The model for the composition of Pelléas is Tristan und Isolde. The intent is to avoid the recollection of Wagner, but numerous recollections are present. These recollections take the form of orchestration and of musical material. Quotations of Wagner occur most often in the interludes (pp. 138-140). Debussy is viewed as a commentator on Wagner both in the way he used certain Wagnerian lois (especially the system of metaphorical tonality in which the order and choice of keys rests upon textual and not upon functional harmonic exigency, pp. 129-32) and in the way he alluded to the earlier works.

Works: Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande.

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

In the use of folk tunes, Glinka was concerned with nothing more than stringing them together into frankly popular fantasias. Efforts of later composers to fuse these tunes into complicated musical organisms (sonata-form on the symphonic scale) failed, according to Abraham, (1) because folk songs are not suited to such treatment and (2) because these composers had a fundamentally wrong conception of Russian folk music as homophonic. The discovery of the polyphonic nature of a great deal of Russian folk-music came just too late to influence the development of Russian art music. The only successful symphonic handling of folk tunes was a matter of "good taste," being shown in the avoidance of virtuosity in the treatment of the material and in not making it an excuse for "talking about oneself." To absorb a great deal of the folk idiom (as Mussorgsky did) and invent original themes from that root was a more successful way to get around the implications of using an original folk tune.

Works: Borodin: Prince Igor (46); Tchaikovsky: String Quartet No. 1 (47), Symphony in F Minor (48f), 1812 Overture (48); Rimsky-Korsakov: Hundred Russian Folk-Songs, Op. 24 (47f), Overture on Russian Themes (48), Easter Festival Overture (54), Capriccio Espagnol (54), Sinfonietta, Op. 31 (55); Balakirev: Overture on Three Russian Themes in B Minor (48), A Thousand Years (52f.); Beethoven: String Quartet No. 8 in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (55); Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov (55).

Sources: Sidel Vanyz (47), Vo pole bereza stoyala (48), "Over the field creeps the mist" (56).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Works: Beethoven: Thirty-Three Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli, Op. 120.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Current copyright laws do not adequately support the forms of musical borrowing prevalent in hip-hop. The use of pre-existing recordings in hip-hop samples simultaneously violates the protected rights of both the existing musical composition and the recording of that musical composition. Sampling continues to be viewed as theft rather than a source of innovation within music. Aesthetic values prevalent in hip-hop, such as oral tradition, textual emphasis, repetition, polyrhythm, and borrowing, need to be situated in a broader context of musical aesthetics and, consequently, legal treatment of borrowing practices. Treating hip-hop as theft or plagiarism robs it of its rightful place within the historical context of musical borrowing in many different kinds of music. Modifications to current copyright laws, such as payment structures and differentiation of different types of sampling, are necessary to address the legality of hip-hop sampling.

Works: Irving Gordon (songwriter), Natalie Cole (performer): Unforgettable (562); Beastie Boys: Pass the Mic (570-72); N.W.A.: 100 Miles and Runnin' (574-76); Biz Markie: Alone Again (580-81); Handel: Israel in Egypt (601-603, 610).

Sources: James Newton: Choir (570-72); George Clinton (songwriter), Funkadelic (performers): Get off Your Ass and Jam (574-76); Gilbert O'Sullivan: Alone Again (Naturally) (580-81); Dionigi Erba: Magnificat (601-603, 610).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray’s promotion of ancient Greek modes as a resource for modern French music is deeply entwined with his commitment to the Aryanist philosophy of Émile Burnouf. In his 1876 collection of Greek folk songs, Trente mélodies populaires de Grèce et d’Orient, Bourgault uses both transcription and arrangement to bolster his position as an authority on ancient music, working under the premise that modern Greek folk songs reflect ancient Greek modal theory. In his arrangements of the transcribed melodies, Bourgault exploits this supposed connection to ancient Greece to give authority to his own harmonic innovations. Bourgault’s 1878 suite Carnaval d’Athènes similarly uses explanatory paratext to give the work authority as a reproduction of authentic Greek folk music despite exhibiting Bourgault’s compositional hand. Later composers use Bourgault’s authority to give their orientalist music a sense of authenticity. For example, Alfred Bruneau’s 1887 opera Kérim borrows extensively from Bourgault’s Greek arrangements to express its oriental (Middle Eastern) setting. Critics of the time found Kérim to be too researched and authentic, suggesting a distinction between oriental musical tropes and Bourgault’s “academic” approach. Camille Saint-Saëns also borrowed from Bourgault’s collection in his 1893 incidental music for Sophocles’s Antigone in order to reproduce an “authentic” ancient Greek chorus. Compared to Bruneau, Saint-Saëns was much more liberal in adapting Bourgault’s folk songs, elaborating on Bourgault’s modal arrangements rather than the melodies themselves, and his Antigone score was well received. After the success of his Greek arrangements, Bourgault began collecting folk songs from his native Brittany, resulting in the 1886 collection Trente melodies populaires de Basse-Bretagne. He was also expanding his belief in the common roots of “Aryan” and “Indo-European” music. Bourgault’s 1887 opera Michel Columb (later titled Bretagne) cites two Breton melodies from this collection and otherwise emulates its modal folk style. Bourgault’s 1891 opera Thamara also uses his understanding of Greek modality and borrows from his Breton collection. In doing so, Bourgault more directly articulate his Aryanist, ethnic nationalist ideology, forging a continuity between ancient Greek and modern French music.

Works: Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray: Trente mélodies populaires de Grèce et d’Orient (139-44), Carnaval d’Athènes (146-48), Michael Columb / Bretagne (160-63), Thamara (165-67); Alfred Bruneau: Kérim (148-55); Camille Saint-Saëns: Antigone (154-59).

Sources: Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray: Trente mélodies populaires de Grèce et d’Orient (148-59), Trente mélodies populaires de Basse-Bretagne (160-63, 165-67); Guillaume André Villoteau: Description de l’Égypte (149).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

An introduction to Paganini's place in history and his contributions includes background information on the 24th Caprice of Op. 1, an analysis of its theme, and a list of works (p. 28) based on this theme. Auh provides introductions and analyses of Liszt's sixth Grande etude, Brahms's Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 35, and Friedman's Studies on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 46b, and compares the elements of retention and variability of the original theme, variation technique, grouping for performance, and technical musical difficulties. Almost all of the variations assume the basic structure and given harmony of Paganini's theme; thus the variation techniques used are mainly of harmony, rhythm, and character.

Works: Johannes Brahms: Variations on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 35; Ferrucio Busoni: An die Jugend (7); Ignaz Friedman: Studies on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 46b; Franz Liszt: Etudes d'execution transcendente d'après Paganini (7), Grosse Paganini-Etuden; Robert Schumann: Studies after Caprices of Paganini, Op. 3 (7), 6 Concert Etudes after Caprices of Paganini, Op. 10 (7).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

See especially "Folk Music in Iglau," in which Mahler's allusions to folk tunes and folk types are discussed.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

A pentatonic archetypal theme is found in Mahler's music. The archetype may be considered as a private symbol, the "musical expression of some recurrent pattern of exprience." Ninety-two examples of the archetype, often in varied form, are presented. Buddhism and Hegel's concept of das unglückliche Bewusstsein may account for the ubiquity of the idea.

Works: Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer (310), Das Lied von der Erde (311-12, 314-15), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (313).

Sources: Anonymous: La bergère que je sers (310), Frère Jacques (313).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Before composing Carmen, Bizet had already shown strong interest in Spanish music. His adaptation of Spanish music in his opera Don Quichotte and symphonic ode Vasco de Gama is evident. The experience of a school-day friendship with Pablo Sarasate provided him an easy channel to Spanish sources. In Carmen, Bizet borrowed genuine Spanish folksongs, local rhythms, and tunes composed by Spanish composers Sebastián Yradier and Manuel Garcia. The pieces of Spanish origin in Carmen include the famous "Habañera"; Carmen's aria "Séguidille, séguidille, séguidilla," and "Choeur des gamins" in Act I; Carmen's aria "Chanson bohème," and "Toreador Song" in Act II; and both of the preludes to Act III and IV. The most interesting borrowing is Carmen's leitmotif, the Fate theme, which is used repeatedly throughout the opera in two patterns, one for Carmen, and the other for Don José. This theme is derived from an Andalusian Saeta (flamenco music). Bizet's familiarity with authentic Spanish music is underestimated, and the extent of Spanish influence on the score of Carmen is more complex than usually recognized.

Works: Bizet: Carmen.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Riethmüller aims to outline Busoni thought patterns by analyzing two works, the Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, completed in 1898, and the Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir,' composed in 1916. The Improvisation reworks material from the Second Violin Sonata. The structure of the variations in the third movement of the violin sonata is modeled on Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op.109. Riethmüller misses the fact that the opening notes of the Bach chorale are identical to the bass line of Beethoven's variation theme, and hence serve in Busoni's sonata as a good example of Busoni's idea of "the Oneness of Music." Riethmüller points out the "latent characteristic of quotation in Busoni's music," and discovers the borrowing of sketches for an unfinished piano work in the chorale variations and the borrowing from Bach's Trauerode, BWV 198 in the opening of Busoni's third movement. Riethmüller analyzes the Improvisation in terms of borrowing from the violin sonata, calling it obscurer, more aggressive, and more enigmatic. But the relationship of the two works is more like "that of a healthy mother to a very sickly child," since the average listener does not know its antecedent in detail and since some passages are incoherent and illogical.

Works: Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, (571-73), Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir' (573).

Sources: J.S. Bach: "Wie wohl ist mir" from Notenbuch für Anna Magdalena Bach (571), Trauerode, BWV 198 (572), Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 109 (571), Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a (573).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

If we look beyond the influence of our accepted musical canon, we can see connections between Chopin’s Ballade No. 2 in F Major, Op. 35, and the literary, cultural, and musical contexts of Poland. It has long been speculated that Chopin’s ballades had some poetic connection, ever since Schumann remarked that “certain poems of Mickiewicz,” a Polish romantic poet, inspired the first two ballades. The second ballade’s seemingly problematic double key center of F major and A minor is a result of the story it tells.

Although we typically focus on the German and French precursors and contemporaries to Chopin when looking for musical influence, growing up in Poland he was familiar with the musical culture there, particularly the amateur program music that evoked Polish national topics and sentiments through musical topics and allusions to patriotic tunes and other songs. It is these pieces that provided the model for Chopin’s ballade structures.

Chopin’s Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23, is somewhat radical for its time. It did not follow the rational symmetry of sonata form and was much longer than a “Song Without Words,” yet had a singing quality and strong forward momentum. The final, climactic section uses a “krakowiak,” a syncopated dance in duple meter from Poland. These qualities exist because the piece is meant to describe the poem Konrad Wallenrod by Mickiewicz. They both begin with a bardic introduction, with Chopin’s opening based on a song introduction by Bellini. The rest of the piece follows the actions and interactions of the main characters in the poem.

Contemporaneous ballades, such as Clara Weick’s emotionally lyrical Ballade in D Minor, Op. 6, No. 4, and Schumann’s heroically-tinged “Balladenmässig” from the Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6, began to create an idea of the storytelling genre of the piano ballade. Chopin was also interested in many operas with ballade numbers, especially Meyerbeer’s Robert le Diable, from which he derived some ideas in the second ballade including the major-minor alternations and the siciliano theme at the beginning. Combined with a storm topic derived from Rossini’s Guillaume Tell, Chopin’s ballade depicts the story of national exile and martyrdom.

Works: Chopin: Ballade No. 2 in F Major, Op. 38, Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (55-85); Giacomo Meyerbeer: “Raimbaut’s ballade” from Robert le Diable (104-10).

Sources: Daniel Steibelt: La journee d’Ulm (43-44); Wilhelm Würfel: Grande fantaisie lugubre au souvenir des trois héros Prince Joseph Poniatowski, Kościuszko, et Dąbrowski, composé et dediée à la nation polonaise (45-48); Bellini: L’Abbandono; Clara Wieck: Ballade in D Minor, Op. 6, No. 4 (94-95); Robert Schumann: “Balladenmässig” from Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6 (95); François-Adrien Boieldieu: “Ballade of the White Lady” from La Dame Blanche (99-101); Louis Herold: “Camilla’s ballade” from Zampa (101-3); Meyerbeer: “Raimbaut’s ballade” from Robert le Diable (104-10, 147-50); Chopin: Étude in A Minor, Op. 25, No. 11 (152-53); Rossini: Guillaume Tell (154-60).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Many of Chopin’s contemporaries, who heard him play, documented the uniqueness of his pianism. Soon after his death, admirers and students debated “the true style” of Chopin. Although we do not have an actual aural record of Chopin’s performance, we can catch a glimpse of it through a few contemporaries who imitated his style in their written compositions, which provide a fascinating document of Chopin’s unwritten improvisation. Aspects of Chopin’s phrasing, melodic inflection, articulation, and treatment of fiorature are imitated in these works. Louis Moreau Gottschalk’s Ricordati of 1855-1856, designated a nocturne, incorporates Chopin’s rhetorical phrasing and indicates such appropriate places with written instructions such as piangendo, con lagrime, parlando, con amore, and others. In his Nocturne from Op. 21, Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann imitates Chopin's bel canto style. Moreover, in a version of the Nocturne included in his 1840 piano treatise Encyclopédie du pianiste compositeur, Zimmermann added a third staff of a Chopinesque fioriture as an example of realizing ornamentation on original melody. Edouard Wolff captures elements Chopin’s improvisatory technique in the arpeggiated passages in his Hommage à Chopin of 1852, also designated a “Reverie-Nocturne.” Chopin’s imitators also notated Chopinesque articulations, especially the gradations between staccato and full legato. In their eyes, Chopin’s written compositions are reflections and echoes of his improvisation.

Works: Gottschalk: Ricordati (153-54); Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmerman: Nocturne from 24 Etudees, Op. 21 (155-56), L’Encyclopèdie du pianist compositeur (157-58); Edouard Wolff: Romance, Op. 11, No. 1 (155-57), Hommage à Chopin, Op. 169 (157-59).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Within a biographical account of Paganini and a discussion of his compositional techniques, Paganini's Prière de Moïse, an arrangement of "Dal tuo stellato soglio" from Rossini's opera Moïse, serves as an example of orchestration. Paganini improved on Rossini's use of the drum, changing its placement to reflect the accentuation of the melody rather than to merely follow metrical conventions.

Works: Paganini: Prière de Moïse (149).

Sources: Rossini: Moïse (149).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

The plots of both works are similar so that Debussy's method of translating poetry into music can be compared. The retrospective character of the prelude is apparent in the evocation of (1) Tristan, (2) Chopin's Nocturne No. 8 in Db major, (3) Saint-Saëns's Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix, and (4) the love music of Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet.

Works: Debussy: Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (227-32), Jeux (232-38).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (232), Chopin: Nocturne No. 8 in D flat (232), Saint-Saëns: Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix (232), Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet (232).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Niels Viggo Bentzon's Variationer for klaver, Op. 241, and Robert Muczynski's Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) participate in a long tradition of variations in general and variations on Paganini's Caprice No. 24, and their contributions to the latter tradition exhibit divergent approaches to variation technique. Bentzon obscures all melodic references to Paganini's theme and does not label variations, preferring instead to make subtle allusions to Paganini's harmonies and rhythms within the context of Bentzon's own language. Muczynski's Desperate Measures, on the other hand, is a work conceived of as entertainment, and references to Paganini's melody remain clear within a more traditional approach to variations and tonality, to which Muczynski adds modern dance idioms.

Works: J. S. Bach: Goldberg Variations (11-13); Mozart: Variations in F Major, "Salve tu Domine," K. 398; Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (14); Chopin: Twelve Concert Etudes, Op. 10 (18); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (28, 30-32, 101); Busoni: Paganini-Liszt Theme mit Variationen, Etüden, No. 6 (28-32); Lutosławski: Variations on a Theme of Paganini (28, 32); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 35 (28, 32-33, 101); Rachmaninov: Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 43 (28, 32-33); Niels Viggo Bentzon: Variationer for Klaver, Op. 241 (29, 34, 37-62, 65, 98-101); Robert Muczynski: Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) (29, 65-98, 100-102).

Sources: Anonymous: Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west (12), Kraut und Rüben (12); Paisiello: "Salve tu, domine" from I filosofi immaginarii (13); Anton Diabelli: Waltz (14); Paganini: 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (26-29); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (30).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

In the works of Johannes Brahms, the use of musical allusions as a compositional procedure is most pronounced in his private genres of song and chamber music. Alte Liebe (1876) is a fascinating example of using musical allusion to create a personal connection between words and music, to reveal the composer's private thoughts, and to stir the memory of a particular audience, Clara Schumann in this case. Brahms incorporated in the song a six-note melodic segment from a solo piano piece in F-sharp minor that he had presented to Clara five years earlier (later revised and published as Capriccio, Op. 76, No.1). He then asked Julius Stockhausen to sing it to Clara, together with another song (Unüberwindlich), designating her to be the "best to hear them." Unüberwindlich, on Goethe's text describing a drunken man and his lost love, also incorporates an allusion, a literal quotation of the opening of Domenico Scarlatti's keyboard sonata in D major, K. 223. The two songs represent opposite sides of the same coin: one private and melancholically nostalgic and the other public and self-mockingly humorous. Seen from the same light, the former represents a female protagonist, while the latter a male. Both songs parallel recurrences of borrowed melodic segments with resurgences of old Romantic feelings.

Works: Brahms: Alte Liebe, Op. 72, No. 1 (79-111), Unüberwindlich, Op. 72, No. 5 (81-89, 101-6).

Sources: Brahms: Capriccio in F-sharp Minor, Op. 76, No.1 (72-81, 84-85, 88-89, 95-101, 104-11); Domenico Scarlatti, Keyboard Sonata in D Major, K. 223 (81-82, 101-4).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Self-quotation in the classical tradition is when a composer cites a melody or segment from an existing composition in a new work for some extramusical purpose or meaning. Although the technique is rarely found in Renaissance or Baroque music, it attained increased prominence in the late-Classical period and into the twentieth century, due to emerging aesthetics of originality and “absolute music.” The effectiveness of self-quotation, moreover, depends on the composer’s ability to present the existing material in a recognizable way, as well as the listener’s understanding of the origin and meaning of the original work.

Through self-quotation, a composer can create a diverse array of new presentations of older material ranging from commentary, illustration, humor, and either distancing or affirmation of the original material’s meaning. Mozart’s insertion of “Non piú andrai” from Le nozze di Figaro in the finale of Don Giovanni, for instance, momentarily dissolves the boundaries of operatic illusion and reality, invoking the plot of the former opera to foreshadow Don Giovanni’s impending doom. Beethoven utilizes a theme from his ballet Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus as the basis for the finale of his Eroica Symphony to invoke the image of Prometheus as the symbolic hero of the work, which is especially asserted in the coda. In his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Wagner quotes the “love motive” from Tristan und Isolde to draw a parallel between the love triangles of both operas. While the motive symbolized a tragic fate in Tristan und Isolde, however, in Die Meistersinger it reminds Hans Sachs of a tragedy to avoid, thus ensuring the opera’s happy ending. Anton Bruckner inserted quotations from many of his sacred works into his symphonies to give them a special character of reverence and piety. Richard Strauss practiced self-quotation frequently, but particularly fascinating is his symphonic poem Ein Heldenleben, which uses material from Guntram, Don Juan, and several other works to depict Strauss himself as the titular hero of Ein Heldenleben. Self-quotation’s continued relevance as a compositional technique can be seen in contemporary works, with Berg’s opera Lulu, Liebermann’s opera Leonore 40/45, and Zimmermann’s Ballet noir being notable examples.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni, K. 527 (21); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (Eroica) (21); Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (21-22); Bruckner: Symphony No. 0 in D Minor, WAB 100 (23), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor, WAB 102 (23), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor, WAB 103 (23), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (23), Symphony No. 7 in C-sharp Minor, WAB 107 (23); Richard Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (23-24), Feuersnot, Op. 50 (24), Der Bürger als Edelmann, Op. 60b (24), Eine Alpensinfonie, Op. 64 (24), Intermezzo, Op. 72 (24), Capriccio, Op. 85 (24), Vier letzte Lieder, Op. posth. (24); Alban Berg: Lulu (24); Rolf Liebermann: Leonore 40/45 (24); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Ballet noir: Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (24).

Sources: Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro, K. 492 (21); Beethoven: Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (21); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (21-22); Bruckner: Ave Maria, WAB 6 (23), Mass in F Minor, WAB 28 (23), Mass in D Minor, WAB 26 (23), Te Deum in C Major, WAB 45 (23); Richard Strauss: Guntram, Op. 25 (23-24), Macbeth, Op. 23 (23), Don Juan, Op. 20 (23), Tod und Verklärung, Op. 24 (23-24), Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche, Op. 28 (23), Also sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30 (23), Don Quixote, Op. 35 (23-24), Hymne an die Liebe, Op. 71, No. 1 (24), Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (24), Daphne, Op. 82 (24), Ariadne auf Naxos, Op. 60 (24); Alban Berg: Wozzeck (24); Rolf Liebermann: Sonate für Klavier (24).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Vincent d'Indy was heavily influenced by Gregorian plainsong, and this influence was clearly reflected in his musical philosophies, teaching, and compositions. D'Indy's music quotes, paraphrases, or alludes to the style of Gregorian chant in several ways. These are organized according to compositional genre. The use of Gregorian chant fits into d'Indy's musical aesthetic in several ways.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The many instances of self-borrowing in Franz Schubert's last completed opera Fierrabras (1823) may be seen as the composer's fervent effort to select the best melody from his repertoire to fit the dramatic situation. For instance, in the first act alone, the overture resembles an earlier song Himmelsfunken, a recurring motive in the opera echoes a similar motive used in the unfinished cantata Lazarus, and many passages resemble passages from Rosamunde and the song cycle Die schöne Müllerin, which were both written around the same time as the opera. Many of these passages are not direct quotations, but rather allusions or slight resemblances to earlier works. Additionally, these cross-references often serve a poetic purpose. For example, the melodic allusion to Blumenlied and Die Forelle in Act I of Fierrabras is an appropriate reference because of the innocence evoked in all three passages. The various quotations, cross-references, and allusions are indicated within a detailed discussion of the musical material of each number.

Works: Schubert: Fierrabras (17-37).

Sources: Schubert: Himmelsfunken (19-20), Lazarus (cantata) (21, 26, 35), Rosamunde (21, 35), Die schöne Müllerin (21-22, 27-28, 35-36), Die Forelle (22, 27), Blumenlied (22, 27), Die abgeblühte Linde (23-24), Abendröthe (24-26, 28), Piano Trio No. 1 in B-flat Major, D. 898 (26-27), Symphony No. 9 in C Major (Great) (26-27, 29, 35-36), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (30-31), Sonata for Piano Duet in B-flat Major, D. 617 (32-33), Three Piano Pieces, D. 946 (32-33, 35), Ins stille Land (33-34), Lied der Mignon, D. 877 (33-34), Sonata in A Minor for Arpeggione and Piano, D. 821 (33-34), Totengräbers Heimweh (33, 35).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Dvořák had a wide-ranging impact on the creation of an American nationalism in music. His ideas about a national American music fall into three different categories, each dealing with a style of folk music. Dvořák felt that American composers should look toward these three folk styles as foundations for their compositions, following the model of his own New World Symphony from 1893. The first category of national American music is Native American music. Composers continued to follow Dvořák's ideas by collecting the music, using previous collections made by ethnologists, and alluding to the culture of the Native American in symphonic and chamber music and opera. The second folk style Dvořák discussed is African-American music. Composers broke into two categories of African-American music, yet they all still were following many of the ideals set forth in the writings of Dvořák. Many composers looked towards the traditions of the Creole people in the South, while others focused mainly on spirituals and other slave songs for the inspiration of various compositions. Finally, composers began looking toward Anglo-American folk traditions, which was the final type of folk music briefly discussed by Dvořák as a basis for a national music. Dvořák was a significant influence on the creation of American music from his entrance into the country until mid-twentieth century.

Works: Works: Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (158-59); MacDowell: Indian Suite (163); Loomis: Lyrics of the Red Men (163-64); Nevin: Poia (164); Farwell: The Hako (164); Griffes: Two Sketches Based on Indian Themes (164-65); Beach: String Quartet, Op. 89 (165-66); van Brockhoven: Suite Creole (169); Gilbert: Dance in Place Congo (169); Beach: Cabildo (169); Shelly: Carnival Overture (170); Schoenefeld: Suite, Op. 15 (170); Goldmark: Negro Rhapsody (171); Gilbert: Negro Episode (171); Mason: String Quartet in G Minor on Negro Themes (172); Cook: Uncle Tom's Cabin (173); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (174).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

When Beach claimed that a composition may be “a veritable autobiography,” she may have had her Piano Concerto in C-Sharp Minor, Op. 45 in mind, as it borrows from three of her own songs. The text, dedications, and dates of composition suggest that Beach was unhappy with socially constructed constraints on women in music. As a virtuosic pianist, she preferred to be a performer; however, her mother and her husband favored a more private lifestyle and strove to withhold Beach from performing. Her husband in particular advocated that Beach focus on composition instead. Consequently, by 1897 when the piano concerto was composed, Beach was one of America’s foremost composers. The text of the three songs used in the piano concerto, Jeune fille et jeune fleur, Empress of Night, and Twilight, was crucial in Beach’s formation of the melodies; she would repeat the texts until music formed from the words. Thus, the meanings of the texts used in a concerto on the instrument Beach was forbidden to play in public can create a hermeneutical extramusical reading of her piano concerto.

Works: Amy Beach: Piano Concerto in C-Sharp Minor, Op. 45.

Sources: Amy Beach: Jeune fille et jeune fleur, Op. 1, No. 3 (401-4), Empress of Night, Op. 2, No. 3 (404-7), Twilight, Op. 2, No. 1 (406-11).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Berlioz re-used the final adagio of his 1827 entry for the Prix de Rome, the cantata La Mort d'Orphée, in at least five other pieces, each in a slightly altered manner. The unique orchestration of the passage shows Berlioz's expert ability in the combination of instrumental colors for dramatic effect: here, the orchestral suggestion of the sounds of the aeolian harp and its accompanying sense of melancholy. An examination of the first and subsequent versions reveals that one of the more enigmatic features of the work, the inclusion of a dominant 7th in the final chord, is the result of Berlioz's conscious attempt to incorporate musical "fragments" or "shadows" which leave a sense of longing and lack of resolution at the end of the work.

Works: Berlioz: Le Retour à la vie (198-204), Lélio ou Le Retour à la vie (201-4).

Sources: Berlioz: La Mort d'Orphée (esp. 194-98).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

The revival of Bach's music in the Romantic era is of overwhelming historical significance. The stature of his music continues to grow in the twentieth century. Mention is made of two works based upon the theme B-A-C-H: Schumann's six fugues on B-A-C-H (1845) and Liszt's prelude and fugue on the name of B-A-C-H (1860). Liszt also made an organ arrangement of sections of Bach's Cantata No. 21 in 1855. The more general influence of Bach is evident in Mendelssohn's St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846) and in William Sterndale Bennett's oratorio The Woman of Samaria (1867).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Franz Liszt’s Weinen, Klagen Variations for piano, published in 1864, are an important example of his piano technique and mature compositional style. The Weinen, Klagen Variations display Liszt’s skillfulness in motivic manipulation, as he transforms and fragments Bach’s original chromatic bass line from Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Sagen, BWV 12, in a multitude of different ways. Liszt also explores various key areas and occasionally obscures the piece’s tonality, exemplifying the composer’s development of a more chromatic harmonic language by the 1860s. Furthermore, Liszt transforms Bach’s original chaconne form into a larger, multipart narrative form typical of his own piano works.

In addition to Bach’s chromatic bass line, Liszt also borrows the chorale tune from the final movement of BWV 12, Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan. The presentation of the tune, however, begets a variety of influences, including church organ, orchestral program music, and Liszt’s own virtuoso pianism. Liszt’s thorough manipulation of the chorale tune may have influenced Alban Berg’s elaborate treatment of the chorale Es ist genug in his Violin Concerto of 1935.

Works: Liszt: Variationen über das Motiv von Bach: Basso continuo des ersten Satzes seiner Kantate ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen’ und des Crucifixus der H-moll Messe (48-64); Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (55).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Sagen, BWV 12 (48-50, 52-53); Liszt: Variationen über das Motiv von Bach: Basso continuo des ersten Satzes seiner Kantate ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen’ und des Crucifixus der H-moll Messe (55).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Composers of the Second New England School sought to compose music that would satisfy conservative American audiences but also sound unique to the United States. George Chadwick's unacknowledged borrowing from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in his dramatic overture Melpomene can be analyzed in terms of Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence. Chadwick engages in the first two of Bloom's categories: clinamen (a clear allusion to another work which then swerves into new territory) and tessera (the antithetical completion of another composer's work). For example, Chadwick uses a slow tempo, English horn, and the Tristan chord in the passages that open and close Melpomene, but the middle section is Allegro agitato and contains a sense of urgency not present in Tristan. In Bloom's terms, Chadwick completed what Wagner left incomplete in order to free himself of the burden of his predecessor's influence.

Works: Chadwick: Melpomene (319-23, 329-30, 333-44).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (320-23, 330-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Critics have often noted the structural similarities between the opening of Berlioz's Harold en Italie and that of Beethoven's Ninth. At the opening of the finale, both works reprise then reject themes from earlier movements. Unlike other composers who use this device (Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler, Franck), Berlioz does not conclude with a triumphant chorale-like theme. In fact, the viola protagonist remains passive to events throughout, much in the manner of Byron's Childe Harold. Yet Berlioz is in fact confronting the legacy of the "terrifying giant" Beethoven, following Harold Blooms's notions of the "anxiety of influence." Although other of Berlioz's works (Symphonie fantastique, Lélio, Roméo et Juliette, Symphonie funèbre et triomphale) bear the influence of Beethoven, Harold en Italie shows Berlioz's strongest confrontation with Beethoven's legacy.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie.

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Within a historical, analytical, and archival study of Paganini's 24 Caprices, Op. 1, is an examination of their influence on contemporaneous pianists and on later composers of violin caprices. Sigismund Thalberg, Robert Schumann, and Franz Liszt all sought to transfer Paganini's 24 Caprices or distinctive techniques from a specific caprice to the piano. In contradistinction, Chopin did not attempt to transfer Paganini's idiom to the piano, although Paganini's Op. 1 may have provided inspiration for his own twenty-four etudes, Op. 10 and Op. 25. Similarly, although Paganini's 24 Caprices exerted influence on later nineteenth-century violin caprices, these works generally do not model the 24 Caprices' serious affect and instead include special effects that suggest the influence of his less serious and often unnotated concert works. Extensive lists of compositions dedicated to Paganini and compositions influenced or based upon his works are included, as well as a facsimile of the autograph manuscript of the 24 Caprices.

Works: Sigismund Thalberg: Prière de Moïse (15-16); Chopin: Etude, Op. 10, No. 1 (19-20), Etude, Op. 10, No. 5 (19-20), 12 Etudes, Op. 25 (19-20); Robert Schumann: 6 Etudes pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (24-25), 6 Etudes de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (24-25, 195-96); Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini transcrites pour le piano et dédiées à Clara Schumann (30-31).

Sources: Paganini: Introduction and Variations on 'Nel cor più non mi sento' from Paisiello's "La molinara" (15-16), 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (18-20, 24-25, 30-31, 195).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Amplification of Gregory 1953. Quotation of the Dies Irae has been overdone, but some modern works have enriched the symbolism grown around the ancient plainchant melody. Russia especially has most closely associated this melody with the death of a revolutionary hero. Khatchaturian, in his Second Symphony, uses it in the general expresion of mourning of the war 1914-1918. Tchaikovsky's Suite No. 3 lacks a program to explain the chant's presence. In Respighi's Impressioni Brasiliane, the chant portrays the physical characteristics and deadly qualities of snakes. Dallapiccola's Canti di Prigionia uses the chant structurally in an outcry against tyranny and oppression. Pierres and Stevenson use it for similar effect. Some borderline cases are Rachmaninoff's Isle of the Dead and Mahler's Second Symphony. A list (pp. 355-56) of some secular references to the Dies Irae is provided.

Works: Bantock: Macbeth (355); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (347, 348, 355); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (351, 352, 355); Peter Maxwell Davies: St. Michael (355); Khatchaturian: Symphony No. 2 (348, 350, 355); Kraft: Fantasia Dies Irae for Organ (355); Liszt: Totentanz (351, 355); Mahler: Das klagende Lied (355), Symphony No. 2 (354, 355); Medtner: Piano Quintet (356); Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6 (348-350, 356); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death, #3 (356); Pierres: A Litany for the Day of Human Rights (352, 356); Pizetti: Requiem (348); Rachmaninoff: The Isle of the Dead (353, 354, 356), The Bells (353, 356), Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (354, 356), Symphonic Dances (354, 356); Respighi: Impressioni brasiliane (351, 356); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (356); Schelling: Victory Ball (356); Sorabji: Variation upon Dies Irae (356), Sequentia cyclica (356); Stevenson: Passacaglia on DSCH (352, 356); Stravinsky: Three Pieces for String Quartet (356); Tchaikovsky: In Dark Hell (356), Suite No. 3 (356); Vaughan-Williams: Five Tudor Portraits (356); Bergman film: The Seventh Seal (356); Fernandel film: The Sheep has Five Legs (356).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

MacDowell made frequent use of motives associated with music of the American Indians, although he disavowed the notion that this practice amounted to the creation of an American national music. His principal source of Indian melodies was Theodore Baker's German dissertation Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden. MacDowell seems to have been particularly drawn to a "dirge" motive derived from a "Kiowa song of a mother to her absent son" appearing in the Baker, for the motive appears in several works. Compared to similar efforts by his contemporaries, MacDowell finds a method of incorporating Indian motives in his music that is not contextually incongruous and that avoids overwhelming the melodies through over-harmonization.

Works: MacDowell: Sonata tragica, Op. 45, Suite No. 2, "Indian," Op. 48, Woodland Sketches, Op. 51, Sonata No. 3, "Norse," Op. 57, Sea Pieces, Op. 55, Fireside Tales, Op. 61, New England Idyls, Op. 62.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

In mm. 63-64 of his Intermezzo, Op. 116, No. 2, Brahms quotes and at the same time distills mm. 33-40 from Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 2. Although both harmony and melody correspond only partially, this is a clear case of quotation, in which the two measures point to the complete model: Brahms used the motivic material in question at formally similar places as Chopin and also the key schemes correspond.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

A knowledge of Debussy's earliest works is important to the understanding of the development of his personal style. One can compare the first conception of an idea to its further realization in a later work. Two examples are considered: (1) Fête galante (a mélodie of 1882) and its later revision as the menuet of the Petite Suite (1889); and (2) La Fille aux cheveux de lin (a mélodie of ca. 1882-84) and the prelude for piano (Book I, 1910) of the same title. These works demonstrate that Debussy's personal style is already implicit in his earliest works.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Brahms's models for Opus 39 came from Schubert's Twelve Ländler (Op. 171) and Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze. Brahms acknowledged the debt to Schubert, as seen in examples of harmonic similarities and the introduction of counterpoint into simple dance forms. The bipartite division and "double ending" of Opus 39 seems to have been inspired by Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze, which was comprised of two sets of dances ending with two conclusive pieces.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

The 1855 burlesque Pocahontas by John Brougham and James G. Maeder, although laden with humor, including extensive parody, exemplifies both a respect for masterpieces of the past and a newly-developed historical consciousness. Although this is most readily ascertainable through the text of the burlesque, as the music has been lost, reconstruction of the likely musical parodies reveals wit and rapid juxtapositions of high and low genres, intermixed with a sense of a false history. Includes an extensive table of probable sources for the songs in Pocahontas (33).

Works: John Brougham and James G. Maeder: Pocahontas (28, 31, 34, 35-36, 28-43).

Sources: Samuel Lover: Widow Machree (28); Anonymous: Rosin the Bow (31), Hot Corn (36), Wait for the Wagon (36); Bellini: La Sonnambula (34, 37); Verdi: Ernani (35, 38); Stephen Foster: Massa's in de Cold Ground (38, 43), Old Folks at Home (38, 43), Oh! Boys, Carry Me 'Long (38); William Vincent Wallace: Maritana (38, 44); Daniel D. Emmett: De Boatman Dance (38).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Haydn's late oratorios The Creation and The Seasons were performed all over Europe soon after their premieres and became immensely popular throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. Haydn borrowed from some previous traditions and predecessors, and the two oratorios were in turn sources of allusions, quotations, and models to many composers in the German-speaking lands, such as Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, providing many musical, textual, and rhetorical relationships. Haydn borrowed from specific works of Handel, Mozart, and himself, as well as from the general stylistic conventions of opera seria and the Singspiel. The famous representation of chaos leading to the appearance of light employed in The Creation was particularly influential for the next generation of composers, with Beethoven prominent among them. Further source materials were provided by the pastoral setting of both oratorios, spinning choruses, and general representations of nature such as storms and sunrises.

Works: Haydn: The Creation (28-30, 35-39), The Seasons (31-39); Beethoven: The Creatures of Prometheus (40), Fourth Symphony (41), Fifth Symphony (41, 50), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (42); King Stephan, Op 117 (42); Leonore Overture No. 3, Op 72 (44), Sixth Symphony (44-47, 50), Second Symphony (48-49), Fidelio (50), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (50), Ninth Symphony (50-51); Schubert: "Tragic" Symphony, No. 4, D. 417 (52), "Great" C-Major Symphony, D. 944 (50); Weber: Der Freischütz (52); Mendelssohn: Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

After 1840, the music of Robert Schumann shifted in focus from idiosyncratic piano music toward more traditional instrumental works, reflecting the influence of the composer's past. One movement in particular, the finale of his Piano Quartet in E-flat Major, draws upon more traditional sonata-form techniques and reworks them in unique ways, all while alluding to and subverting earlier works by Schubert, Beethoven, and Schumann himself. For instance, the self-contained arabesque that interrupts the recapitulation is similar to a technique used in Schumann's Piano Fantasy, Op. 17: they both show Schumann challenging (and perhaps usurping) earlier Beethovenian models of sonata form by inserting a discontinuous character piece. Additionally, this unique take on sonata form in the finale recalls the "parallel forms" present in some of Schumann's 1830s piano sonatas, as well as in some earlier models by Schubert including first movement of the Impromptu in F Minor and the finale of the Piano Trio in B-flat major. The subject of Schumann's fugato also seems to draw upon a similar fugal melody from Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata. Finally, there is a musical allusion to the fifth movement of Schumann's own Novelletten, which is particularly meaningful because both works are closely tied to Schumann's relationship with his wife Clara. These reflections of the past taken together are seen as Schumann's way, not of battling with his predecessors, but rather of working with them to create his own unique style.

Works: Robert Schumann: Piano Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 47 (516-60), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 41 (534), Piano Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (534).

Sources: Robert Schumann: Fantasie, Op. 17 (519-25, 533, 543-45), Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (533-34), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14 (533-34), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (533-34), Novelletten, Op. 21 (545-60); Schubert: Impromptu in F Minor, D. 935 (534-43), Piano Trio in B-flat Major, D. 898 (534-43); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (543).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Franz Schubert's Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 15 (1822) was given the nickname "Wanderer" because of an apparent borrowing of his famous earlier song Der Wanderer (1816); however, the musical support for this borrowing has never been evaluated. There exists no written evidence of the Fantasy having any connection to the song during Schubert's lifetime, or even almost fifty years after his death. It was not until 1873 that the first published record of the borrowing can be found. The moniker stuck because at this time, the whole work was viewed as a cyclic development of the second movement Adagio theme, which itself had motivic similarities to the song. However, the character of the Adagio theme and the song theme differ slightly, and the C-sharp minor tonality of both melodies may be seen as a result of Schubert's fondness for semitonal key relationships rather than a deliberate quotation. Judging the borrowing as accidental rather than intentional then calls into question analyses that incorporate the song's mood into a discussion of the Fantasy.

Works: Schubert: Fantasy in C major, Op. 15, D. 760 (Wanderer) (540-42).

Sources: Schubert: Der Wanderer, D. 493 (540-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

A number of major Romantic authors, including Jean Paul, Wilhelm Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, and E. T. A. Hoffmann, had a profound influence on Robert Schumann’s aesthetics. Schumann embraced numerous Romantic concepts as articulated by these authors, including the Romantic genius, the transcendent power of music, and fascination with the historic past. In some form or another, Schumann’s music, writings, and overall philosophy from the early to the mid-1830s reflect these concepts.

As a writer, Schumann echoed Herder and Schiller in his beliefs that the musical genius acts as a cultural critic who improves art and society by exalting other geniuses, while also attacking “musical Philistinism.” Additionally, he draws upon the Romantic writers in his emphasis on musical feeling and sentiment, as well as inspiration over planning when composing. Schumann actively promoted these Romantic-inspired musical aesthetics, especially through his Davidsbund and the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, which greatly impacted the German-speaking music world.

Schumann’s piano music serves as a useful case study for his Romantic aesthetic stance. He actively absorbed and emulated styles of past masters, as seen in the Bachian counterpoint of Novelletten, Op. 21, No. 1. Furthermore, he promoted both past and contemporary geniuses by transcribing or arranging their works, or by borrowing and reworking their melodies. Jean Paul also greatly informed Schumann’s stance on program music and the interaction of music and text, as reflected in works such as Papillons and Carnaval. However, Schumann’s music after 1840 demonstrates a reaction against these Romantic influences, as he begins to favor Classical forms and genres to a much greater degree.

Works: Robert Schumann: Allegro, Op. 8 (34-37), Kinderszenen, Op. 15 (36, 177-79), Fantasiestücke, Op. 12 (36, 54-55), Intermezzos, Op. 4 (36-41, 142, 149), Papillons, Op. 2 (36-38, 70-73, 142, 146, 154-55, 166, 168-74), Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6 (38-40, 54-56, 91-93), Fantasie in C, Op. 17 (38-42, 67-68), Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (42-43, 70-73, 77-78, 91-94, 142, 148, 164-67, 174-77), Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26 (73-74), Impromptus, Op. 5 (77, 81-82, 142-43), Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (77, 84), Studien für das Pianoforte nach Capricen von Paganini, Op. 3 (86-90), Variationen über den Namen Abegg, Op. 1 (91-92), Novelletten, Op. 21 (142, 144-45), Symphonische Etüden, Op. 13 (142, 147), Kreisleriana, Op. 16 (142, 150-51, 178-79), Klavierstücke, Op. 32 (142, 152), Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (157-59), Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14 (157-59), Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (159-60).

Sources: Robert Schumann: An Anna II (36), Im Herbste (36), Der Hirtenknabe; Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (73); Anonymous: Groβvater-Tanz (77); Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73 (77), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (77), Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 (77), Violin Sonata in F Major, Op. 24 (77, 85); Paganini: Caprices, Op. 1 (86-89); Robert Schumann: Intermezzos, Op. 4 (91), Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (91-93), Papillons, Op. 2 (91, 94).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

The "Indianist" composers of the period 1890-1920 took two approaches to the Native melodies that they used: music as raw material, and music as culture. Edward MacDowell used the Native melodies collected by Theodore Baker in his ‹ber die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden (1882). For MacDowell, these tunes were strictly raw musical material, with no reference or attention to tribal sources. Whatever cultural interpretation he made of the music is a generic one based on Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of "cultural evolutionary stages." Arthur Farwell's source of Native melodies came from the work of Alice Fletcher and Francis LaFlesche, whose research focused on the Omaha nation and dealt extensively with cultural context. Ultimately, the Indianist composers sacrificed cultural authenticity as a result of their attempt to make the music accessible for a consumer culture.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Second ("Indian") Suite, Op. 48 (268-71), Second Sonata (Eroica), Op. 50 (271); Arthur Farwell: American Indian Melodies: "The Old Man's Love Song" (277, 279).

Sources: Kiowa melody, collected by Theodore Baker: "Kiowa Song of a Mother to Her Absent Son" (269-71); Omaha melody, collected by Alice Fletcher: "Be-Thae Wa-An" (277-78).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although some scholars claim that in Les vêpres siciliennes Verdi's compositional voice is lost as he engages with Meyerbeer, Verdi's work ultimately suggests inspiration by, rather than surrender to, Meyerbeer. Although Meyerbeer had influenced some of Verdi's operatic works in terms of music-dramatic techniques, Verdi remained at odds with Meyerbeer in terms of approach to structure, as Meyerbeer's strength was not in large-scale development, but in small numbers. With Les vêpres siciliennes, Verdi faced direct comparison to Meyerbeer, as the work was in French and as the libretto was typical of that used by Meyerbeer. In particular, the Sicilienne and the Mélodie from the last act demonstrate Verdi's successful tackling of Meyerbeerian miniatures.

Works: Verdi: Les vêpres siciliennes (11-12, 15-20), Attila (15); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (13).

Sources: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (11-13, 16), Robert le Diable (15); Martin Luther: Ein Feste Burg (13); Donizetti: Le Duc d'Albe (15-17, 19).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

It has long been known that Charles Ives borrows from other composers and from himself. These borrowings have generally been labeled quotations. However, quotation is not the only technique Ives uses when he is alluding to other pieces. Others include modeling (emulation), paraphrasing, cumulative setting, and quodlibet. The emphasis of this article is on Ives's use of models since this has not yet been discussed. If a composer models his piece on another, he borrows the structure or reworks musical material to build the framework of the composition. The use of models is the most important factor to consider in tracing the compositional process. Motivic borrowings are only the most visible part of a deeper dependence on the sources, allusions that lead us to the pieces on which Ives modeled his compositions.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep, Slow March, Turn Ye, Turn Ye, Waltz, Study No. 20 for Piano, The One Way, Charlie Rutlage, Serenity, On the Counter, The Celestial Country, West London.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

As a performer and composer, Charles Ives worked in four distinct musical traditions: American popular music, American Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. In his mature music, Ives synthesizes these traditions into a new modernist idiom. Ives initially worked in these four traditions independently, occasionally modeling his compositions on existing works in their tradition; for instance, his First Symphony is modeled on Dvořák’s New World symphony and echoes music by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert and Tchaikovsky. Later in his career, Ives frequently combined elements from two or more of these four traditions in a single work, often through various musical borrowing practices. In his 1914 song General William Booth Enters Into Heaven, Ives weaves all four musical traditions together. Popular music is evoked by the marching band “street beat” cadence—realized by an experimentalist recreation of drum sounds using dissonant piano chords—and by the paraphrase of James A. Bland’s minstrel song Oh, Dem Golden Slippers. Protestant hymns are evoked by Ives’s borrowing of There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood. Finally, the song itself is constructed as a Romantic art song, meant to convey to the listener a vicarious experience of the text. The variety in Ives’s music should not be understood as a lack of discipline, but as versatility to appeal to a broad range of musical tastes.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (6-7), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (12-13), General William Booth Enters Into Heaven (23-29)

Sources: David Wallis Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (7); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (12-13); William Cowper: There is a Fountain Filled with Blood (24, 26-28); James A. Bland: Oh, Dem Golden Slippers (25-26)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Despite the traditional depiction of Brahms as a musical conservative, he is the single most important influence on twentieth-century classical music in regard to how composers think about music and measure their success. Musical-technical definitions of modernism are inadequate to explain the changing social context of music, particularly in how composers starting with Brahms dealt with the musical past. One example of this is Brahms’s use of the chaconne in the finale of his Fourth Symphony. The movement is modeled on Bach’s Chaconne for solo violin, which Brahms had previously transcribed for piano, and the two pieces share many similarities. The movement is also modeled on Beethoven’s Eroica symphony, particularly its unusual theme-and-variations finale. Both movements are in three sections suggesting a sonata form, and both close with a faster coda that develops the opening thematic material in a new way. By modeling his work on important classical composers, Brahms conspicuously participates in the classical tradition. This dialectic between old and new music, pioneered by Brahms, has been adopted by later modern composers such as Mahler, Stravinsky, and Bartók, and provides the framework for serious music in the twentieth century.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (78)

Sources: Bach: Chaconne, from Partita No. 2 in D Minor for Solo Violin, BWV 1004 (78); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica (78)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Charles Ives is as much a part of the European tradition of art music as are his progressive contemporaries in Europe. Ives’s character as a composer was greatly influenced by German Romanticism, which he absorbed through his composition teacher, Horatio Parker. Ives’s connection to the European Romantic tradition can be traced through his use of allusion and quotation throughout his career. Early compositions, up to and including his First Symphony, demonstrate how Ives learned to compose by imitating European models. In his Second Symphony, Ives begins to establish a distinctive voice by emphasizing allusion and quotation of American material. At the same time, the Second Symphony also adopts the elaborate forms of European art music and borrows material from Brahms, Bach, and Wagner. In his Third Symphony, Ives invests American tunes with the seriousness of European art music. The Fourth of July, which culminates with a quotation of Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean, exemplifies Ives’s increasing turn to American subjects and careful use of quotation and texture. While Ives’s importance as an avant-garde composer is certain, he is also a worthy peer of his European contemporaries of international stature.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (43), Slow March (43), Variations on America (43), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (44-45), Symphony No. 2 (46), The Fourth of July (48-49)

Sources: Handel: Saul, HWV 53 (43); Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck: Theme and Variations in C Major on God Save the King (43); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (44-45); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (46); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (48)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Charles Ives is as much a part of the European art music tradition as are his progressive European contemporaries. Ives’s adoption of European genres, ideal of music practiced for its own sake, penchant for program music, nationalism, and desire to express new things in music all show the influence of European Romanticism, which Ives learned in large part from his composition teacher, Horatio Parker. When analyzing the idea of allusion and quotation through Ives’s compositions in chronological order, a clear pattern of development emerges. Ives began by imitating musical models; for example, his early Polonaise in C is modeled on the sextet from Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor. His First Symphony continues this practice of modeling, but now in the spirit of competition. The second movement theme is an elegant condensation of the second movement theme of Dvořák’s New World symphony, and as such it can be read as a sincere challenge to the famous tune. In his Second Symphony, Ives begins to claim a distinctive voice as a composer by using borrowed material to celebrate American music within the European symphonic tradition. This process of self-assertion continues in the Third Symphony, which includes the first instance of Ives’s new “cumulative form,” borrowing the principles of development that underlie the European tradition. The Fourth of July, a symphonic poem also using cumulative form, exemplifies Ives’s mature style and an extraordinary complexity of quotation used to evoke the process of memory. Still, the nationalism and programmaticism underlying The Fourth of July are rooted in European Romanticism. While Ives certainly deserves his avant-garde reputation, he is also a composer whose music is rooted in the European tradition and a worthy peer to his European contemporaries.

Works: Ives: Polonaise in C (15-18), Ich grolle nicht (19-22), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (22-26), Symphony No. 2 (26-28), Symphony No. 3 (28-31), The Fourth of July (31-32)

Sources: Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (15-18); Robert Schumann: Ich grolle nicht from Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (19-22); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Op. 74, Pathétique (22); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (22); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, Unfinished (22); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (22-25); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (26-27); William B. Bradbury: Woodworth (28-31); C. G. Gläser, Lowell Mason (adapter): Azmon (28-31); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (31-32)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Studies of allusion, modeling, paraphrase, quotation, and other forms of musical borrowing hinge on the claim that the composer of one piece of music has used material or ideas from another. What evidence can be presented to support or refute this claim? How can we know that the material is borrowed from this particular piece and not from another source? How can we be sure that a similarity results from borrowing and is not a coincidence or the result of drawing on a shared fund of musical ideas? These questions can be addressed using a typology of evidence organized into three principal categories: analytical evidence gleaned from examining the pieces themselves, including extent of similarity, exactness of match, number of shared elements, and distinctiveness; biographical and historical evidence, including the composer’s knowledge of the alleged source, acknowledgment of the borrowing, sketches, compositional process, and typical practice; and evidence regarding the purpose of the borrowing, including structural or thematic functions, use as a model, extramusical associations, and humor. Ideally, an argument for borrowing should address all three categories. Exploring instances of borrowing or alleged borrowing by composers from Johannes Martini and Gombert through Mozart, Brahms, Debussy, Ives, Stravinsky, and Berg illustrates these types of evidence. The typology makes it possible to evaluate claims and test evidence for borrowing by considering alternative explanations, including the relative probability of coincidence. A particularly illuminating case is the famous resemblance between the opening themes of Mozart’s Bastien und Bastienne and Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony, discussed by hundreds of writers for more than 150 years. Bringing together all the types of evidence writers have offered for and against borrowing shows why the debate has proven so enduring and how it can be resolved.

Works: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (227, 241); Liszt: Totentanz (227); Camille Saint-Saëns: Danse macabre (228); Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (228), Symphonic Dances (228); Luigi Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (228); Alban Berg: Lyric Suite (229-30, 233), Warm die Lüfte (237-41); Claude Debussy: Golliwogg’s Cakewalk, from Children’s Corner (229-31, 233-34), Pour la danseuse aux crotales, from Six epigraphes antiques (237-41); Nicolas Gombert: Ave regina celorum (231-33); Mozart: Requiem in D Minor, K. 626 (235-36); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (237); Ives: Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (235), Violin Sonata No. 4 (242-43); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (244-46); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica (250-65)

Sources: Attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (227-28, 241); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (229-31, 233-34); Poissy Antiphonal: Ave regina celorum (231-33); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, Op. 95, From the New World (235); Bach: Chaconne, from Partita No. 2 in D Minor for Solo Violin, BWV 1004 (237); Ravel: Gaspard de la nuit (237-41); William Howard Doane: Old, Old Story (242-43); Mozart: Bastien und Bastienne (250-65)

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Juxtaposing disparate styles is a defining characteristic of Ives’s music. Analyzing The Alcotts from the Concord Sonata, Larry Starr showed how styles ranging from diatonic tonality to three distinct post-tonal styles delineate the form, and argued that Ives was exceptional in embracing “stylistic heterogeneity” as a basic principle. Yet Ives’s practice fits well in the tradition of musical topics described by Leonard Ratner and others, especially the coordination of contrasting styles to provide variety and articulate the form. A topical approach also reveals how using styles that carry particular associations creates expressivity and mean- ing. Ives uses as topics numerous traditional styles, beginning in his early tonal music, as well as modernist stylizations of familiar styles. Often, these musical topics overlap considerably with Ives’s use of borrowed musical material. For example, in The Alcotts the hymn topic contains material derived from Missionary Hymn and the pounding chords of the Hammerklavier topic explicitly evoke Beethoven’s Hammerklavier sonata. Understanding Ives’s stylistic heterogeneity as the use of topics allows a deeper and more comprehensive analysis of The Alcotts and other works and links his practice to that of past composers such as Mozart.

Works: Ives: Memories (177-81), Symphony No. 2 (181-83), Luck and Work (186-89), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (189-97)

Sources: Stephen Foster: Gentle Annie (178-81), Massa’s in de Cold Ground (183) Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (181-83); Schubert: Gretchen am Spinnrade (186-76); Robert Robinson: Come, Thou Fount of Ev’ry Blessing (187-88); Wagner: Lohengrin (191-92); A. F. Winnemore: Stop That Knocking at My Door (192); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (192-94); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (192-97), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (193-94)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Many elements of Charles Ives’s compositional technique, including some that seem to be his most radical, can be traced back to his early career as a church organist. Although pieces for solo organ make up a small part of Ives’s output, there are several pieces (including movements of symphonies 2, 3, and 4 and A Symphony: New England Holidays) that Ives reworked from now lost organ pieces. Four aspects of organ performance influence Ives’s later music, even when the organ itself is not especially prominent: improvisation, virtuosity, multiple keyboards with contrasting timbres, and mutation stops. Additionally, three characteristics of organ literature, fugue, pedal point, and elaboration of hymns, influenced the new directions Ives took in his music. For example, Ives links organ fugue and hymn practices in a lost organ fugue that was adapted into his String Quartet No. 1 and Symphony No. 4. The subject of this fugue was the first phrase of Missionary Hymn and the countersubject was a phrase of Coronation. In Symphony No. 4, both the fugue and hymn tunes evoke the extramusical “formalism and ritualism” of Ives’s program. Elements of Ives’s cumulative form are also anticipated in organ music introducing and accompanying hymns. Mendelssohn’s Organ Sonata No. 1 in particular anticipates several elements of Ives’s cumulative form practice, including adapting a hymn tune as a theme, stating the theme at the end, and developing variants of the tune before the tune itself. While organ music gives a foundation for many of his compositional techniques, Ives’s willingness to extrapolate from the organ tradition makes him unique among modernist composers.

Works: Ives: Sonata No. 2 for Piano, Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (264), Four Transcriptions from “Emerson” (264), String Quartet No. 1 (290-92), Symphony No. 4 (290-92), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano (292-93); Mendelssohn: Organ Sonata No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 65, No. 1 (304-6)

Sources: Ives: Emerson Overture for Piano and Orchestra (264); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (290-92); Oliver Holden: Coronation (290-92); William Hovard Doane: Old, Old Story (292-93); Claudin de Sermisy: Was mein Gott will, das g’schel’ allzeit (304-6)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The use of existing music is one of the most characteristic facets of Charles Ives’s music. What has been broadly described as musical “quotation” is in fact fourteen distinct procedures that Ives uses: modeling, variations, paraphrasing, setting, cantus firmus, medley, quodlibet, stylistic allusion, transcribing, programmatic quotation, cumulative setting, collage, patchwork, and extended paraphrase. Analyzing Ives’s use of existing music through these procedures allows for a clearer understanding of Ives’s compositions, the discovery that most of these procedures can be traced back to existing practices in the European tradition, and the tracing of a logical development in Ives’s practice from common types of musical borrowing to highly individual methods. The development of Ives’s use of existing music largely corresponds to six periods in Ives’s career: youth (to 1894), apprenticeship (1894-1902), innovation and synthesis (1902-8), maturity (1908-18), last works (1918-27), and revising (1927-54).

In his early career, Ives, like countless other composers, often modeled compositions on existing works to learn from the masters and develop his own voice. At the same time, Ives honed his skills at paraphrasing existing melodies (particularly hymn tunes) for use in classical idioms. Ives’s First and Second Symphonies represent the height of his use of modeling and paraphrase; the First Symphony demonstrates Ives’s command of the symphonic tradition, and the Second demonstrates his ability to bend American vernacular material to fit the symphonic form, paraphrasing American tunes as themes and adapting transitional passages from European compositions. Between 1907 and 1920, the most common form in Ives’s concert music was cumulative setting, a distinctive form in which a borrowed or paraphrased theme is first heard in fragments, gradually accumulating until the entire theme is heard at the end of the movement, often with a countermelody that accumulates in a similar way. Cumulative setting is based on techniques that have precedents in various musical traditions. Ives’s synthesis of these ideas served several musical and extramusical functions, celebrating American melodies and hymn tunes in a new, thematically-driven form. In other mature compositions, Ives uses conventional borrowing techniques in novel ways, such as alluding to a style or genre (often through a specific piece) as a means of commenting on it. Two extensions of paraphrase technique—patchwork, in which a melody is stitched together from fragments of multiple tunes, and extended paraphrase, in which the main melody of an entire work is paraphrased from an existing tune—also became important compositional techniques for Ives. Programmatic quotation, in which a tune is explicitly quoted for a clear extramusical purpose, is uncommon is Ives’s music, but the technique is used in works where the program involves listening to a musical event. Among the most extraordinary uses of borrowed music in Ives’s works are his orchestral collages, which blend several compositional techniques (modeling, paraphrase, cumulative setting, programmatic quotation, and quodlibet) and many borrowed tunes to create a stream-of-consciousness effect representing the process of memory. By systematically analyzing Ives’s increasing use of borrowed music throughout his career, the prevailing “crazy-quilt” view of Ives’s borrowing—that old and new material are stitched together without discrimination—can be replaced by a more accurate assessment that Ives drew on traditional techniques and developed new ones to give expression to his American culture within his own musical language.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (14-16), Polonaise in C (17-20), Variations on “America” (21-22, 43-46), Turn Ye, Turn Ye (23-24), Ein Ton (25-27), Ich grolle nicht (27-31, 33-34), Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), The Celestial Country (34-36), Fantasia on “Jerusalem the Golden” (38-41), March No. 1 in F and B-flat (41-43), String Quartet No. 1 (49-75, 86-87), The Side Show (76-79), Fugue in Four Keys on “The Shining Shore” (80-81, 162-64), Religion (82-83), Evening (83-84), String Quartet No. 2 (84-85, 348-50), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (88-102), Symphony No. 2 (102-36), Symphony No. 3 (139-54, 238-40), Violin Sonata No. 3 (139, 142, 154-61, 166, 174-78, 206-12, 243), The Camp-Meeting (149-50), Violin Sonata No. 1 (163-72, 201-6, 241-42, 250), Violin Sonata No. 2 (165, 170-74, 197, 200, 242, 315-16), Violin Sonata No. 4 (167-68, 177-84, 189, 193-94), Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day from Holidays Symphony (168-69, 185-86), His Exaltation (174), Piano Sonata No. 1 (187-93, 212-14, 243-44, 248-49), At the River (193-94), Adagio cantabile (The Innate) (194-95, 196), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (195-200, 350-57), Ragtime Dances (212-14), The Rockstrewn Hills Join in the People’s Outdoor Meeting from Orchestral Set No. 2 (214), “Pre-First” Violin Sonata (236-38), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (253-62), From Hanover Square North, at the End of a Tragic Day, the Voice of the People Again Arose from Orchestral Set No. 2 (262-66), Waltz (268-70), Grantchester (277-78), On the Counter (278-80), The One Way (279-80), Serenity (281-86), The Rainbow (287-89), The White Gulls (291-94), The Last Reader (301-5), The Things Our Fathers Loved (306-11), Old Home Day (311-12), Lincoln, the Great Commoner (312), In Flanders Fields (313), He Is There! (313-15), An Elegy to Our Forefathers from Orchestral Set No. 2 (316-17), The “St.-Gaudens” in Boston Common (Col. Shaw and his Colored Regiment) from Three Places in New England (317-22), The Housatonic at Stockbridge from Three Places in New England (327-30), Down East (330-33), West London (333-39), Yale-Princeton Football Game (342-43), Calcium Light Night (343), The Gong on the Hook and Ladder (343), The General Slocum (343-44), Central Park in the Dark (344-45), Decoration Day from Holidays Symphony (345-46), The Celestial Railroad (357-60), The Pond (Remembrance) (360-63), Requiem (363), Tom Sails Away (363-64), Trio for Violin, Cello, and Piano (373-74), The Fourth of July from Holidays Symphony (376-82), Washington’s Birthday from Holidays Symphony (383-85), Putnam’s Camp from Three Places in New England (386-89), Country Band March (386-87), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Symphony No. 4 (389-411); George M. Cohan: The Yankee Doodle Boy (322-24, 325-26)

Sources: David W. Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (14-16, 346, 373-74); Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (17-20); Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck: Variations on “God Save the King” (21-22); Josiah Hopkins: Expostulation (23-24); Peter Cornelius: Ein Ton (25-27); Robert Schumann: Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (27-31, 33-34); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (126-30, 132-33), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (127), Vier ernste Gesänge (128), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (349); Horatio Parker: Hora novissima (34-36); Alexander Ewing: Jerusalem the Golden (38-41); Anonymous: The Year of Jubilee (41-43); Attributed to John Bull (composer), Samuel Francis Smith (lyricist): America (43-46, 312-13); Attributed to Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth: Nettleton (50-52, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 105-7, 115, 194-95, 196, 197, 200, 306-11, 349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); John R. Sweney: Beulah Land (52-55, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 99-101, 111-14, 207-12, 392-401); George J. Webb: Webb (55-57, 73-74); Oliver Holden: Coronation (55-57, 71-74, 402); George F. Root: Shining Shore (56-70, 73-74, 80-83, 86-87, 99-101, 162-63, 164-65, 168-69, 170-72, 185-86, 291-94), Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (236, 241-42, 250, 314, 359-60, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), The Battle Cry of Freedom (236, 306-11, 313, 314, 315-16, 317-22, 377-82, 386-89), There’s Music in the Air (239); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (71-74, 402), Bethany (81-85, 301-5, 330-33, 349-50, 390-92, 402-10), Watchman (201-6, 301-5, 390-92), Work Song (202-3, 205-6); J. S. Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (“Dorian”) BWV 538 (71, 402), Three-Part Invention in F Minor BWV 795 (126-27), Fugue in E Minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (128-30); Pat Rooney: Is That You, Mr. Riley? (76-79); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Op. 74, Pathétique (76-79, 95-97, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 36 (130-31); C. G. Gläser, Lowell Mason (arranger): Azmon (80-83, 140-41, 143-46, 151-54, 162-64, 240, 404, 408); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (89-95, 101-2, 130-31); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (97-98, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (195-200, 350-60), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (195-200, 350-60); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, Unfinished (98-99, 101-2); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (104-7, 115, 122-24, 316-22, 357, 383-85, 386-89, 392-401), De Camptown Races (115-22, 359-60, 383-85, 392-401), Old Black Joe (122-24, 316-22, 359-60, 392-401), My Old Kentucky Home (306-11, 373-74, 386-89), Old Folks at Home (383-85); Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (107-8, 373-74, 383-85, 392-401); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (108, 116-24, 312, 313, 314, 348-49, 355, 359, 364, 376-82, 386-89, 392-401); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (108-9), Marching Through Georgia (312-14, 317-22, 345, 348-49, 359-60, 373-74, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), Kingdom Coming (377-82); George A. Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (109-10, 213-14, 243-44); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where Are the Verdant Freshmen? (110-11); Gregorian chant, Lowell Mason (arranger): Hamburg (110-11); Johann G. Naegeli, Lowell Mason (arranger): Naomi (110, 238-40); Samuel A. Ward: Materna (112-15); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (115, 123, 195-200, 402-10); Thomas Haynes Bayly: Long, Long Ago (120, 373-74, 392-401); George Washington Dixon or Bob Farrell: Turkey in the Straw (121-24, 315, 348-49, 383-85, 392-401); Handel, Lowell Mason (arranger): Antioch (123-24, 402, 402-10); Anonymous (bugle calls): Reveille (124, 257, 312-13, 314, 377-82, 392-401), Assembly (312, 377-82), Taps (313, 345-46, 360-63); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (127); William Bradbury: Woodworth (140-41, 143-51, 153, 240), Jesus Loves Me (168, 181-84, 316-17); Charles Converse: Erie (141, 151-54, 188-89, 192-93, 239-40); Robert Lowry: Need (142, 154-61, 207-12, 243), The Beautiful River (166, 174-77, 189, 193-94, 195, 196, 392-401), Where Is My Wandering Boy? (249); François-Hippolyte Barthélémon: Autumn (165, 170-74, 237); Ira D. Sankey: There’ll Be No Dark Valley (166, 174-78); William H. Doane: Old, Old Story (167, 178-81); George E. Ives: Fourth Fugue in B-flat (167, 178-81); John Hatton: Duke Street (168-69, 185-86); Henry K. Oliver: Federal Street (168-69, 185-86); George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (170, 236, 241-42, 250, 363-64); John Zundel: Lebanon (187-92, 244, 249); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (195-200, 402-10); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (195-200, 355-56, 358-60, 392-401, 402-10); Anonymous: Happy Day (213-14, 243-44); Lewis Hartsough: Welcome Voice (213-14, 243-44, 402); William G. Tomer: God Be With You (236, 359-60, 392-401); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (236, 313-14); Anonymous: Sailor’s Hornpipe (236, 315, 373-74, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: Money Musk (236, 315, 383-85); Anonymous: The White Cockade (236, 315-16, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous, Lowell Mason (arranger): Fountain (238-40, 254-62, 333-39, 373-74); Andrew Young, Lowell Mason (arranger): There Is a Happy Land (238-40, 392-401, 402-10); James P. Webster: In the Sweet Bye and Bye (262-66, 306-11, 373-74, 390, 392-401); Michael Nolan: Little Annie Rooney (268-70); Debussy: Prélude à “L’après-midi d’un faune” (277-78); Ives: A Song—for Anything (278-80), Country Band March (313, 355, 359-60, 386-87, 392-401), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (357-58, 392-402), Old Home Day (377-82), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Violin Sonata No. 1 (390-92), The Celestial Railroad (392-401), String Quartet No. 1 (402), String Quartet No. 2 (406); Oley Speaks: On the Road to Mandalay (279-80); William V. Wallace: Serenity (282-86, 288-89); Ludwig Spohr: Cherith (301-5); Henry W. Greatorex: Manoah (301-5); Alexander R. Reinagle: St. Peter (301-5); Paul Dresser: On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away (306-11); William Steffe (composer), Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (311-12, 312, 314, 377-82, 386-89); H. S. Thompson: Annie Lisle (311-12); Anonymous: Arkansas Traveler (311-12, 386-89); Anonymous: The Girl I Left Behind Me (311-12, 377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Garryowen (311-12, 377-82, 383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: Saint Patrick’s Day (311-12, 373-74, 377-82, 385, 392-401); Anonymous: Auld Lang Syne (311-12); Philip Phile: Hail! Columbia (312, 348-49, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (312, 314, 386-89); Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (313, 314); Henry S. Cutler: All Saints New (313); George M. Cohan: Over There (314, 364); Dan Emmet: Dixie (314, 348-49, 373-74, 377-82); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (314, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); James Ryder Randall: Maryland, My Maryland (314); Isaac B. Woodbury: Dorrnance (327-30, 402-10); Nelson Kneass: Ben Bolt (344); Ellen Wright: Violets (344); Joseph E. Howard: Hello! Ma Baby (344); John Philip Sousa: Washington Post March (344, 392-401), Semper Fidelis (386-89); William Crotch: Westminster Chimes (349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); Edward S. Ufford: Throw Out the Life-Line (359-60, 392-401); Frederick Crouch: Kathleen Mavourneen (361-63); Handel, Anonymous (arranger): David (361-63), Christmas (402); Mendelssohn, Anonymous (arranger): Hexham (361-63); William G. Harris (arranger): A Band of Brothers in DKE (373-74); George Morris: Few Days (373-74); Anonymous: The Worms Crawl In (373-74); Anonymous: That Old Cabin Home Upon the Hill (373-74); Anonymous: The Campbells Are Coming (373-74, 383-85); Henry J. Sayers: Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay! (373-74); Anonymous: Hold the Fort, McClung in Coming (373-74); William Gooch: Reuben and Rachel (373-74); Anonymous: Fisher’s Hornpipe (377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: London Bridge (377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Katy Darling (377-82); Henry R. Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! (383-85, 392-401); Edwin P. Christy: Goodnight, Ladies (383-85); Anonymous: For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow (383-85); Anonymous: Irish Washerwoman (383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: The British Grenadiers (386-89); Theodore E. Perkins: Something for Thee (391-401, 402-10); Arthur Sullivan: Proprior Deo (391-92, 402-10); Anonymous: Crusader’s Hymn (391-92); Justin Heinrich Knecht, Edward Husband (arranger): St. Hilda (402-10)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Charles Ives’s extraordinarily diverse musical output can seem daunting, but by studying the historical and artistic context surrounding his compositions, listeners can gain an appreciation for and better understanding of Ives’s music. One of the most salient features of Ives’s music is its variety. In his collection 114 Songs, Ives apparently hoped that everyone could find something to like in it, and even sampling just a few of the songs demonstrates its breadth of musical style. During his youth, Ives encountered the four musical traditions that would shape his compositional career: popular music, Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. As Ives studied under Horatio Parker at Yale, he based several compositions (including his First Symphony) on European classical models. Starting with his First String Quartet, Ives began incorporating American tunes into European forms, and in his Second Symphony he completely integrates European and American music. With his Third Symphony and four violin sonatas, Ives developed cumulative form, a new form in which fragments of a borrowed tune (in these pieces, a hymn) are developed before the complete tune is heard at the end of the movement. Around the same time, he began to compose the four movements of A Symphony: New England Holidays, which celebrate American holidays through music associated with them and evoke memory through musical collage. Ives’s two Orchestral Sets use similar procedures to evoke American historical events, and, like the Holidays Symphony, combine elements of popular music, Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. One of Ives’s best-known pieces, his Concord Sonata, conveys his impressions of four American Transcendentalist writers. In his Second String Quartet and his Fourth Symphony, Ives conveys two similar transcendent journeys, both culminating in the hymn tune Bethany (“Nearer, my God, to Thee”). In 1922, Ives self-published 114 Songs, a collection of old and new songs that, along with the Concord Sonata, brought him to the attention of the classical music community. It was not until after Ives stopped composing new music in 1926 that he began to be recognized as a major American composer.

Works: Ives: Down East (20-21), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (21-24), Holiday Quickstep (32-35), Variations on “America” (39-43), Feldeinsamkeit (58-61, 63), Ich grolle nicht (58-60, 61-63), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (63, 65, 69-71), The Celestial Country (81-82), String Quartet No. 1 (82-89), Yale-Princeton Football Game (93-96), Central Park in the Dark (117-19), Symphony No. 2 (125-44), Symphony No. 3: The Camp Meeting (149-58), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano: Children’s Day at the Camp Meeting (158-63), Sonata No. 3 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 163-66), Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 166-67), Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 167-68), Washington’s Birthday from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-81), Decoration Day from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 181-85), The Fourth of July from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 185-90), Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 190-93), Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England (195-209), Orchestral Set No. 2 (210-15), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (217-42), String Quartet No. 2 (249-56), Symphony No. 4 (257-68), On the Counter (273), Watchman! (273-74), At the River (273-74), His Exaltation (273-74), The Camp-Meeting (274, 275-76), Slow March (274-75), In Flanders Fields (276), He Is There! (276-77), Tom Sails Away (277), The Greatest Man (278), The White Gulls (278-79), Evening (278), The One Way (282), Three Quarter-Tone Pieces (282-83)

Sources: Lowell Mason: Bethany (20-21, 184-85, 249, 254-56, 258, 259-61, 266-68, 279), Missionary Hymn (84-85, 257, 265-66), Work Song (168), Watchman (168, 257, 260-61, 273-74); James A. Bland: Golden Slippers (23); Anonymous, Lowell Mason (arranger): Fountain (23-24, 154-55); David Wallis Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (34, 95, 183-85); