letters to all those who circulated the album. Current laws only permit covers of songs, and sampling without permission is prohibited. Until copyright laws catch up with the collage aesthetic, the limited legality of fair use rights has the potential to stifle creativity and the free exchange of ideas.

Works: Danger Mouse (Brian Burton): The Grey Album (79-81); Freelance Hellraiser (Roy Kerr): A Stroke of Genie-us (82, 86-87); Soulwax: Smells Like Teen Booty (82, 84); Alan Copeland: Mission: Impossible Theme/Norwegian Wood (85); Negativland: U2 (88); Illegal Art: Sonny Bono is Dead (91), Deconstructing Beck (91).

Sources: The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Ringo Starr): The White Album [The Beatles] (79-81); Jay-Z: The Black Album (79-81); Kurt Cobain, Dave Grohl, and Krist Novoselic (songwriters), Nirvana (performers): Smells Like Teen Spirit (82, 84); Rob Fusair, Falonte Moore, and Beyoncé Knowles (songwriters), Destiny?s Child (performers): Bootylicious (82, 84); Eminem: Without Me (84-85); Kevin Rowland, Big Jim Paterson, and Billy Adams (songwriters), Dexy's Midnight Runners (performers): Come On Eileen (84-85); U2: I Still Haven?t Found What I?m Looking For (88).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

For a short time in the 1970s, disco provided a place in which various cultures could coexist on the dance floor, and such diversity is reflected in the music, such as in Walter Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven and David Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain. Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven is primarily based on the first theme area of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 and opens with a quotation from the opening of the first movement. This opening motive is set against a 4/4 disco pattern of electric bass, acoustic drum set, and clavinet playing composed material. Recalling the French horn bridge to the second theme area, Murphy alternates C and Eb whole notes, marking the beginning of the B section, but, rather than following sonata form, Murphy keeps A Fifth of Beethoven firmly in C minor throughout. By not modulating and by using static harmonies and a persistent rhythmic drive, A Fifth of Beethoven exemplifies the "inclusive homogeneity" that was a marker of disco style. Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain, like its Mussorgsky source, employs a wide range of sources for its orchestration, including a wah-wah electric guitar. The combination of sounds serves as a reflection of the diversity on the disco dance floor. While this was a short-lived phenomenon, disco borrowings of classical music served to exemplify the pluralism of disco.

Works: Walter Murphy: A Fifth of Beethoven (349-57, 260-61); David Shire: A Night on Disco Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (351-56); Mussorgsky: Night on Bald Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Although opera and rock music are seemingly situated on different sides of a cultural, stylistic, and aesthetic divide, rock and pop songs of the 1970s and later have occasionally appropriated some style characteristics from opera. Although many rock works are considered "rock operas" and some classical works were written by rock musicians, none of these works owes much to the stylistic norms of the other genre. On the other hand, a work like Queen's Bohemian Rhapsody (from the 1974 album A Night at the Opera) does incorporate many operatic characteristics, such as a cappella vocals, lamenting ballads, sarcastic recitatives, distorted operatic phraseology, underworld motifs, and so forth. These characteristics are not instances of direct borrowing of any operatic source, but are rather more general features of the style, integrated and exaggerated as a parody. Punk rock artists in the 1980s like Nina Hagen, Klaus Nomi, and Malcolm McLaren incorporated opera more directly, with more reverence for the genre, and with the intention of promoting female and homosexual voices. Hagen incorporated expressionist operatic influences and coloratura technique into her music. Nomi appropriated entire operatic arias into his eclectic music, including Handel's aria "Total Eclipse" from Samson, not as a parody but rather with a camp aesthetic. McLaren created dance-rock versions of grand opera, including "Un bel dì" from Madama Butterfly and the "The Flower Duet" from Délibe's Lakmé.

Works: Freddie Mercury (songwriter), Queen (performers): Bohemian Rhapsody (192-194); Nina Hagen: New York, New York (196); Kristian Hoffman (songwriter), Klaus Nomi (performer): Total Eclipse (197-98); Purcell (composer), Klaus Nomi (arranger/performer): The Cold Song (197); Saint-Saëns (composer), Klaus Nomi (arranger/performer): Samson and Delilah (Aria) (197); Malcolm McLaren: Madame Butterfly (198-99).

Sources: David Bowie: Fashion (196); Purcell: King Arthur (197); Saint-Saëns: Samson et Dalila (197); Handel: Samson (197-98); Puccini: Madama Butterfly (198-99); Délibe: Lakmé (199).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Paul Simon's Graceland is an excellent example of both artistic and stylistic collaboration. Simon and Ladysmith Black Mambazo navigate through traditional South African and American popular styles in a constantly changing compositional process. Three songs from this album, "Gumboots," "The Boy in the Bubble," and "That Was Your Mother," are particularly interesting because they are cover versions of African popular songs. Simon credits the authors of the first two songs, but neglects to do so for the third. The differences in crediting represent the complex issues of collaboration on an international scale.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Sampling constitutes a form of creative theft that should be seen within the history of musical borrowing. Sampling is mainly associated with digital technology beginning around 1980, and it is used in two main ways: to sample performance sounds, such as a cymbal crash, or to sample more extended sounds. One group that exemplifies creative theft is Negativland. who sampled the lead singer of U2 singing I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For and turned the singer into a whining voice. The artist Scanner travels the airwaves sampling personal phone calls. John Oswald sampled Michael Jackson's voice in BAD to create Oswald's own DAB. Oswald removed all markers of Jackson's voice until it no longer sounded like the artist, and, in so doing, used Jackson's own medium against him. This new form of musical borrowing, creative theft, is appropriate for our media-saturated environment.

Works: Puff Daddy and Faith Evans: I'll Be Missing You (160); Wyclef Jean: We Trying to Stay Alive (160); Janet Jackson: Got 'til it's Gone (160); Negativland: U2 (162, 166-67, 169-70); John Oswald: Plexure (171), Plunderphonic (177), DAB (178-81); Scanner: Sulphur (175); Tape-Beatles: Music with Sound (181-83).

Sources: Sting (songwriter), The Police (performers): Every Breath You Take (160); Bee Gees (Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb, and Maurice Gibb): Stayin' Alive (160); Joni Mitchell: Big Yellow Taxi (160, 163-64); U2: I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For (167); Buck Ram (songwriter), Dolly Parton (performer): The Great Pretender (177); Michael Jackson: BAD (178-81).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

The inclusion of an African-American spiritual in Ellington's Black and Tan Fantasy follows the ideas set forth by many writers during the Harlem Renaissance. Ellington takes the Renaissance ideals a step further by integrating the spiritual with blues, urban jazz, call-and-response, and even a quotation of Chopin's funeral march. Bubber Miley, cornetist and co-composer in the Ellington band, bases the opening motive of the fantasy on a spiritual he heard his mother singing while he was a child. However, the spiritual is not truly African-American in its origins. A friend of Miley pointed out that the spiritual is derived from "The Holy City," a sacred song in the style of a spiritual but by the white composer Stephen Adams. This white sacred tune is transformed through Miley's performance practice of bending the pitches, growling, and vocal ya-yas. These issues moved the spiritual away from Du Bois's ideas of the "sorrow song" with lush, pleasant, and Europeanized harmonies and toward Hurston's ideas of the spiritual, which strives for the unrefined sounds of the "real Negro singer." Black and Tan Fantasy was not the only jazz composition to draw upon "The Holy City." King Oliver and His Creole Jazz Band incorporated the sacred work into a twelve-bar blues, and Johnny Dodds responds to the text and music of "The Holy City" in his composition "Weary City."

Works: Ellington/Miley: Black and Tan Fantasy (137-58); Oliver: Chimes Blues (151); Dodds: Weary City (151-53).

Sources: Adams: The Holy City (137-58); Chopin: Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat Minor (140).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

See annotations for individual chapters.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Increasing globalization in the popular music industry, especially with the ease of distributing music recordings, sometimes creates a demand for particular performers in parts of the world they do not directly interact with. In Latin America—Mexico and Argentina in particular—this demand for American and English rock music has led to a thriving culture of tribute bands. These bands serve an important role in Latin American consumption of Anglophone popular music as substitutes or surrogates for the original artist, satisfying the demand for live performances from groups that rarely or never perform in that region. This occurs both with bands that no longer exist, like The Beatles, and with contemporary bands that rarely, if ever, tour Latin American, such as Muse. Attending a tribute band concert provides a way for fans of a particular band to participate in a recreation of an “authentic” live concert, a significant aspect of band–fan interaction.

Tribute bands differ from cover bands in that they perform the music and extra-musical affect of a single band, rather than just performing existing music. This means that tribute bands for Anglophone bands sing in English, even to a Spanish speaking audience. Another difference is that tribute bands often rework recorded music into live performance, which distinguishes them from live performances by the original band. Beatles tribute bands are especially relevant to this point by performing studio albums like Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, and recorded performances like The Beatles’s Ed Sullivan appearance live. This transformation of a music recording to a live performance is distinct from a band performing its own music in concert. Tribute bands create a live performance proxy for a recorded sound object.

Works: Horus: The Resistance (as recorded by Muse) (334); The Shouts: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (as recorded by The Beatles) (341), All My Loving (as performed by The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show) (341); Dios Salve a La Reina: Somebody to Love, I Want to Break Free, and Crazy Little Thing Called Love (as recorded by Queen) (341-43).

Sources: Muse: The Resistance (334); The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (341), All My Loving (on The Ed Sullivan Show) (341); Queen: Somebody to Love (341-43), I Want to Break Free (341-43), Crazy Little Thing Called Love (341-43).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Producers of popular music at the turn of the twenty-first century developed hybrid music forms which combine rock music with styles and sounds of its competitors, particularly hip-hop. For example, groups such as Limp Bizkit graft the sound of record scratching and rapping into a rock band context, although record scratching is used as a sound in and of itself rather than in the service of sampling or other hip-hop musical devices. Additionally, music videos of these hybrid groups integrate visual components of both rock and rap videos. These groups assert their authenticity through textual, aural, and visual signifiers of a low socioeconomic status, which supposedly signals an allegiance with blacks.

Works: Limp Bizkit: Nookie (163, 167); Eminem: Guilty Conscience (163-64); Kid Rock: Cowboy (164-65); Dexter Holland (songwriter), The Offspring (performers): Pretty Fly (For a White Guy) (165-66).

Sources: N.W.A.: Straight Outta Compton (164-65).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Popular music, as practice, differs from classical music, as a repertoire of iconic objects, in that the former places less emphasis on authorial attribution, involves greater collaboration between musicians, has blurred the distinction between "performance" and "composition," and overall features widespread use of borrowing procedures. "Intertextuality" is the best term that encompasses the borrowing practices of popular music. "Remixes" are one type of borrowing procedure, in which old songs are digitally re-worked in a new context. Bill Laswell creates remixes of the music of Miles Davis and Bob Marley. In the Davis remix, Laswell streamlines 38 minutes of music into fifteen, clarifies the instrumentation and textures through digital technology, reorders seamlessly connected sections, and highlights the similarities between all included source materials. Through his creative process, Laswell emerges more as a composer of something new, rather than a "remixer" of something old. In addition, the artist presents a remix of Marley's songs, but removes all of his prominent vocals. The result is not reggae, but rather a new "ambient gospel" genre. In part, these modern borrowing procedures in popular music have precedent in Western music history and are part of a long-established vernacular tradition. Other influences in popular music practice include multi-voiced repetition, best characterized as African-American "Signifyin(g)," which opposes the traditional Western concept of the singular "composer's voice." A semiotic dialogical theory can address these issues in popular music intertextuality. A final issue to consider is the opposition that emerges between intertextual musical performance and popular music recording, which preserves a specific version of a given song at its moment in time and highlights solo individualism. Remixes and cover songs highlight this tension; to accommodate this, one's analytical model must account for an "originating moment," the version of a song that is to be the measure for all others that re-create it.

Works: Bill Laswell: Panthalassa: The Remixes (62-67), Dreams of Freedom: Ambient Translations of Bob Marley in Dub (62, 67-71); Bob Marley: One Love (People Get Ready) (71); Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (79-80); Richard Ashcroft [Verve]: Bittersweet Symphony (82); Paul Anka: My Way as performed by Elvis Presley (82-83), Sid Vicious (83).

Sources: Joe Zawinul: In a Silent Way as performed by Miles Davis (63-67), Miles Davis: Shhh/Peaceful (63-67), It's About That Time (63-67); Bob Marley: One Love (People Get Ready) (67-69), Exodus (69-71); Curtis Mayfield: People Get Ready (71); Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers [Chic]: Good Times (79); John Deacon [Queen]: Another One Bites the Dust (79-80); Debbie Harry and Chris Stein [Blondie]: Rapture (79-80); Grandmaster Flash: Birthday Party (79); Sugarhill Gang: 8th Wonder (79); Spoonie Gee (Gabriel Jackson): Monster Jam (79); Mick Jagger and Keith Richards [Rolling Stones]: The Last Time (82); Paul Anka: My Way as performed by Frank Sinatra (82-83).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

The compilation soundtrack of David Lynch’s 1997 film Lost Highway, particularly its use of cover songs, works together with the film’s narrative and imagery to destabilize the viewer’s experience in support of the film’s depiction of toxic masculinity. Three cover songs appear at crucial points in Lost Highway: Lou Reed’s cover of This Magic Moment, made popular by The Drifters; Marilyn Manson’s cover of I Put a Spell on You by Screamin’ Jay Hawkins; and This Mortal Coil’s cover of Song to the Siren by Tim Buckley and Larry Beckett. Each cover is a generic reset, transforming a familiar song into an aggressive alt-rock genre. The generic resets mirror the narrative transformation of the main characters into film-noir, masculine-wish-fulfillment doppelgängers as well as the visual indulgence in macho rock iconography. The disruptive effect of the audience misidentifying the cover songs highlights the menace and violence in this masculine fantasy. The scene featuring I Put a Spell on You exemplifies this effect; Marilyn Manson’s industrial rock cover scores a scene of a noir-fantasy striptease at gunpoint, with the discomforting music emphasizing the scene’s coercive violence. Lou Reed’s distortion-heavy cover of This Magic Moment accompanies another fantasy sequence, subverting its borderline-cliché love-at-first-sight imagery. This Mortal Coil’s goth version of Song to the Siren appears three times during the film: it first plays faintly during an awkward, failed sex scene in reality; next it appears as the film’s perspective turns to the noir fantasy; and finally, it plays loudly during the triumphant fantasy sex scene, which ends in an abrupt transformation back into reality. The three appearances of the song mark the psychosexual narrative throughline of a sexually frustrated man driven to a fantasy of being a young, virile stud, only to have the fantasy come crashing down in the end. The fact that it is a cover song literalizes the idea of destabilized masculine identity. Thus, the film’s abrasive alternative soundtrack is not merely a nod to the youth market, but integral to the film’s deconstruction of toxic masculinity.

Works: David Lynch (director): Compilation score to Lost Highway (37-45); Lou Reed (performer): This Magic Moment (37-39); Marilyn Manson (performer): I Put a Spell on You (38-39); This Mortal Coil (performer): Song to the Siren (38-39)

Sources: Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman: This Magic Moment (37-39); Screamin’ Jay Hawkins: I Put a Spell on You (38-39); Tim Buckley and Larry Beckett: Song to the Siren (38-39); Lou Reed (performer): This Magic Moment (42-44); Marilyn Manson (performer): I Put a Spell on You (41-42); This Mortal Coil (performer): Song to the Siren (44-45)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Hip-hop DJs take previously recorded material in the form of vinyl LPs and reorganize and alter the recorded sounds to create new music. As DJ techniques and routines have grown increasingly complex, DJs such as DJ A-Trak and DJ Radar and others such as filmmaker John Carluccio have created methods of notating DJs’ musical and technical choices. By examining three forms of scratch notation developed by hip-hop DJs (including the widely-used Turntablist Transcription Methodology, or TTM), various uses for notation can be shown, ranging from idiosyncratic memory-aid to symbolic justification for “art” and “work” status. These uses are linked to those practiced throughout the history of Western art music.

Works: Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (90-91); DJ Radar: Antimatter (94), Concerto for Turntable (96-97).

Sources: DJ Babu: Super Duck Breaks (88); DJ Q-Bert: Toasted Marshmallow Feet Breaks (88); Chic: Good Times (91); Queen: Another One Bites the Dust (91).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Since the late nineteenth century, Stephen Foster’s songs have been widely known in Japan and hold a familiar place in Japanese musical education. Foster’s music was first introduced to Japanese Shogunate officials in 1853 by American sailors aboard U.S. commodore Matthew C. Perry’s fleet, which demanded the opening of Japanese ports. During the modernization of Japanese education beginning in the 1870s, many Western tunes were incorporated into the music curriculum as uncredited Shoka (formally Mombusho Shoka, or official songs for the school curriculum) with new Japanese texts. Shuji Izawa, director of the Institute of Music, based this new music curriculum on Luther Whiting Mason’s “Music Charts,” which Izawa studied during an 1875 trip to the United States. Several Foster songs, including Old Folks at Home, Massa’s in de Cold Ground, and My Old Kentucky Home, were adapted into educational Shoka as early as 1888. Some Foster songs were also adapted as hymns in early-twentieth-century Japanese hymnals. Before Foster’s music was banned during World War II (along with other Western composers), it was also very popular on children’s radio programs. Because Foster’s music was adopted into Japanese musical culture largely disconnected from Foster himself, there is little understanding of Foster’s biography or his place in American history. Recent Japanese music textbooks have emphasized Foster’s biography in service of a cross-cultural music curriculum.

Works: Tateki Owada: Aware no Shojo (313-14); Anonymous: Zouka no Waza (313), Kitaguni no Yuki (313), Yasashiki Kokoro (313); Yoshikiyo Katou: Haru Kaze (313-14); Kazuma Yoshimaru: Yube no Kane (313); Kokei Hayashi: Shakura Chiru (313); Takashi Iba: Wakare (313)

Sources: Stephen Foster: Old Folks at Home (313-14), Massa’s in de Cold Ground (313-14), Old Black Joe (313), My Old Kentucky Home (313)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Sydney electronic dance music (EDM) scene has become increasingly international with increased sampling of overseas content. Sampling as a musical technique has been around for some time, leaving some to argue that it has lost its relevance to the production of new music, instead becoming just a way to repackage old music. However, sampling is still alive and actively engaged in the creation and development of musical scenes, if not the production of individual tracks. With the creation of the internet, transnational sampling between EDM scenes—which refer both to the physical grouping of producers and consumers (Sydney, for instance) and to the collection of shared aesthetics these groups develop—has exploded in scope and ease. This allows scenes that are distant physically to become closer aesthetically. Online EDM sharing sites, such as beatport.com, are faster and cheaper, and they eliminate the need for the mediation of record stores stocking only select music. The Sydney scene in particular relies heavily on internationally sampled music, primarily from British and American producers, to supply the large EDM consumer base. This leads to a unique Sydney scene, created through sampling and remixing other scenes. The Sydney EDM scene is a case study in the application of sampling theories to larger musical entities than just a single work.

Index Classifications: General, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Case studies drawn from interviews with contemporary UK-based sampling composers working in several genres of electronic dance music demonstrate the collaborative processes and self-imposed constraints in their creative studio practices. Through incorporating samples, sampling composers effectively co-opt the original songwriters as co-authors, a process with both creative and economic consequences. By convention, songwriters are understood to be those responsible for the creation of the melody, chord progression, and lyrics, but sampling composers often gravitate toward rhythmic or sonic elements that are the domain of (uncredited) performers. Many of the composer interviewed also emphasize listening as a key aspect of their compositional process. Three self-imposed constraints were also regularly discussed. First, many sampling composers preferred to chop samples “by hand,” that is, without the aid of digital quantization and time correction tools. Second, composers created tracks by starting with a sample as the base, building up the other layers, then removing the initial sample, thereby enjoying the creative aspect of sample composition without the hassle of copyright clearance. Third, composers often treated their own recordings as samples. This is especially evident in the songwriting process for the 1982 Talking Heads album Remain in Light, produced by Brian Eno. Increasingly, the compositional approaches of these sampling composers do not differ significantly from songwriters in other popular genres, and advancements in digital sampling technology have not necessarily altered their compositional techniques.

Works: Plan B: Ill Manors (43); Peter Fox: Alles Neu (43)

Sources: Peter Fox: Alles Neu (43); Dmitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 7 (43)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Mimetic songs are a trend in popular music, and the lyrics of these songs follow in the tradition of classical poetry. These songs have meanings, expressed "by simple implication, ambiguity, irony, symbolism, surrealistic devices, or by dramatic means." Paul Simon's songs provide rich examples of meaning, and they draw upon multiple voices, often one newly-composed and one borrowed from pre-existing material. A dramatic opposition and multiple meanings are created between two voices in both Seven O'Clock News/Silent Night and Scarborough Fair/Canticle. Humor and satire is found in At the Zoo.Mrs. Robinson offers a satirical or ironic view of the suburban housewife and includes a mocking reference to Jesus Loves Me This I Know.

Works: Paul Simon: America (146-47), Seven O'Clock News/Silent Night (147), Scarborough Fair/Canticle (147-48), At the Zoo (148), Mrs. Robinson (148-49), A Hazy Shade of Winter (149).

Sources: Franz Gruber: Silent Night (147); Traditional: Scarborough Fair (147); William B. Bradbury: Jesus Loves Me This I Know (149).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Adult animation series The Simpsons, South Park, and Family Guy share several common categories of musical usage. Since the earliest animated short films in the 1920s, music has been integral to dramaturgy and storytelling in animation. Later, animated sitcoms like The Flintstones and The Jetsons used music in more limited, but no less important ways. While The Simpsons, South Park, and Family Guy have developed in different directions, they all use music to spoof American culture and society. The Simpsons tends to use current music references and recomposed soundalikes while Family Guy tends to use older music in its original form. South Park uses music less often, but musical pop culture of Generations X and Y is still a core component of the show. The use of songs in adult animation can be categorized as recitativo, songs that underscore or forward the plot, and aria, action stopping musical numbers. An example of recitativo in Family Guy can be seen in a scene where Lois prepares for a boxing match and the camera cuts to Peter singing Eye of the Tiger ringside, parodying the Rocky film franchise. The aria category of song use is exemplified by another Family Guy scene that cuts away to the entire music video for David Bowie and Mick Jagger’s Dancing in the Street, diverting entirely from the plot of the episode. The opening sequences of each show also demonstrate the importance of music in their respective narrative and comedic identities. Each show occasionally parodies other television opening themes, as South Park does in its multi-episode parody of Game of Thrones, transforming Ramin Djawadi’s opening title music into A Chorus of Wieners. Each show has also done music-centric episodes where characters join a band, for instance, or the episode itself is structured like a mini musical. With these three series becoming major influences in their medium, music has once again become the backbone of animation.

Works: Carl W. Stalling: soundtrack to The Skeleton Dance (71-72); Alf Clausen: soundtrack to The Simpsons (80, 83); Ron Jones and Walter Murphy: soundtrack to Family Guy (89-91); Adam Berry, Scott Nickoley, and Jamie Dunlap: soundtrack to South Park (84-85, 98-100).

Sources: Edvard Grieg: Trolltog, Op. 54, No. 3 (71-72); Bernard Herrmann: soundtrack to Cape Fear (80); Hans Zimmer: soundtrack to Inception (83); Erick Wolfgang Korngold: soundtrack to The Sea Hawk (84); Zach Hemsey: Mind Heist (84-85); Mozart: Eine kleine Nachtmusik (85-6); Survivor: Eye of the Tiger (89-90); William Stevenson (songwriter), David Bowie and Mick Jagger (performers): Dancing In The Street (91); Ramin Djawadi: soundtrack to Game of Thrones (98-100).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Remix as a discourse (capitalized to distinguish it from remix as a creative technique or genre) affects a wide range of contemporary art and music, and is a pervasive force in modern culture. While there are no set forms of Remix, it is always unoriginal and dependent on existing cultural products. Jacques Attali argues that music precedes political changes and the rise of Remix in the twentieth century confirms this idea. The birth of Remix in 1960s Jamaican dub music led to Remix in all aspects of culture, a facet of Late Capitalism. The history of Remix is broken into four stages—Jamaican dub, New York hip hop, mainstream hip hop, and remix culture—that are related to the history of mechanical reproduction broken into three stages: photography, photomontage, and digital image editing.

Remixes of two techno tracks, Underworld’s Born Slippy (remixed as Born Sleepy) and Kraftwerk’s Tour de France, are examples of a crucial stage in Remix history were Remix becomes cultural discourse rather than just a compositional technique. Underworld’s Born Sleepy .NUXX and Dark + Long (Dark Train) are conceptual remixes of Born Slippy, musically distinct from the original, with the title serving as the main signifier of their connection. Kraftwerk’s Tour de France remixes do something similar by only keeping the lyrics from the original and producing a musically distinct arrangement of the source material. This kind of advanced remix differs from older methods by changing the source so that it is unrecognizable as a remix without extramusical confirmation.

Works: Underworld: Born Sleepy .NUXX (Deep Pan) (68-70), Born Sleepy .NUXX (Darren Price Mix) (68-70), Dark + Long (Dark Train) (68-70); Kraftwerk: Tour de France Étape 1 (71-73), Tour de France Étape 2 (71-73), Tour de France Étape 3 (71-73).

Sources: Underworld: Born Slippy (67-70); Kraftwerk: Tour de France (67-73).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The duo Mono's 1997 album Formica Blues samples a variety of sources. For instance, the tenth track of the album, Hello Cleveland, samples works from Berio, Webern, Schoenberg, and Berg, which are combined with Mono's composed ambient setting. Depending on the listener, one would hear this track in two different ways. To a listener unfamiliar with classical music or with these particular source pieces, it might sound like a collection of undifferentiated "classical" sources. But to one more familiar with classical music and the tradition of borrowing, the song is full of potential meaning. However, when Mono provides the listener with such an abundance of sources, the knowing listener is left with a similar result as the unknowing listener: no single, unified narrative.

Works: Mono [Martin Virgo and Siobhan de Maré]: Formica Blues, Hello Cleveland.

Sources: Burt Bacharach: Walk on By; John Barry: Ipcress File; Miles Davis and Gil Evans: The Pan Piper; Berg: Lulu Suite; Schoenberg: Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16; Berio: Sinfonia; Webern: Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Around 1840, comic blackface minstrelsy became popular with both high and low society audiences as a result of its combining visual and ideological elements from the established “blackface context” with musical elements borrowed either directly or stylistically from the European operatic repertoire. Comparing parodies and other reworkings of contemporary operatic favorites to their sources, it is evident that there were a variety of borrowing practices at work in blackface shows. Through advertising the productions as both novel and yet akin to other legitimate forms of entertainment, and promoting themes of a sentimental and nationalist nature, these shows were capitalizing on the vogues of the time.

Works: Nelson Kneass: I Dreamed Dat I Libed in Hotel Halls (349-52), See! Sir, See! (352-57).

Sources: Michael William Balfe: “I Dreamt I Dwelt in Marble Halls” from The Bohemian Girl (349-52); Vincenzo Bellini: “Vi ravviso o luoghi ameni” from La Sonnambula (352-57).

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

A protest chant against Argentine President Mauricio Marci that was called the “hit of the summer” in 2018 is an example of a sonic meme, a phenomenon in which an innocuous melody is re-signified through parody. The melody of the protest chant comes from the opening verse of a 1973 Carnival march by Raul Fernández Shériko Guzmán, Es tiempo de alegrarnos. The tune then became a popular cantito, or soccer chant, with the lyric formula “[opposing player name], la puta que te parió” (son of a whore). During a match in February 2018, a spontaneous chant of Mauricio Marci, la puta que te parió broke out in the stands, naming the sitting president of Argentina. The chant quickly spread among Argentine soccer fans and was sung in stadiums across the country. Classical pianist Juan Roleri inadvertently created a viral video with a Romantic-pastiche fantasia on the Mauricio Marci tune. Subsequently, social media users created iterative videos, combining Roleri’s audio with other video sources. Other users build on Roleri’s basic idea and created versions of Mauricio Marci in other genres and styles, culminating in a brief tarantella version performaned by the César Pavón Orkestra on Argentine public television, causing a scandal and derailing the band’s career. This flurry of iterative creativity makes Mauricio Marci a sonic meme akin to online image-based memes. The memetic transformations of Mauricio Marci demonstrate a kind of musical parody, dressing up profane source material with more respectable trappings. The participatory nature of sonic memes allowed users to protest at a distance in an attenuated form, but Cesar Pavón’s performance on state television shows that parody can be politically dangerous in certain venues.

Works: César Pavón Orkestra: Mauricio Marci, la puta que te parió Tarentella (116-18, 130-32); Anonymous: La puta que te parió Cantito (120-22), Mauricio Marci, la puta que te parió (121-22, 129); Juan Roleri: Mauricio Marci, la puta que te parió Fantasia (124-7, 130).

Sources: Anonymous: Mauricio Marci, la puta que te parió (116-18, 124-7, 130-32); Raul Fernández Shériko Guzmán: Es tiempo de alegrarnos (120-22, 129); Anonymous: La puta que te parió Cantito (121-22).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The composers of long-running animated sitcoms The Simpsons and Family Guy often utilize the technique of copyphrase, or copyright-paraphrase, to unmistakably call to mind specific pieces of music while avoiding charges of copyright infringement. Alf Clausen, series composer for The Simpsons, developed a default copyphrase procedure in the mid-1990s that has served as a model for later television composers. Clausen’s procedure involves preserving the rhythm and phrasing of the target melody but altering the pitches, often inverting the contour. This can be seen in his mock-up of Alan Menken’s Under the Sea in the episode “Homer Badman” (1994) and See My Vest, a copyphrase of Menken’s Be My Guest in “Two Dozen and One Greyhounds” (1995). Family Guy composers Walter Murphy and Ron Jones, influenced by Clausen, frequently use comparable copyphrase techniques in early seasons. The season two premiere alone contains three distinct examples of copyphrase, including an extended parody of I Think I’m Gonna Like It Here (from the musical Annie). A copyphrase parody of MC Hammer’s U Can’t Touch This in the episode “E. Peterbus Unum” even has a direct admission of borrowing when Peter Griffin declares “Hammer, you can’t sue!” mid-song. Two unsuccessful lawsuits brought against Family Guy in the mid-2000s—the first dismissed and the second ruled in the show’s favor—apparently emboldened the producers of The Simpsons and Family Guy to include sharper musical satire in later episodes. In later seasons, the two shows have diverged in their approach to music. A 2008 episode of The Simpsons, “That 90’s Show,” demonstrates the show's continuing engagement with (relatively) recent musical materials with two copyphrases of 1990s grunge songs. Family Guy, on the other hand, has largely abandoned copyphrase in favor of original music. Although The Simpsons could feasibly license existing music, the technique of copyphrase still serves an important aesthetic function maintaining the show’s escapist tone.

Works: Alf Clausen: soundtrack to The Simpsons (224-27, 231-34); Walter Murphy and Ron Jones: soundtrack to Family Guy (227-32)

Sources: Alan Menken (composer) and Howard Ashman (lyricist): Under the Sea (224-25), Be Our Guest (225-26); Falco, Rob Bolland, and Ferdi Bolland: Rock Me Amadeus (226); Charles Strouse (composer) and Martin Charnin (lyricist): I Think I’m Gonna Like It Here (227); Karl Jenkins: Palladio (227); John Williams: score to Star Wars (227-28); MC Hammer: U Can’t Touch This (229); Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman: It’s a Small World (After All) (229-30); Leigh Harline (composer) and Ned Washington (lyricist): When You Wish Upon a Star (230); Joe Hamilton: Carol’s Theme (230-31); Frank Churchill (composer) and Larry Morey (lyricist): Heigh Ho! (231); Kurt Cobain, Nirvana: Rape Me (232-33); Gavin Rossdale, Bush: Glycerin (233)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Legal rights over recorded sound materials involve many difficult issues. Although many artists have been incriminated for use of another's pitch and rhythmic materials, there is more difficulty concerning borrowing of timbres and less quantifiable musical elements within copyright laws. In fact, artists who use technology to create their works often use pitch and rhythm elements less than timbral elements. The oral tradition of popular music compounds this issue. Traditionally, plagiarism has been determined by the written notes on a page, but purely recorded musical works have no written component. This makes the case of copyright violation more difficult. Unique uses of instruments either associated with particular nationalities, such as the Trinidadian steel drum, or created from traditionally non-musical objects, such as a blade of grass cupped in one hands, also compound copyright issues. Does one's unique appropriation of such instruments give the person the rights over those sounds? Within American and Canadian copyright law, borrowing for pedagogical, illustrative, critical, and parody purposes qualifies as legal fair use. As long as the "economic viability" of the source work is maintained, there is no violation of copyright law. Moreover, borrowing of works in the public domain has no legal repercussions. Whether considered legal or not, all popular and folk music exists as public domain entities.

Works: Charles Ives: Symphony No. 3; George Harrison: My Sweet Lord; Jim Tenney: Collage 1.

Sources: Ronnie Mack: He's so Fine; Carl Perkins: Blue Suede Shoes.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Recorded sound and its attendant technologies muddy the distinction between sound producers and sound reproducers, broaden the scope of musical instruments, and challenge traditional approaches to copyright laws. Analog and digital reproduction technologies have also changed what can be borrowed from music. Melody was once the principal material that could be taken from one piece and reworked, but recordings allowed for sound itself to be used as the actual raw material for new compositions, especially by amateur musicians. It was not until 1976 that copyright laws offered any protection for recorded music; prior to this point music had to exist as a score in order to be copyrighted. However, the increased restrictions on the use of existing recorded music and sound makes it more difficult for artists to create works that reference or quote other music. This not only limits what can be created, but what materials make it into the open field of public domain. Unfortunately, the discourse surrounding how people use existing music is predominantly negative, framing such uses as robbery, poaching, and brainless mistakes. Instead, we should think of reworking existing material as creative composition that turns an everyday song or sound into something entirely different and invites passive listeners to take on active roles in musical creation.

Works: Ives: Symphony No. 3 (132), 114 Songs (132); George Harrison: My Sweet Lord (133); Herbie Hancock: Rockit (135); Michael Jackson: Hard Rock (135); Jim Tenney: Collage 1 (136).

Sources: Chiffons: He’s So Fine (133); Led Zeppelin: Whole Lotta Love (135); Elvis Presley (performer): Blue Suede Shoes (136).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Scholarship on hip hop sampling tends to describe the practice in terms of cultural memory and musical tradition, but these concepts are often left unexamined and uncontextualized and are not adequately tested against hip hop producers’ own commentary on their work. The early 1990s turn to jazz as a sample source in hip hop provides a case study to develop this theory. The emergence of hip hop sampling as a topic of academic study in the 1990s was predicated on contemporary scholarship on cultural memory and tradition, particularly works envisioning black musical practices as spaces in which socialized memories are performed, shaping the way sampling was understood in theory. The practice of jazz sampling emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s with groups like Gang Starr, De La Soul, and particularly A Tribe Called Quest. The new subgenre of jazz rap was initially understood as a link between generations, demonstrating that jazz and hip hop both stem from the same roots. Although some critics and practitioners likened hip hop to jazz in their sonic citations and underground status, the core hip hop audience saw a clear divide between hip hop and jazz, which was perceived as being stuck in the past. The theory of hip hop sampling as generational reunification is similarly complicated by the low opinion of hip hop held by the older generation in the 1990s. Concurrent to the emergence of jazz sampling was a resurgence of jazz music and the creation of a jazz canon, projects led by Wynton Marsalis and his associates. However, the vast majority of jazz music sampled by producers in the 1990s was not from Marsalis’s canon. Instead, commercially successful jazz records of the 1970s—the antithesis to Marsalis’s idea of canonical jazz—became the primary source of samples, likely owing to their prominence in the childhoods of hip hop artists. With these complications, the traditional understanding of sampling as writing history does not capture the nuance of the practice of jazz sampling in hip hop.

Works: Gang Starr: Jazz Thing (283, 286, 289, 296); A Tribe Called Quest: The Low End Theory (283-84, 295)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the 1980s, over one thousand songs have been written about Elvis Presley as an act of homage, parody, critique, commentary or interpretation, all of which use quotations from, references to, or imitations of his songs. These songs can be classified into four broad categories: deification, vilification, iconization, and demythification. The category of deification includes songs that juxtapose imagery of God or Jesus Christ with imagery associated with Elvis. The second category, vilification, includes songs that comment musically or lyrically on feeling betrayed by Elvis's drug use and subsequent demise. Iconization involves the stories, souvenirs, and songs of Elvis becoming associated as glorified, sacred, and permanent icons. Demythification involves songs and other media that comment on the commercialization of Elvis or counter popular Elvis myths.

Works: Paul Simon: Graceland (59, 62); Wall of Voodoo: Elvis Brought Dora a Cadillac (60); Mr. Bonus (Peter Holsapple): Elvis What Happened? (60, 65); Beatmistress/Diego [Death Ride]: Elvis Christ (60); Adrenalin O.D.: Velvet Elvis (60); Dead Milkmen: Going to Graceland (60, 70); Vandals: Elvis Decanter (61, 67); Mojo Nixon and Skip Roper: Elvis is Everywhere (61), Twilights Last Gleaming (61); Frank Zappa: Elvis Has Just Left the Building (61); Warren Zevon: Jesus Mentioned (61-62); Billy Joel: Allentown (62-63); John Hiatt: Riding with the King (62); John Fogarty: Big Train (From Memphis) (63); Elvis Costello: Brilliant Mistake (64); Robbie Robertson: American Roulette (64); Paul Westerberg [The Replacements]: Bastards of Young (64); Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Elvis Presley and America (64); Neil Young: My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) (65); Bruce Springsteen: Johnny Bye Bye (66); Chris Barrows and Dorsey Martin [Pink Lincolns]: Velvet Elvis (67); Scott Kempner: Listening to Elvis as performed by Syd Straw (68); Exene Cervenka and John Doe [X]: Back 2 the Base (68); Forgotten Rebels: Elvis is Dead (69); Pink Slip Daddy: Elvis Zombie (70); Sons of Ishmael: Elvis Incorporated (70); Elvis Hitler: Disgraceland (70); Peter Holsapple [dB]: Rendezvous (70).

Sources: Chuck Berry: Bye Bye Johnny (66); Otis Blackwell: Don't Be Cruel as performed by Elvis Prelsey (68); Lou Handman and Roy Turk: Are You Lonesome Tonight? as performed by Elvis Prelsey (68); Paul Simon: Graceland (70).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

While the popularity of "World Music" is growing, many have criticized collaborations between Western and non-Western artists, such as Paul Simon's Graceland, as being exploitive of non-Western traditional music. However, these cross-cultural germinations actually serve as cultural bridges leading to greater levels of understanding. In the 1960s and 1970s many Western artists, particularly jazz musicians, attempted to achieve a synthesis between Western musical traditions and the music of Eastern, African, and South American cultures. By the late 1980s "World Music" was a staple of the record store, and artists such as Peter Gabriel, David Byrne, and Paul Simon were incorporating elements of non-Western music into their work. More recently, artists like Ry Cooder, Henry Kaiser, and David Lindley have sought out collaborations with non-Western musicians to create a blending of disparate music traditions. Cooder's A Meeting by the River blends elements and performance techniques of Hindustani music with the American musical idiom of Delta blues, and his Talking Timbuktu seeks to blend Delta blues with traditional West African music. Kaiser and Lindley traveled to Madagascar and Norway to create albums steeped in these traditions. Rather than being thought of as appropriations, the work of Cooder, Kaiser, and Lindley should be seen as collaborations that attempt to preserve the integrity of non-Western sources while blending them with distinctly Western idioms.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

American popular music in the 1980s and 1990s underwent a critical redefinition of what it meant to be original and creative, as cover songs and tribute albums flooded the market. Quotation, homage, apprenticeship, parody, allusion, and other forms of appropriationist techniques characterize this repertoire and give us a way to examine how culture and history are expressed and passed on. Cover songs grew from a shared cultural repertoire of secular and sacred tunes to the business of songwriting pairs such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin to tribute projects across different genres such as rock and avant-garde bands. Cover songs can be seen as a manifestation of cultural excess that prioritizes the reworking and repetition of existing songs over innovation. We can trace genealogies of performers and songwriters through a series of re-recordings, turning cover songs into living artifacts. This new wave of covers and tribute albums at the end of the twentieth century created a new standard for American popular music, supplanting the older generation of Cole Porter, Irving Berlin, and George Gershwin with Bob Dylan, Woody Guthrie, Paul Simon, and Elton John, among others.

Works: DNA: Oh Suzanne (8); Dread Zeppelin: Un-Led Ed, 5,000,000 (9); Tom Petty: I’ll Feel a Whole Lot Better (10); Roger McGuinn: American Girl (10).

Sources: Suzanne Vega: Solitude Standing (8-9); Byrds (performers): I’ll Feel a Whole Lot Better (10); Tom Petty: American Girl (10).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

The ability of the digital sampler to mimic, reproduce, extract, and manipulate musical material has led to substantial discourse in issues of intellectual property and fair use. A series of interviews with studio engineers reveals a general, broad consensus regarding various aspects of sampling, such as payment to musicians, legal issues, and the threat to studio musicians, despite the disagreements about pragmatic aspects of actual use of sampling technology. The engineers interviewed all agreed that certain uses of sampling, such as the wholesale lifting of an entire phrase common in rap songs, are unethical and that sampling should not be "a technological free-for-all." Largely, the controversy centers around the question first raised by the Dadaist movement: can one actually own a sound? Where does one make the distinction between the material of a work and the work as a created, artistic whole? These questions have become even more difficult to answer after Foucault, who views all categories of authorship as spurious. Each engineer cited a "code of the West" that has evolved in the recording industry through general consensus, explaining that controversy occurs when someone is found to violate this unwritten code. Furthermore, since there is money to be made and saved though the use of digital sampling, its use ultimately serves to reinforce the asymmetrical power balance of the recording industry.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Despite a current lack of English-speaking musicians covering Italian songs, in prior decades (especially the 1960s) there was much covering of Italian music by non-Italians and non-Italian music by Italians. Many of these covers would maintain the music of the original song while changing the lyrics, either through approximate translation or a complete re-writing of the meaning of the original text. This brought about musical modernity for Italian canzone. A theory of “coverability” suggests that songs written in the classical and pre-rock veins are most easily covered because they provide recognizable structure and melody and are based in notation. In contrast, rock and roll is based in orality and performance, and songs like Hendrix’s Voodoo Chile and Led Zeppelin’s Whole Lotta Love, which are defined by particular recordings, resist replication. The “cultural imperialism thesis” of Francesco Alberoni applies to these covers: songs from the USA and the UK are the most likely to be hits (and thus likely to be covered) in other countries, followed by those of other European countries, down to those countries whose songs are unlikely to be covered.

Works: I Dik Dik: Senza luce (442), Sognando California (442); The Rokes: Che colpa abbiamo noi (442); Patty Pravo: Ragazzo triste (443); Bing Crosby, Richard Tucker, and Gracie Fields: Come Back to Sorrento (452); Elvis Presley: It’s Now or Never (452), Viva Las Vegas (452); Al Hoffman, Leo Corday, and Leon Carr (songwriters) and Dean Martin (performer): There’s No Tomorrow (452); Lou Monte: Don’t Say Forever (452); Vic Damone and Frank Sinatra: I Have But One Heart (452); Stevie Wonder: Il sole è di tutti (457).

Sources: Procol Harum: Whiter Shade of Pale (442); Bob Lind: Cheryl’s Going Home (442); John Phillips and Michelle Phillips (songwriters) and The Mamas &The Papas (performers): California Dreamin’ (442); Sonny and Cher: But You’re Mine (443); Ernesto de Curtis: Torna a Surriento (452); Eduardo di Capua and Alfredo Mazzucchi: ’O sole mio (452); Teodoro Cottrau: Santa Lucia (452); Salvatore Gambardella: O’ marinariello (452); Stevie Wonder: A Place in the Sun (457).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Hoagy Carmichael’s Stardust did not start out as a slow song, but instead an instrumental piece with a fast tempo. The song shares a number of unusual melodic fragments with Bix Beiderbecke’s interpretation of Singin’ the Blues and Louis Armstrong’s Dardanella. The three-note pickup to the chorus later associated with the words “Sometimes I...” is also found in the choruses to popular songs Poor Butterfly and Rose Room. Carmichael first recorded the piece in 1927. The band Mills’s Merry Makers, led by Irving Mills, recorded the first slow version less than a year later. Carmichael, however, credited the tempo change to Isham Jones’s later recording, on which Carmichael was the pianist. Carmichael wrote lyrics to Stardust even before it was recorded for the first time as an instrumental work, but Mitchell Parish, a staff writer for Mills, wrote the lyrics that Bing Crosby sang in the 1931 release of the first version with voice. Crosby and Louis Armstrong are among a handful of artists who have recorded multiple versions of Stardust, indicating its endurance as a jazz standard.

Works: Hoagy Carmichael: Stardust (151-53); Hoagy Carmichael: Stardust as performed by Mills’s Merry Makers (153-54), Isham Jones (154-55), Bing Crosby (156-57), Louis Armstrong (157-58), and Benny Goodman (159).

Sources: J. Russel Robinson, Con Conrad, Sam M. Lewis, and Joe Young (composers) and Bix Beiderbecke (performer): Singin’ the Blues (152); Felix Bernard, Johnny S. Black, and Fred Fisher (composers) and Louis Armstrong (performer): Dardanella (152); Raymond Hubbell: Poor Butterfly (152); Art Hickman: Rose Room (152).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

René Marie’s performance of the national anthem at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, where she sang lyrics of Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing to the tune of The Star-Spangled Banner, grapples with the experience of race and gender during the dawning of “postracial” America. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing, written by James Weldon Johnson and Rosamond Johnson in the early twentieth century, became known as the black national anthem during the 1920s and 1930s, as black American communities organized around creating a collective identity and rallying to fight for Civil Rights. Marie’s performance challenged the idea of a “national anthem” by forcing her audience to confront an alternate anthem, and thus an alternate national identity. By singing alternative lyrics to the familiar (and politicized) tune, Marie highlighted this duality in a way that just singing one or the other could not. Anthems as a genre are a living performance of national identity and are not fixed, but are flexible between historical contexts. Marie’s identity as a black woman lent additional weight to her performance, in hearing as well as watching. An earlier correlate to this performance was Marian Anderson’s performance of America in 1939 at the Lincoln Memorial, which expressed both the national unity and the oppression still felt by many people in America at the time. Marie’s performance fundamentally altered the terrain of musical representation as Obama’s nomination altered it politically.

Works: René Marie: Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing (to the tune of The Star-Spangled Banner).

Sources: James Weldon Johnson and Rosamond Johnson: Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing; Francis Scott Key: The Star-Spangled Banner.

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Björk’s song and music video Hunter (from the album Homogenic, 1997) can be understood in terms of Donna Haraway’s theory of cyborg identity, particularly the ambiguity between the self as scientist and the self as hunter Haraway identifies. Hunter navigates the boundaries between human and nature as well as the known and unknown. The “hunter” subject can be seen in Björk’s use of the characteristic rhythmic pattern of Maurice Ravel’s Boléro throughout Hunter. Ravel often described Boléro in terms of factories and mechanical reproduction and privately acknowledged its sexual dimension. The intersection of sex, death, and mechanization has also been part of the discourse about Boléro. Although Björk describes the presence of the Boléro rhythm as an artifact of recording in Spain, she does discuss Ravel in terms of technology. The two-measure rhythmic pattern of Boléro can be read as a balance between control and compulsion. In Hunter, Björk represents the control side in the cello ostinato, an extension of the first measure of the Boléro pattern. Compulsion is presented in the snare drum’s accelerations into the downbeat, mirroring the second measure in effect. The gradual built-up of the snare over the cellos also suggests the urgency of a hunt reaching completion. In the music video, Björk’s movements only intermittently line up with the rhythmic ostinato. In total, the subject of Björk’s Hunter is a Harawayan cyborg, transcending binaries of gender, humanity, and technology.

Works: Björk Guðmundsdóttir: Hunter (78-84)

Sources: Maurice Ravel: Boléro (78-84)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Senegalese-French rapper Sefyu’s 2006 track En noir et blanc is a case study in hip hop’s role as both a product of postcolonial contradictions and a form of cultural politics aimed at combatting postcolonial inequalities. While the track includes musical gestures to Africa, Europe, and America, the featured loop is sampled from Nina Simone’s 1962 recording of Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn’s 1956 song Hey, Buddy Bolden. Sefyu’s sample recalls not only the past of Simone and Ellington, but also the past of New Orleans circa 1900 and Buddy Bolden, the “elusive father of jazz” (in Ted Gioia’s words). The origins of jazz recall further still centuries of syncretic music making since the first African slaves were brought to the Virginia Colony in 1619. Sefyu’s lyrics deal more directly with the complexity and contradictions of cultural and racial identity, with color used as a poetic motif throughout the song. Edward Said’s postcolonial theory stresses the entangled histories of colonizer and colonized, and, together with W. E. B. Du Bois’s concept of double consciousness, it helps listeners to hear the continuities in Black popular music and to escape from notions of American exceptionalism.

Works: Sefyu: En noir et blanc (378-80, 384); Nina Simone (performer): Hey, Buddy Bolden (379)

Sources: Nina Simone (performer): Hey, Buddy Bolden (378-80, 384); Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn: Hey, Buddy Bolden (379)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Rap is often conceptualized as developing from the oral orientation of the African-American tradition but is rather a complex combination of orality and post-modern technology. The concept of rap as a "post-literate" oral tradition that is a natural outgrowth of oral Afro-American traditional forms is overly simplistic and romanticized. Rap lyrics, which are strongly identified with the rappers that wrote them, display the strong sense of authorship at work in the rap community, which stands in stark contrast to the concepts of orality. However, rap artists' use of sampling reveals the influence of the oral Afro-American tradition in which authorial authority is achieved not in creating a story but rather in its retelling, as texts are considered community property. By sampling, rap artists recontextualize pre-existing material, essentially using sampling technology as "de- and re-construction devices." Sampling, largely regarded as theft by the mass culture, consequently creates a type of resistance against that culture. The re-use of copyrighted material without permission can be read as undermining the legal and capital market authorities.

Works: Kool Moe Dee (Mohandas Dewese) and Teddy Riley: How Ya Like Me Now! (41); Eric B. (Eric Barrier) and Rakim (William Griffin Jr.): Paid in Full (42-43).

Sources: Jimmy Forrest: Night Train as performed by James Brown (41); Franne Golde, Dennis Lambert and Duane Hitchings: Don't Look Any Further as performed by Dennis Edward (42-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

In a broader investigation of rap music and contemporary Black American culture, sampling is discussed (pp. 73-80 and 88-93). Rappers utilize sampling technology not as a shortcut to copy pre-existing music but rather as a means to achieve unique creative objectives. Often, the sonic qualities sought after by rap artists and producers can only be created through sampling, not through live performance or digital synthesized sound such as drum machines. The way in which digital samples are used by rap DJs is in line with what Walter Ong has identified in oral traditions as "narrative originality." According to Ong, narrative originality is achieved not through the creation of new material but through the "reshuffling" of the pre-existing material. However, in addition to this, use of sampling technology by rap artists can also be seen to constitute a means of composition. Samples in a rap song generate meaning through complex intertextual references, as does the process of "versioning," the reworking of an entire song so that it takes on new meaning in a new context. The use of sampling and versioning has generated conflict with existing copyright laws, and rap artists are often accused of stealing musical material. This problem arises partially because current copyright laws originated in the nineteenth century and were originally intended to protect musical scores. Sampling technology allows access to sounds that were previously "uncopiable" and therefore unprotected.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The 2011 musical The Book of Mormon, created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone (the creators of South Park), and Robert Lopez (co-creator of Avenue Q), is a widely intertextual work, referencing popular culture from Star Wars to The Lion King to The Music Man. The intertextuality goes deeper, however, with structural references to the “Golden Age” musicals of Rogers and Hammerstein. Despite the conspicuously offensive wrapping of The Book of Mormon, the musical relies on the musicals of Rodgers and Hammerstein as models for both form and content. The two protagonists in the musical, Elder Price and Elder Cunningham, young missionaries tasked with converting a Ugandan village, mirror the journey taken by Maria von Trapp in The Sound of Music in their attempts to do good, and in their ultimate achievement of doing good by bending the rules. The penultimate scene of the musical, “Joseph Smith American Moses,” involves the Ugandans performing their misreading of the Mormon story, which mirrors the “Small House of Uncle Thomas” ballet from The King and I. Both scenes portray a culture confronted with western domination, but The Book of Mormon offers a more mature version by showing a community that creates and defines itself, rather than conforming to a Western one. Any intertextuality is subjective on the part of the reader, but The Book of Mormon is notable in the way it references a wide range of texts in a way that can reach a broader audience.

Works: Trey Parker, Robert Lopez, and Matt Stone (music, lyrics, and book): The Book of Mormon.

Sources: Rodgers and Hammerstein: The Sound of Music (44–45), The King and I (45–47).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Little research has been done on Paul Simon's earliest years of songwriting and recording (pre-1963), as the songs have been dismissed by the songwriter himself as teen fluff and many early recordings are unavailable. Simon's style changed decisively in 1963 and 1964 because of his maturing as a songwriter, but also and maybe more importantly because of Bob Dylan's overwhelming influence in the folk-rock scene of the 1960s. Dylan paved the way for songwriters to express concerns about serious cultural and political issues. Simon could not help but be influenced by Dylan's songs that showed his consciousness of civil rights and other social issues. Simon claimed to have been inspired to write his first "serious" tune, He Was My Brother, as a eulogy to his friend, Andrew Goodman, who had been murdered in 1964. However, it is clear from the songs themselves as well as other evidence, that Dylan's influence was the primary factor in transforming Simon from a more frivolous singer/songwriter into a more mature songwriter in the 1960s.

Works: Paul Simon: He Was My Brother (595); Traditional: Peggy-O as performed by Paul Simon (596); Bob Dylan: The Times They Are A-Changin' (596); Paul Simon: A Church is Burning (596), On the Side of a Hill (596-97), A Simple Desultory Philippic, or How I was Robert McNamara'd into Submission (596-97).

Sources: Bob Dylan: Oxford Town (595), The Death of Emmett Till (595), The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll (595), Only a Pawn in Their Game (595-96); Traditional: Pretty Peggy-O as peformed by Bob Dylan (596); Bob Dylan: The Times They Are A-Changin' (596), With God on Our Side (597), Subterranean Homesick Blues (597), It's Alright Ma, I'm Only Bleeding (597), I Shall Be Free (597), Rainy Day Women No. 12 &35 (597), Highway 61 Revisited (597).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

The practice of sampling has democratized music production because instrumental dexterity is no longer required in order to produce compositions. The forms of sampling can be broken down into four general areas: sampling recognizable material that calls the listener's attention to its new context; sampling both familiar and arcane sources; a process dubbed "quilt-pop" by Chuck Eddy of the Village Voice, in which a new product is stitched together entirely from samples; and the use of samples to create alternate versions of tracks called "club mixes." Sampling falls into a gray area between the Postmodern aesthetic and the Romantic notion of the autonomous creator. The Copyright Act of 1976 fails to address questions of authorship and ownership which arise in sampling procedures and needs to be amended accordingly.

Works: Public Enemy: Yo! Bum Rush the Show (349), It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (349), Fear of a Black Planet (349); Grandmaster Flash: Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (350); De La Soul: Transmitting Live from Mars (354); Beastie Boys: Yo Leroy (354); John Oswald: Plunderphonics (358-59).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (349); Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers (songwriters), Chic (performers): Good Times (350); John Deacon (songwriter), Queen (performers): Another One Bites the Dust (350); Deborah Harry and Chris Stein (songwriters), Blondie (performers): Rapture (350); Sugarhill Gang: 8th Wonder (350); Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five: The Birthday Party (350); Spoonie Gee: Monster Jam (350); Jim McGuinn and Gene Clark (songwriters), The Turtles (performers): You Showed Me (354); Jimmy Castor: The Return of Leroy (Part I) (354).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Interviews with hip-hop deejays, including Mr. Supreme, Domino, Prince Paul, Samson S., and King Otto, reveal that the practice of sampling relies on the practitioner?s ability to "flip a beat," that is, to recast sound material and its meaning. The new juxtaposition of a sample, the internal characteristics of sampled materials, and the relationship between samples within the structure all contribute to the interpretive context for a new recording. Most hip-hop producers interviewed agree that the quality of manipulation is the most important, rather than the quality of the final sound product. A hip-hop producer must preserve, master, and celebrate the ambiguities inherent in sample-based hip-hop.

Works: De La Soul: Say No Go (147-48); Alicia Keys, Jermaine Dupri, and Joshua Thompson (songwriters), Alicia Keys (performer): Girlfriend (151); Guy Berryman, Jon Buckland, Will Champion, and Chris Martin (songwriters), Yesterday's New Quintet (performers): Daylight (158-59); A Tribe Called Quest: Bonita Applebum (158-59).

Sources: Darly Hall, John Oates, and Janna Allen (songwriters), Hall and Oates (performers): I Can't Go For That (147-48); Ol' Dirty Bastard: Brooklyn Zoo (151); Guy Berryman, Jon Buckland, Will Champion, and Chris Martin (songwriters), RAMP (performers): Daylight (158-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

See annotation for chapter "Elements of Style."

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

The invention of digital sampling and its pervasive use in rap music creates problems regarding concepts of authenticity, originality, and ownership that manifest themselves as conflicts with copyright law. The prevailing legal attitude towards sampling considers it to be intellectual thievery as well as simply lacking in artistic merit due to the absence of creative "originality." However, according to the theories of Walter Benjamin, in the age of modern reproduction there exist no originals, only a "plurality of copies." This, in conjunction with the fact that all popular music is a product of technological alteration and production, makes the concept of "authentic music" that exists in a pure, unaltered form an illusion. This illusive concept is widely accepted in western Anglo society and forms the basis of current copyright laws. However, it stands in stark contrast to the practice of "Signifyin(g)" that forms the basis of Black discourse in which meaning largely depends on the "intertextual referencing of previous texts." This institutionalized belief in the illusion of "authentic" and "original" music helps to perpetuate the use of authorial designations to reinforce positions of social power as described by Foucault. In addition, control of capital is affected by this concept as the legal system relies heavily on profitability in making decisions of copyright violation.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The Beastie Boys’ Paul’s Boutique (1989) and Public Enemy’s Fear of a Black Planet (1990) are often compared for their abundant digital sampling, but these two albums use sampling in markedly different ways. This difference is evident with the introduction of a more systematic typology of digital sampling practices in hip-hop. In this new typology, there are three main types of samples: structural, surface, and lyric. Within the structural type—a looped sample that creates the groove of the track—there are four subtypes depending on which elements of the sample are used in the new track: percussion only, intact, non-percussion, and aggregate. While both Public Enemy and the Beastie Boys frequently use the aggregate structural type, the individual component samples are layered in Public Enemy’s grooves and alternating in the Beastie Boys’. Surface samples punctuate a track’s groove outside of the primary loop and can be momentary, emphatic, or constituent. Differing from the Beastie Boys’ style, momentary surface samples pervade tracks by Public Enemy, whose producers often create collages and quodlibets. Lyric samples add spoken or sung text from a source and can be singular or recurring. When using lyric samples, the Beastie Boys typically treat them as substitutions, preserving the rhyme scheme and meaning of their own rapped text. Public Enemy do not avoid substitutions, but more often treat lyric samples as additive, part of the groove and not replacing rapped text. Genre and race considerations also reveal meaningful differences between the Beastie Boys’ and Public Enemy’s sampling techniques. By analyzing Paul’s Boutique and Fear of a Black Planet with this typology, it is clear that there are rich possibilities in sampling a shared genre, artist, or track, and that close listening is fundamental in hip-hop production.

Works: Beastie Boys (Michael Diamond, Adam Horovitz, and Adam Yauch, performers), Dust Brothers (Mike Simpson and John King, producers): Johnny Ryall (36-37), Shake Your Rump (40), B-Boy Bouillabaisse (40-41); Public Enemy (Chuck D, Flavor Flav, Professor Griff, and Terminator X, performers), The Bomb Squad (Chuck D, Eric Sadler, Hank Shocklee, and Keith Shocklee, producers): 911 is a Joke (34-35), Anti-N—r Machine (38-39), Welcome to the Terrordome (39-40)

Sources: Lyn Collins: Think (34-35, 38-39); Wilbur Bascomb: Feel Like Dancing (34-35); Sound Experience: Devil with the Bust (34-35); Mico Wave: Misunderstood (34-35); Parliament: Flash Light (34-35, 38-39); Donny Hathaway: Magnificent Sanctuary Band (36-37); Paul McCartney: Momma Miss America (36-37); David Bromberg: Sharon (36-37); Grandwizard Theodore and Kevie Kev Rockwell: Military Cut-Scratch Mix (36-37); Salt ’n’ Pepa: My Mike Sounds Nice (38-39); Malcolm McLaren: Buffalo Gals (38-39); Zapp: More Bounce to the Ounce (38-39); Herman Kelly and Life: Dance to the Drummer’s Beat (38-39); Diana Ross and the Supremes: Love Child (38-39); Dyke and the Blazers: We Got More Soul (38-39); Schooly D: PSK—What Does it Mean? (38-39); Fab Five Freddy and Beside: Change the Beat (38-39); Pleasure: Let’s Dance (38-39); The 45 King: The 900 Number (38-39); Boogie Down Productions: South Bronx (38-39); Rufus Thomas: Funky Hot Grits (38-39); James Brown: Get Up, Get into It, Get Involved (39-40); Foxy: Get Off Your Aahh and Dance (40); Johnny Cash: Folsom Prison Blues (40-41)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The album Broadway the Hard Way is a prime example of Frank Zappa's use of quotation and allusion to generate and alter meaning within his works. Zappa accomplishes this by invoking what he refers to as "Archetypal American Musical Icons." These icons are commonly known, readily recognizable material from American mass culture, such as the theme from The Twilight Zone or The Battle Hymn of the Republic, and carry with them connotations and associations that Zappa then manipulates to expressive ends. The associations carried with "Archetypal American Musical Icons" are deliberately invoked to create a subtext within a song that supplements and generates meaning. Zappa will also often alter a song's original meaning by adding style allusions and quotations to create a new subtext, a procedure referred to as "putting the eyebrows on it." An appendix outlines borrowings and allusions in portions of Rhymin' Man,Promiscuous, and Jesus Thinks You're a Jerk.

Works: Zappa: Dickie's Such an Asshole (40-41), When the Lie's So Big (42), What Kind of Girl? (42), Jesus Thinks You're a Jerk (43-44, 57-58), Rhymin' Man (44-48, 53-54), Promiscuous (49, 55-56).

Sources: William Steffe: Battle Hymn of the Republic (40-44); Marius Constant: Theme from The Twilight Zone (44-48, 53, 57); Lalo Schifrin: Theme from Mission Impossible (44-48, 53); Hava Nagilah (44-48, 54); Hail to the Chief (44-48, 54); La Cucaracha (44-48, 54); Julius Fucík: March of the Gladiators (44-48, 54, 57); Milton Ager: Happy Days are Here Again (44-48, 54); Frère Jacques (53-54); Ennio Morricone: Theme from The Untouchables (53); Berton Averre and Doug Fieger [The Knack]: My Sharona (54); Rock of Ages (57-58); Dixie (57-58); Richard Berry: Louie Louie as peformed by The Kingsmen (58).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Trombonist Charlie Green's bluesy solo over a rhythmic vamp in a 1924 recording of W. C. Handy's The Gouge of Armour Avenue has been quoted dozens of times in subsequent recordings, although not usually acknowledged. A few months after this recording session, trombonist Jake Frazier quoted Green's solo in Get Yourself a Monkey and Make Him Strut His Stuff with the Kansas City Five. Kid Ory quoted it again in a 1926 recording with Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five of The King of the Zulu's, and Dicky Wells copied the solo almost exactly in Symphonic Scronch with Lloyd Scott and his orchestra in 1927. Over time, Green's solo has undergone a process of transformation through multiple performers, so that the melody has become a standard term in the jazz vocabulary rather than a specific reference to a particular nameable musical source. The extensive history of quotation of Green's solo fits into larger patterns of borrowing in early jazz recordings; a cornet solo by Joe Oliver on 1923 recordings of Dipper Mouth Blues was also quoted by other musicians. A partial list of later recordings that either quote Green's melody or feature "extended solo cadenzas" or vamps is included.

Sources: Charlie Green: Trombone solo in 1924 Vocalion recording of W. C. Handy's The Gouge of Armour Avenue (136-39).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

South African kwaito group Boom Shaka’s 1998 version of the hymn Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika (Nkosi Sikelela from the album Words of Wisdom), despite being seen by many South Africans as disrespectful of the religiously and nationalistically loaded hymn, successfully re-imagined the future of South African youth culture in the post-apartheid era. Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika was composed in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga and became the anthem of the African National Congress in 1925. A multilingual version of the hymn incorporating the apartheid-era anthem Die Stem has been the national anthem of South Africa since 1997. Kwaito music, a South African variant of House music that is typically produced by slowing down House tracks and adding vocals and samples, became an important means of expression for black youths following the end of apartheid in 1994. Boom Shaka’s Nkosi Sikelela is built on a looped four-measure sequence with a different chord progression than the original hymn. The opening section includes a sample of a 1998 Nelson Mandela speech appealing to African allies of the liberated South Africa. The second section introduces Boom Shaka’s Lebo Mathosa singing the opening eight measures of Nkosi Sekelel’ iAfrika , slightly modified but in the original C Major, over the loop sequence in A Minor. The familiar tune is harmonically recontextualized, yielding dissonance where there was stability in the original. In the third section, Boom Shaka’s Thembe Seete sings the same eight measures of Nkosi Sekelel’ iAfrika modulated down a minor third to match the loop in A Minor. Although hermeneutical readings of Boom Shaka’s Nkosi Sikelela are fraught—especially surrounding assertions of a rejection of “Western” harmony—post-apartheid black empowerment is apparent in the re-composition of a culturally and politically significant hymn in the globally-mediated style of kwaito.

Works: Boom Shaka: Nkosi Sikelela (109-13)

Sources: Enoch Sontonga: Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika (109-13)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Histories of hip-hop typically link the vital practice of sampling with African American culture, but a parallel history of sampling by Jewish artists—in particular, Steinski (Steven Stein), the Beastie Boys, and Beck—reveals a practice driven by Jewish worldviews that exists outside of hip-hip. The concept of fragmentation is pervasive in both religious and secular Jewish culture, leading to a cultural affinity toward sampling. An early precursor to sampling by Jewish artists is Frank Silver and Irving Cohn’s 1922 song Yes! We Have No Bananas, the chorus of which is a patchwork of quotations from other songs. Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman’s 1956 novelty song The Flying Saucer, which samples eleven recent pop songs as “answers” to a reporter’s questions about an alien invasion, has a more direct link to later hip-hop sampling. Steinski himself recognizes The Flying Saucer as a precursor to his sampling technique. Double Dee (Doug DiFranco) and Steinski released The Payoff Mix in 1983, the first of their underground The Lesson series. The Payoff Mix is distinctive in both the extent of sampling and the function of sampling as the foundation of the track. Double Dee and Steinski’s synthesis of samples into a new, seamless whole mirrors the kabbalistic account of creation. In 1989, the Beastie Boys released their second album, Paul’s Boutique, which built on Steinski’s sampling aesthetic in its use of over a hundred samples throughout the album. The layered construction of sampling in Paul’s Boutique was also anticipated by The Lesson series. In his 1993 song Loser, alternative rock artist Beck uses samples as parody, recalling Jewish insider-outsider humor. The relationship between Jewish thought and sampling long preceded hip-hip and is similar to, but distinct from, African American sampling.

Works: Beastie Boys: Rhymin’ and Stealin’ (51-52), License to Ill (album) (64, 67), Paul’s Boutique (album) (67-68); Frank Silver and Irving Cohn: Yes! We Have No Bananas (60-61); Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman: The Flying Saucer (61-63); Double Dee (Doug DiFranco) and Steinski (Steven Stein): The Lesson: The Payoff Mix (62, 63-67); John Oswald: Dab (66); Beck: Loser (68-69)

Sources: Led Zeppelin: When The Levee Breaks (51-52); Black Sabbath: Sweet Leaf (51-52); The Clash: I Fought The Law (51-52); Handel: Messiah, HWV 56 (60); Traditional: My Bonnie Lies Over The Ocean (60), Seeing Nellie Home (60); Cole Porter: An Old-Fashioned Garden (60); Michael William Balfe: The Bohemian Girl (60); The Platters: The Great Pretender (61); Elvis Presley: Heartbreak Hotel (61); Smiley Lewis: I Hear You Knocking (61); Little Richard: Tutti Frutti (62); G.L.O.B.E. and Whiz Kid: Play That Beat Mr. DJ (63-65); Hamilton Bohannon: Take The Country To New York City (65); The Supremes: Stop! In The Name of Love (65); Indeed: Last Night A DJ Saved My Life (65); Culture Club: I’ll Tumble 4 Ya (65); Michael Jackson: Bad (66); Malcolm McLaren: Dude Rock (66); Dr. John Creaux (Mac Rebennack, songwriter), Johnny Jenkins (performer): Walk On Gilded Splinters (68)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The nature of the music industry makes it difficult to positively isolate the author of a given musical recording. Whom do we include from the list of composers, arrangers, performers, producers, sound engineers, and other figures associated with a recording? The group production systems involved in music and cinema are frequently set against the presumably individual efforts involved in writing or painting, but the latter types engage with a complex system of intertexts and conventions. Similarly, musical performances form connections with prior performances, and in so doing, raise questions about what is original in any given performance. Historically, the relationship between songwriter and song has been a source of anxiety. Since the mid-twentieth century, popular music has addressed this anxiety through increased expectations that singer-songwriters will produce their own music, and that they will build up a body of their own music that represents some sort of coherent identity for that artist (allowing of course for the natural evolution and development of an artist over the span of his or her career). Due to the recognized connections between singer-songwriter and song, cover songs and other forms of borrowing are now understood as deliberate "gestures of affinity" (203) that point to a specific artist.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Samples of Nina Simone in hip-hop in the 2000s and 2010s enable artists to access her sonic black radicalism, revealing the possibilities and limits of Simone’s contemporary resurgence as a civil rights icon and complicating debates about black women’s role in hip-hop. In 2007, producer Devon “Devo Springsteen” Harris created an instrumental track that sampled Simone’s 1965 recording of Strange Fruit, written by Abel Meeropol in 1936 and made famous by Billy Holiday, that was used in both an unreleased track by Common and in Celebrate by Cassidy. Harris selected Simone’s recording over Holiday’s for the “rawness” of her voice, emphasized by her sparse arrangement revising Franz Schubert’s Der Doppelgänger. Common pairs the Strange Fruit sample with politically engaged lyrics about global black suffering, aligning with Simone’s political black radicalism. Cassidy pairs Simone’s Strange Fruit with a personal narrative of self-reflection and redemption, emphasizing the paradoxical desperation and celebration at the heart of hip-hop. Celebrate was inspired by Get By, a 2002 track by Talib Kweli produced by Kayne West that samples Simone’s 1965 recording of Sinnerman. West extracts three sections from Sinnerman: Simone’s lyrical shout, unmeasured vocalizing, and a portion of her piano solo. These relatively obscure extracts highlight the sound of Simone’s voice and pianism over her lyrical interpretation, drawing on the musical experimentation of Simone’s sonic black radicalism. West also samples Simone in several of his own tracks, which leads to tension between Simone’s political legacy and West’s often sexist lyrics. In Blood on the Leaves, West pairs a pitch-shifted sample of Strange Fruit with deep ambivalence toward women’s sexuality and motherhood. In effect, West uses Strange Fruit to decry his exploitation at the hands of women he hooks up with, not his exploitation by racist institutions. Simone’s musical legacy of radical genre mixing is more relevant to West’s project than her politics. While the practice of sampling Nina Simone by male hip-hop artists risks being read as appropriative, it can also introduce Simone’s radical politics to a new generation of listeners and place her voice at the center of the ongoing struggle for black freedom.

Works: Cassidy, Devon Harris (producer): Celebrate (122, 124-27); Common, Devon Harris (producer): [untitled, unreleased track] (122, 124-26); Abel Meerepol (as Lewis Allen, songwriter), Nina Simone (performer): Strange Fruit (123); Talib Kweli, Kanye West (producer): Get By (128-30); Kanye West: Bad News (129), Blood on the Leaves (129-32); Kayne West and Jaz-Z: New Day (129); Busta Rhymes, Jay-Z, Kweli, Mos Def, Kanye West (producer): Get By (remix) (132-33); Lauryn Hill: Black Rage (133-34)

Sources: Abel Meerepol (as Lewis Allen, songwriter), Nina Simone (performer): Strange Fruit (122-27, 130-32); Franz Schubert: Der Doppelgänger (123); Traditional, Nina Simone (arranger, performer): Sinnerman (128-30, 132-33), See-Line Woman (129); Love: Doggone (128); Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein: My Favorite Things (133-34)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Dubbing treats music more as modeling clay than copyrightable material, rendering no mix original, as it extracts bits from existing music and places it in new contexts. Dub is both a genre of music and a technique that removes the vocal track away from its backing track. The remaining accompaniment track is then altered by the artist with a variety of methods, including drop-out, extreme equalisation, long and short delay, space echo, reverb, flange, phase, noise, gates, echo feedback, shotgun snare drums, rubber bass, zipping highs, and cavernous lows. These effects are generally used to enhance the existing track, but when they are deployed by a dubmaster they have the potential to create new moods and moments. In this way, the dubmaster is like a sculptor, as he directly manipulates existing material. Dub also anticipated the later remix culture in the 1970s with version albums such as Rupie Edwards’s Yamaha Skank, demonstrating that dub was more than a style but was a new way of thinking about music and creativity.

Works: William Gibson: Neuromancer (356); Joe Gibbs: African Dub All-Mighty; Augustus Pablo: King Tubbys Meets Rockers Uptown (356), Africa Must Be Free By 1983 (356), East of the River Nile (357); Lee Perry: Super Ape (357); Rupie Edwards: Yamaha Skank (357); Anonymous: My Conversation.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Although Ellington's compositional practices tend to support his statements about composing at the end of a deadline, often composing an entire piece in one night, new research shows that the ideas of Black, Brown, and Beige can actually be found twelve years earlier with Ellington's unproduced opera Boola. The plot of Boola deals with the history of the African-Americans, beginning in Egypt and continuing through Africa and the Deep South until they found their place in present-day Harlem. In Black, Brown, and Beige, Ellington takes the overall diagram of Boola and shrinks the subject matter into a forty-five minute extended work for his band. Ellington also borrows from his own previous compositions in Black, Brown and Beige through quotation and recomposition.

Works: Ellington: Black, Brown and Beige.

Sources: Ellington: Symphony in Black (73-74), Jump for Joy (74-82), East St. Louis Toodle-Oo (82), Riding on a Blue Note (82), Bitches' Ball (82).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Parodies of the satiric vagabond song The Dying Hobo have appeared in the United States Air Force during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War with lyric changes reflecting current aircraft nomenclature while maintaining the basic theme of the original. Beside a Belgian ’Staminet and A Poor Aviator Lay Dying are two versions dating from World War I but collected decades later. Beneath a Bridge in Sicily is a version dating from World War II with updated references to the current war. Stand to Your Glasses is a version collected during the Korean “police action” and includes several barely modified verses from A Poor Aviator Lay Dying. Another Korean War version, Busom Buddies, updates all of the references to airplane parts to refer to the new jet-powered aircraft. Under a Korean Sun is an unusual variant taken from a version in Afrikaans, apparently “composed” by a South African who had heard the American version sung in South Korea. Beside a Korean Waterfall is a variant of Beside a Belgian ’Staminet that includes a final verse delivered in mock-histrionic chanting. The variety of The Dying Hobo parodies is infinite, and the song will likely be part of Air Force culture as long as there are manned crews.

Works: Anonymous: Beside a Belgian ’Staminet (236-37), A Poor Aviator Lay Dying (237-38), Beneath a Bridge in Sicily (238-40), Stand to Your Glasses (240-41), Busom Buddies (241-42), Under a Korean Sun (242-43), Beside a Korean Waterfall (243-44).

Sources: Anonymous: The Dying Hobo (236-44), A Poor Aviator Lay Dying (240-41), Beside a Belgian ’Staminet (242-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Although heavy metal music is typically viewed as removed from the classical tradition, the most influential heavy metal guitarists of the last two decades were in their turn highly influenced by the classical tradition, particularly in expressions of virtuosity. These influences range from straightforward borrowing of classical melodies or harmonic progressions to exploring the values associated with being a classical artist and a virtuoso. The reasons for direct quotation vary. Emerson, Lake and Palmer created a 1972 remake of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition for the purpose of elevating public taste. Rainbow' s hit Difficult to Cure (1981), featuring guitarist Ritchie Blackmore, quotes Beethoven's Ode to Joy with an altered meter and a new introduction, finishing with sounds of laughter. The intent of this example is parody. Perhaps the most subtle form of appropriation lies not in quotation but in adopting values associated with classical music artistry. Yngwie Malmsteen represents not only the height of virtuosity, but also the nineteenth-century concept of the separation between artist and society. Malmsteen is a self-proclaimed "genius" whose style focuses on elitism and experimentation. The most compelling reason to examine the relationship between heavy metal and the classical tradition is heavy metal guitarists' increasing interest in classical models. Electric guitars provide the closest analogy to the virtuosic approaches to the organ, piano, and violin of past centuries.

Works: Emerson, Lake and Palmer, Pictures at an Exhibition (266); Deep Purple / Ritchie Blackmore, Highway Star (268-69); Rainbow / Ritchie Blackmore, Difficult to Cure (270); Edward Van Halen, Eruption (271-77); Ozzy Osbourne / Randy Rhoads, Goodbye to Romance (281).

Sources: Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition; Beethoven, Ode to Joy from Symphony No. 9 in D Minor; Rodolphe Kreutzer, Caprice Study #2 for Violin; Pachelbel, Canon in D.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Arguments levied against the parasitic nature of rap music can be refuted by using Walter Ong's studies of originality in oral culture, as well as the idea of "signifyin(g)" as discussed by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Dick Hebdige. While musical performance skills are not necessary, rap producers demonstrate virtuosity in the selection and positioning of samples. Extensive analysis of the groove (199-203), rhetorical strategies (203-207), and the rhythmic character (208-212) of Public Enemy?s Fight the Power includes transcriptions of several sections of the track. The groove comprises a sample from Trouble Funk, a combination of drum patterns sampled from songs by Sly Stone, Funkadelic, and the Jacksons, and new rhythms created with a drum machine. The polyrhythmic and repetitive character of Fight the Power makes it comparable with West African musical traditions and values.

Works: Public Enemy: Fight the Power (198-207).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Since the 1970s, the Polka Mass, a variant of the Catholic Mass that replaces traditional anthems with Polka songs, has been performed in the United States by Polish, German, Slovenian, and Czech congregations. The words and music draw upon familiar melodies and secular traditions to enhance the sacred occasion. This style of mass was created to respond to tensions from immigrant communities who felt like they were losing their ethnic Catholic identities in America. Oftentimes, the composers and arrangers of Polka Masses either replaced the lyrics of well-known polkas, waltzes, or country songs with standard liturgical texts, or parodied secular texts to adapt them for a sacred setting. Some of the parodies involved simple changes, such as changing the word “sun” to “Son” in Let the Son Shine In. Other parodies, however, could reinterpret an original song into one of sacred devotion, as seen in Gene Retka’s Gathered Together. Some Polka Mass writers even drew upon genres and styles such as tango, country, and bebop, which caused controversy in some churches. For example, the use of the tune from the country song, Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain, by Willie Nelson was justified only when Frank Perkovich claimed that the melody was from the Czech tune Place Oci.

Works: Fr. Frank Perkovich: At This Sacrifice (188-90, 193), Let the Son Shine In (186-87, 191), The Church in the Valley (187); Fr. George Balasko: We Offer Bread and Wine (187); Gene Retka: Song for Meditation (187), Gathered Together (192), Lord, Have Mercy; Christ, Have Mercy; Lord, Have Mercy (189-90), Each and Every Day (191, 198-99).

Sources: Hair: Let the Sunshine In (186); Walter Ostanek: The Barking Dog Polka (187); Walt Solek: Julida Polka (187, 192); Hank Thunander: The Tavern in the Valley (187); Willie Nelson: Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain (188-89, 193); Lil’ Wally Jagiello: Johnny’s Knocking (191, 198-99).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Jazz styles and trends tend to radiate outwards from a set of innovative musicians. The emergence of bebop and its distinctions from swing can be demonstrated by a set of Comet recordings created in 1945 by Red Norvo, Teddy Wilson, Slam Stewart, J. C. Heard, Flip Phillips, and, most importantly, Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie. Quotation in jazz is a long-standing tradition with no stigma attached to it as is the case in Western art music. The relationship between the quoting and quoted musicians is important: quotation often acts as a form of tribute or a sign of respect. Sometimes this tribute moves in surprising directions. In the case of these albums, older, more established musicians such as Norvo and Wilson offer such gestures of respect to the creativity of the relatively young Gillespie and Parker. Furthermore, the improvised nature of jazz allows quotation to operate not just between songs or works, but within them: Norvo and Wilson quote motives from solos by Gillespie and Parker within the same set.

Works: Red Norvo: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42); Teddy Wilson: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42).

Sources: Dizzy Gillespie: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42); Charlie Parker: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Sid Vicious’s cover of Frank Sinatra’s My Way from the film The Great Rock’n’Roll Swindle (Julien Temple, 1980) is a hyper-aggressive take on the original that reveals gaps in how cover songs are categorized and understood. Vicious’s cover makes changes to Sinatra’s original in several domains. The lyrics are changed to be about acts of violence and disparaging references to homosexuality, subverting the triumphalism of the original. Vicious’s performance is split into two sections, a “crooner” section in which Vicious mocks the physical and vocal mannerisms of Sinatra and a “punk” section in which Vicious adopts his usual persona. Instead of Sinatra’s musical climax, Vicious enacts a performative climax, gradually adopting a more extreme vocal style until he screams the last chorus, draws a gun, and fires into the crowd. The extent to which Vicious aggressively contradicts Sinatra’s songs is best understood as a process of cannibalizing rather than parody. The transgression and otherness associated with cannibalization captures the way Vicious “eats up” Sinatra’s song and transforms it into an act of violence.

Works: Sid Vicious: My Way (4-16).

Sources: Frank Sinatra: My Way (4-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Scholarship consistently claims African rhythms as the origin of rhythm in early jazz. However, many of the rhythmic cells found in jazz bear more resemblance to Caribbean styles, specifically the son clave,tresillo, and cinquillo found in Cuban music. The Cuban and Haitian immigrants brought their music with them to New Orleans. Many Creole musicians and marching bands borrowed these Caribbean dance rhythms and sounds as a rhythmic foundation for their own music because of their connection with dance. These rhythms then moved into the music of the early jazz pioneers in the rhythmic breaks that occurred in many pieces. The use of these Afro-Cuban rhythms slowly declined as jazz moved away from its dance beginnings. However, these rhythms are continually borrowed in jazz as an homage to past jazz styles and composers.

Works: Da Costa/Edwards/La Rocca/Ragas/Shields/Sbarbaro: Tiger Rag as performed by Louis Armstrong (69-71); Gillespie/Lewis: Two Bass Hit as performed by Miles Davis (71); Barefield/Moten: Toby (71-72); Ellington/Mills/Nemo: Skrontch (71-72); Monk: Rhythm-a-ning (72-73); Clarke/Gillespie: Salt Peanuts (73); Simons/Marks: All of Me (73); Richard M. Jones: Jazzin' Babies Blues as performed by King Oliver (74-75); Caesar/Kahn/Meyer: Crazy Rhythm as performed by Miff Mole (74-75); Barbarin/Russell: Come Back Sweet Papa as performed by Louis Armstrong (75-76).

Sources: Traditional: Son clave,Tresillo, and Cinquillo (57-80).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Collage can be seen as a central force in the various arts of the twentieth century, including music. Collage in music should be considered as more than just a collection of other people's music used in another composer's piece. By expanding the idea of collage to include cultural explosions and reconstitutions, unilateral use of European and American ideas by each other, access to art and ideas of the non-Western world, and the mixture of culture and music theory, a strong transition between Modernism and Postmodernism can be followed. The modernist music of Stravinsky and Debussy at the fin-de-siècle introduced orientalist musical theories and sounds into their own music. This use of orientalism led the way for Primitivism and its various guises throughout the rest of the twentieth century. Collage took a front seat in the music and culture of the twentieth century after World War II. The techniques used in early film played an important role for the emergence of collage in post-war music by giving composers the chance to suggest many past musical styles in quick succession without using long transitions. Composers also continued the tradition of using cultural, literary, and architectural collages in their compositions instead of only creating collage by cutting and pasting from earlier composers.

Works: Debussy: Images (23-26); Stravinsky: Le Rossignol (38-49), Le Sacre du printemps (84-100); Milhaud: La Creation du monde (116-21); Krenek: Jonny spielt auf (150-53); Thomson: Four Saints in Three Acts (153-55); Ellington: Black and Tan Fantasy (187-88); Gershwin: Porgy and Bess (195-202); Stravinsky: David, projected collaboration with Cocteau (238-43, 256-64), Three Pieces for String Quartet (260-64); Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire (282-84); Stravinsky: Renard (285-87); Debussy: The Children's Corner (297-98); Antheil: Ballet mecanique (327-29); Stravinsky: Agon (360-74); Varese: Ameriques (389-90); Satie: Le feu d'artifice (399); Ives: Flanders Field (400); Britten: War Requiem (405); Rouse: Symphony No. 1 (407-8); Schnittke: Symphony No. 1 (410); Gubaidulina: Offertorium (411-12); Riley: Salome Dances for Peace (414-15); Berio: Sinfonia (416-17), Rendering (417); Berg: Violin Concerto (430-32); Britten: The Prince of the Pagodas (445-46).

Sources: Traditional: America (400), Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (400); Bruckner: Symphony No. 7 (407-8); Lasso: Stabat Mater (411); Beethoven: Grosse Fugue (410); Bach: The Musical Offering (410); Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Resurrection (416).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Despite its claims of existing in and focusing on the present, rock music has always engaged deep connections with its past. The rock cover song offers us a useful means by which to explore that history, particularly in the way that covers refer not just to "the song itself" (i.e., melody, chords, and lyrics), but to a particular recorded performance of that song. At various stages in rock's history, cover songs have referenced a past which existed at a varying chronological distance. In the early years of the genre in 1950s, it was a very recent past. That past grew increasingly distant over the following decades, with constantly changing meanings for artists and listeners. The motivation behind cover songs in different rock eras included claims to authenticity and displays of virtuosity, as well as the desire to offer parody of or tribute to one's rock forebears.

Works: Georgia Gibbs: Dance with Me Henry (The Wallflower) (139).

Sources: Etta James: The Wallflower (139).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Many popular music groups, especially rap groups, have been sued by other artists and their publishers for using copyrighted music without permission, even though the groups generally took a small section of the piece in question and thus the quotation falls under the fair use clause. However, by looking at quotations more closely, one can find an extramusical meaning to the quoted material. Because of this, many of the quotations should not be seen as plagiarism as long as the composer does not borrow too much from a previous source.

Works: Puccini: Madame Butterfly; Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15.

Sources: Dees/Orbison: Oh Pretty Woman;The Star-Spangled Banner;Dies Irae; Rossini: William Tell.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Sampling and quotation in popular music resembles borrowing in Western art music. DJ sampling not only "recycles" music, it also uses specific performances from recordings. This commonly brings in characteristics of timbre and the performer's interpretation from the sampled music that is not found in other forms of musical borrowing. Because of these added factors in sampling, one finds a kind of iconography that the DJs bring into their music that is noticed by the listeners. The idea of extra-musical meaning, albeit through iconography in DJ sampling, is not new. Composers of Western art music have commonly inserted previously composed music into their own compositions for extramusical meanings. These meanings within the borrowing do not hinder the composer's, nor the DJ's, originality in any way.

Works: Berg: Violin Concerto; Wuorinen: Machaut mon chou; Respighi: The Birds; Schubert: String Quartet No. 14 in D Minor; Mahler: Symphony No. 1; Ives: Three Places in New England; Ravel: Bolero; Copland: Symphony No. 3; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Sources: Brown: Funky Drummer; J.S. Bach: O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort BWV 60; Schubert: Death and the Maiden; Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer; Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Sloanism, the commercial philosophy of producing and selling an “updated” consumer good before the end of the original product’s life cycle, can be applied to certain practices in the popular music industry whereby existing songs are consciously updated with a new production, new artist, or new genre. Sloanism is named after Alfred P. Sloan, president of General Motors from 1923 to 1956, who pioneered annual models, trade-ins, and planned obsolescence in the automotive industry to drive production and consumption. In the music industry, Sloanism is particularly evident in the 1980s and 1990s due to a confluence between new technologies, genres, and copyright-based commercial strategies. The mid-1980s production team of Mike Stock, Matt Aitken, and Pate Waterman (SAW), whose many hits collectively sold over 40 million records, exemplify musical Sloanism in their repurposing of existing songs. For example, Kylie Minogue’s The Locomotion (1988), produced by SAW, is a Eurobeat cover of Little Eva’s The Loco-Motion (1962). While not strictly a cover song, Janet Jackson’s Rhythm Nation (1989), produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, is structurally based on Sly and the Family Stone’s Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) (1969). Jam and Lewis similarly update Sly’s funk sound into their synth-heavy style of “new jack swing.” In the 1990s, examples of Sloanism can be found in the trend of “rap cover versions” of older pop songs, wherein the original hook is retained in the chorus, but the verses are replaced with rap vocals. Will Smith is the rapper most strongly associated with this practice; most of his late-1990s hits, including the film tie-ins Men in Black and Wild Wild West, are Sloanist updates. Sloanism as an intertextual category overlaps with—but still crucially differs from—retroism as described by Simon Reynolds. Both deal with cultural fixation on material from the past, but retroism does not differentiate between recreating musical styles and repackaging “upgraded” musical products. While a Sloanist theory of music production only accounts for a specific kind of musical reworking, it demonstrates the relationship between musical material and modes of production.

Sources: Mariah Carey and Walter Afanasieff (songwriters), Mariah Carey (performer): All I Want For Christmas Is You (320-21, 327); Michael McDonald, Ed Sanford, Jerry Leiber, and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Michael McDonald (performer): I Keep Forgettin (328-29); Hank Ballard (songwriter), Chubby Checker (performer): The Twist (330); Gerry Goffin and Carole King (songwriters), Little Eva (performer): The Loco-Motion (331-32); Sly and the Family Stone: Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) (332-34); James Mtune: Juicy Fruit (335); Sting (songwriter), The Police: Every Breath You Take (335); Led Zeppelin: Kashmir (335-36); Patrice Rushen, Freddie Washington, and Terri McFaddin (songwriters), Patrice Rushen (performer): Forget Me Nots (336); Stevie Wonder: I Wish (336); Leon Sylvers, Stephen Shockley, William Skelby (songwriters), The Whispers (performers): And the Beat Goes On (336); Bernard Edwards, Nile Rodgers (songwriters), Sister Sledge (performer): He's the Greatest Dancer (336); Bill Withers and Grover Washington Jr.: Just the Two of Us (336); Charles Fox, Norman Gimbel (songwriters), Roberta Flack (performer): Killing Me Softly with His Song (337).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Hamilton Mixtape and its central track, “Immigrants (We Get the Job Done),” engages with issues of “offstage politics” by operating as a space to perform diversity, navigate politics of marginality, and critique immigration policy. The mixtape relies on sampling as a signifier of hip hop authenticity to achieve this aim. In hip hop culture, the idea of a mixtape (an independently released album drawing on a tradition of bootleg tapes) and sonic signifiers of underground hip hop such as record scratching and overt sampling are used to mark authenticity. In Hamilton: An American Musical, Lin-Manuel Miranda uses hip hop’s status as the voice of the marginalized to make a statement about American history. The Hamilton Mixtape extends this project by featuring covers, remixes, and demos of numbers from the musical. The deliberately rough sound of the mixtape connects to the sound of underground hip hop more so than the polished, orchestrated musical. “Immigrants (We Get the Job Done)” is the central track of the mixtape and is titled after a line from “The Battle of Yorktown.” The line, spoken by Hamilton and Lafayette, became a fan-favorite moment in the show amid the immigration discourse sparked by Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign. The chorus of “Immigrants” samples this line and others from “Yorktown” in an intentionally choppy style to evoke the ethos of underground hip hop. The verses, supplied by rappers K’naan, Show Tha Product, Riz MC, and Residente, deal with issues of immigrant labor and the continuing impact of colonialism. While both The Hamilton Mixtape and Hamilton: An American Musical express critiques of immigration discourse, particularly issues of immigrant labor, the mixtape taps into the sound and voice of the global hip hop movement, moving beyond the American setting of the musical it samples.

Works: Lin-Manuel Miranda, Keinan Warsame (K’naan), Claudia Feliciano (Snow Tha Product), Rizwan Ahmed (Riz MC), René Pérez Joglar (Residente), and Trooko: Immigrants (We Get the Job Done) from The Hamilton Mixtape (493-500)

Sources: Lin-Manuel Miranda: Hamilton: An American Musical (493-500)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a particular subgenre of hip-hop arose, defined by its use of musical gestures, lyrical references, and images already encoded into popular audiences’ conception of jazz at that time. By the late eighties, due to the “jazz Renaissance” of that decade, jazz was deeply associated with “high art” and often discussed as an analog for an American classical tradition. As such, it brought with it a complex of hierarchies and standards for authenticity that jazz rap artists navigated in forging personal, artistic identities. Jazz “codes,” or musical elements which had been definitively associated with jazz (such as acoustic walking bass, muted trumpets, and other brass instruments) could be deployed concretely as samples or through the inclusion of jazz musicians in actual performance. They could also be deployed allusively, as timbral, lyrical, and rhythmic topics. Notably, these codes are demonstrably different from the gestures used in other subgenres of rap at the time, and can be found in the works of groups such as De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Gang Starr, and Digable Planets.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Verses from the Abstract (55), Check the Rhime (56), Jazz (We’ve Got) (56), Excursions (56-57); Digable Planets: Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat) (58-63), It’s Good to Be Here (60-61), Swoon Units (61).

Sources: The Last Poets: Time (58).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Due to the elevation of jazz to a “high art” in the mainstream media during the 1980s, members of the hip-hop community interested in projecting such high-art ideologies began to associate themselves with jazz music. “Jazz rap,” which sampled jazz and used “conscious” lyrics in the spirit of bebop’s perceived highbrow nature, was seen as a form of high art within the hip-hop community starting in the early 1990s, and those who wished to justify its high art status argued that it was more authentic than the “lower,” more popular subgenres of rap music. Groups such as De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digable Planets, and Gang Starr utilize “jazz codes”—sounds, lyrical references, and imagery identified by audiences with jazz—to associate themselves with jazz music.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Verses from the Abstract (445), Check the Rhime (445), Jazz (We’ve Got) (445-46); Digable Planets: It’s Good to Be Here (449), Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat) (450-52).

Sources: Bronislaw Kaper (composer) and Lucky Thompson (performer): On Green Dolphin Street (446); Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers: A Chant for Bu (446); The Honeydrippers: Impeach the President (451-52).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Within hip-hop music and culture, there are many approaches to intertextuality and musical borrowing beyond digital sampling, the analysis of which can better situate hip-hop recordings in wider cultural contexts. Hip-hip music has openly used pre-existing material since its origins, and this practice has been linked to Henry Louis Gates Jr.’s literary concept of Signifyin(g). Intertextuality in hip-hop is generally unconcealed and is often, but not always, textually signaled, or highlighted by an element of the whole recorded text (the instrumental “beat” as well as the lyrical “flow”). One example of textual signaling is the vinyl pops and hiss audible in The Pharcyde’s Passin Me By), which show that the samples composing the beat come from older analog sources. Xzibit’s Symphony in X Major (2002), produced by Rick Rock, provides an illustrative case study of sampling from the classical music canon: Wendy Carlos’s version of Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 from Switched on Bach (1968). The two samples used in Symphony in X Major are both autosonic (from an existing recording) and textually signaled with audible artifacts of sampling. One sample is used in the chorus, the other in the verses. The meaning of these samples depends on how specifically a listener identifies the source: classical music, J. S. Bach, the Brandenburg Concerto, or Carlos’s synthesizer recording. Carlos’s recording, more so than Bach’s composition, aligns with the popularity of synth-heavy beats in early 2000s hip-hop and the general practice of re-appropriation. Still, genre or stylistic topic might be more important than the specific source for interpreting a sample. Signifying “classical music” and its cultural status better fits Xzibit’s boastful lyrics. Understanding the meaning of such samples is aided by conceptualizing an imagined community of hip-hop, a particular interpretive community with generic expectations, assumptions, and historical knowledge of hip-hop.

Works: The Pharcyde: Passin Me By (193-95); Dr Dre (producer) and Snoop Doggy Dogg: Who Am I (What’s My Name?) (193-95); Rick Rock (producer) and Xzibit: Symphony in X Major (196-201).

Sources: The Jimi Hendrix Experience: Are You Experienced? (194); Weather Report: 125th Street Congress (194); Skull Snaps: It’s a New Day (194); Quincy Jones: Summer in the City (194); Eddie Russ: Hill Where the Lord Hides (194); Tom Browne: Funkin’ for Jamaica (195); George Clinton: Atomic Dog (195); Parliament: Tear the Roof off the Sucker (Give up the Funk) (195); Wendy Carlos (arranger), J. S. Bach (composer): Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G Major BWV 1048 (196-201).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Jeremy O. Harris’s Slave Play, an exploration of the inherited trauma from slavery in contemporary America, uses popular music to communicate nonverbally its characters’ psychological perspective on their temporal experience. The choice of borrowed pop songs, their use within the play’s narrative, and characters’ intersectional black and queer identities all contribute to the play’s queer temporality, disrupting linear time and dramatizing the lingering trauma of history. The play, drawn in part from Harris’s experience as a black queer man, is about three interracial couples engaging in “Antebellum Sexual Performance Therapy,” an experimental treatment for the three black characters’ obsessive-compulsive disorder. The OCD patients all share the symptom of musical hallucinations, which are heard as metadiegetic music shared between certain (but not all) characters and the audience. For example, Kaneisha’s auditory hallucination is Rihanna’s Work, which first appears with Kaneisha singing and dancing along to it in an antebellum home and costume. In addition to this juxtaposition of time and place, Work reveals other dramatic themes: it lyrically presents the theme of labor, it endears Kaneisha to the audience, it creates a counterpoint to the play’s action, and it foregrounds the experience of being trapped in an unending cycle. Gary’s hallucination is Multi-Love by Unknown Mortal Orchestra, which is featured prominently in a dream ballet where he works through his sexual hang-ups with his husband. Both musical hallucinations deal with issues of queer temporality, disrupting the linear, objective time of the play and emphasizing the characters’ interconnected lived times. The musical hallucinations are deeply embedded in the characters’ internal lives as well as in the audience’s impression of the play as a way to connect with and remember their traumas.

Works: Jeremy O. Harris: Slave Play (9-24)

Sources: Jahron Brathwaite, Matthew Samuels, Allen Ritter, Rubert Thomas Jr., Aubrey Graham, Robyn Fenty, and Monte Moir (songwriters), Rihanna (performer): Work (9-21); Roban Nielson and Kody Nielson (songwriters), Unknown Mortal Orchestra (performer): Multi-Love (21-24)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Country musician Jimmie Rodgers’s use of hillbilly yodeling—including his style, choice of melodic material, and lyrical themes—set the paradigm for many popular and country music vocal practices. Throughout his extensive recording catalogue, Rodgers uses three species of yodel: wordless yodel (first species), texted yodel (second species), and yodeled grace notes (third species). Each of these species can be used within three functional categories: structural types, melodic archetypes, and word decoration. One of the central yodel tropes in Rodgers’s songs is the home trope, typically associated with nostalgic songs. An important home yodel is melodically derived from the yodel in John Handley’s Sleep, Baby, Sleep (published in 1885, first recorded by Rodgers in 1927). A cheerful yodel trope is taken from Rodgers’s Away Out on the Mountain, possibly derived from J. K. Emmet’s Cuckoo Song. Less well defined but still widely used are the blue-yodel turnarounds, which exist in two primary forms incorporating swung blues-scale patterns. A later blues yodel pattern is derived from W. C. Handy’s Memphis Blues. The stylistic sources for Rodgers’s yodeling practice are extremely varied, ranging from nineteenth-century yodel melodies to contemporary ragtime and blues practices. As a carrier and aggregator of multiple traditions, Rodgers proved to be foundational in the construction of rural singing style and a major contributor to American music.

Works: Jimmie Rodgers: Mother, the Queen of My Heart (18), I’ve Only Loved Three Women (18), Dream with Tears in My Eyes (18-19), Yodeling My Way Back Home (19), Lullaby Yodel (19), Treasures Untold (19), The Land of My Boyhood Dreams (19), The Cowboy’s Last Ride (19), Whisper Your Mother’s Name (21), A Drunkard’s Child (21), The Yodeling Cowboy (21), The Mystery of Number Five (21), The Brakeman’s Blues (22), Everybody Does It in Hawaii (22), Tuck Away My Lonesome Blues (22), Jimmie’s Mean Mama Blues (22, 26), Mississippi Delta Blues (26), Those Gambler’s Blues (31); Texas Drifter (Goebel Reeves): The Tramp’s Mother (19), Hobo’s Lullaby (19), The Wayward Son (19); Cliff Carlisle: Nevada Johnny (19); Ward Barton: Rock-a-bye Baby (20); Rex Griffin: You Gotta Go to Work (21), My Hillbilly Baby (26), Everybody’s Trying to Be My Baby (27)

Sources: John Handley: Sleep, Baby, Sleep (16-20, 21); Traditional: 5-6-5-3-1-5 Yodel Trope (20-21), St. James Infirmary Blues (31); Jimmie Rodgers: Away Out on the Mountain (21-23); J. K. Emmet: Cuckoo Song (22-23); W. C. Handy: Memphis Blues (26-27)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Klezmer music, which is generally associated with old-world Eastern-European Judaism and Yiddish culture, manifests itself as a revived repertory in the work of DJ Sophie Solomon and DJ SoCalled (Josh Dolgin). By creating a fusion of klezmer with hip-hop performance and production techniques (including sampling), the duo constructs a contemporary “Hip Hop Khasene,” or hip-hop wedding, musically reenacting one of the ritual components of the wedding on each track of their 2003 album HipHopKhasene. In doing so, Solomon and SoCalled question concepts of musical and cultural authenticity in the face of changing cultural worlds, and create a sonically constructed contemporary Yiddish identity.

Works: Solomon and SoCalled: HipHopKhasene.

Sources: Abe Schwartz: Sadugerer Chusidl (256).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Serge Lacasse’s model of transtextuality requires expansion in order to account for referential practices involving transformations of medium in recorded popular music, as demonstrated by analysis of several songs by trip hop band Portishead. Lacasses’s distinction between syntagmatic (subject) and paradigmatic (style) transformations is expanded by the addition of phonomatic transformation, a transformation of medium or technology. Three types of phonomatic transformations can be found in the music of Portishead: retronormativity, vinyl aesthetics, and analogue allusion. These transformations can further be characterized as either allosonic, an abstract recreation of a musical passage from another musical work, or autosonic, a concrete insertion of an actual recording of a musical work. Retronormativity is the mechanism of referencing a combination of stylistic traits emblematic of a certain era. An example of autosonic retronormativity—inserting a specific recording to evoke the past—is found in Portishead’s Strangers (1994), which begins with a sample of Elegant People by Weather Report. An example of allosonic retronormativity can be found in Half Day Closing, which alludes to The American Metaphysical Circus by The United States of America, recreating the bass line, drum fill, and distinctive transformation of the vocal track, but not directly sampling the recording. Vinyl aesthetics refers to the sense of authenticity and humanity attributed to vinyl records by enthusiasts. Autosonic vinyl aesthetics can be found in Humming (1997), the drum track of which includes conspicuous vinyl pops and crackles as a result of its recording process. Analogue allusion describes brief sonic references to historical recording technologies, particularly when juxtaposed with contemporary technologies. An example of autosonic analogue allusion can be found in Only You (1997) in the juxtaposition of a crackling vinyl sample of She Said by The Pharcyde with clean digital silence, grounding the track simultaneously in both past and present. Lacasse’s model can be further expanded to include self-quotation as practiced by Portishead, wherein the group composes and records a private library of musical ideas in order to sample them as if they were external works. For example, the string loop, drum track, and outro of the song Western Eyes were recorded by Portishead, but were manipulated to add sonic markers of old recording technology (low frequency response and tape hiss). A fake sample credit was even included in the liner notes. This method of self-quotation allows musicians to engage with the creative process of sampling while retaining the legal and aesthetic implications of sole authorship.

Works: Portishead: Strangers (102-3), Only You (104-5), Half Day Closing (105-6)

Sources: Weather Report: Elegant People (102-3); The Pharcyde: She Said (104-5); The United States of America: The American Metaphysical Circus (105-6)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The German “medieval rock” band Corvus Corax reinterprets texts and music of the Middle Ages as a means of avoiding the problematic connotations of folk (Volk) stemming from Nazi associations. Corvus Corax was formed in the late 1980s at the tail end of Germany’s Ougenweide scene, roughly parallel to English and American folk rock. Despite Ougenweide music’s popularity with student protest movements, the genre still struggled to distance itself from associations with Nazi Volksmusik. Like many Ougenweide groups, Corvus Corax initially drew from Middle High German texts as a further removed folk source Eventually, the band adopted its signature sound and look, blending aesthetics of medieval dance music, heavy metal, punk, and goth. In describing their aesthetic, band members often invoke the idea of the minstrel as the keeper of an oral music tradition. In creating their medieval rock, Corvus Corax borrows from a wide range of medieval to ancient melodies, including a Macedonian Oro, Ottoman song, ancient Chinese emperor hymn, and the Epitaph of Seikilos. Their 2006 “opera” Cantus Buranus is drawn from the same text source as Orff’s Carmina Burana, but strives to cast off the fascist associations by emphasizing the community of vagrants suggested in the text. Corvus Corax uses a universal and cosmopolitan framing of medieval German history as a political statement of inclusion and anti-nationalism.

Works: Corvus Corax: Viator (375), Tritonus (375), Seikilos (375)

Sources: Traditional (Macedonian): Skudrinka (375); Traditional (Ottoman): Neva Cengi Harbi (375); Traditional (Greek): Epitaph of Seikilos (375); Traditional (Chinese): Chou chou sheng (375)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Jimi Hendrix's recording of Bob Dylan's All along the Watchtower transforms Dylan's reserved and detached delivery into a dramatic and spectacular performance driven by intensification of Dylan's melodies and by a greater focus on unified structure that emphasizes the character of the ballad's narrator. Hendrix's version is the product of the peak of studio technology in its time, while Dylan's focuses on a simple capture of the singer's delivery. Both versions, and indeed both singers, are united by blues influences, although Hendrix intensifies Dylan's harmonic content and structure. Hendrix's remake is one sign of the more general affinities that he felt with Dylan over the course of their careers. Together, the two albums demonstrate much of the range of expression covered by rock artists in the late 1960s.

Works: Bob Dylan (songwriter), Jimi Hendrix (performer): All along the Watchtower.

Sources: Bob Dylan (songwriter and performer): All along the Watchtower.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Since its Broadway premiere in 1979, Stephen Sondheim’s Sweeney Todd has been described by audiences, critics, and scholars as being particularly operatic compared to other works of musical theater. The work’s technical demands, use of operatic musical devices (such as leitmotives), and performances in major opera houses contribute to its perception as both an opera and a musical. Sondheim also borrows from several operas—Il barbiere di Siviglia, Pagliacci, L’elisir d’amore, and Wozzeck—and employs these allusions to characterize Sweeney Todd and his rival, Adolfo Pirelli. In Pirelli’s number “The Contest,” Sondheim parodies the famous “Largo al factotum” from Rossini’s Il barbiere di Siviglia by adopting the aria’s virtuosic displays and patter style. Sondheim also references the traveling charlatan Doctor Dulcamara from Donizetti’s L’elisir d’amore. By parodying these comic works, Sondheim characterizes Pirelli as an exaggerated showoff and ultimately a fraud. Sweeney Todd on the other hand is a much more serious character, and his operatic models reflect this. Todd resembles operatic outsiders such as Britten’s Peter Grimes and Mozart’s Don Giovanni, and his shaving scene in Act 1, number 16 is similar to the shaving scene in Berg’s Wozzeck. Sondheim also quotes a passage of “Vesti la giubba” from Leoncavallo’s verismo opera Pagliacci in Todd’s number “Epiphany.” Whereas Pirelli’s number parodied its sources, Todd’s number borrows to increase its dramatic effect. Elsewhere in Sweeney Todd, Sondheim alludes to several other opera conventions and art song styles. While Sondheim’s implementation of operatic styles in Sweeney Todd often begins the discourse on opera vs. musical, the specific parodies and allusions can work to break down the distinction altogether and open up new lines of interpretation.

Works: Sondheim: Sweeney Todd (61-67)

Sources: Rossini: “Largo al factotum” from Il barbiere di Siviglia (61-63); Donizetti: L’elisir d’amore (63); Leoncavallo: “Vesti la giubba” from Pagliacci (65-67); Berg: Wozzeck (64-65)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet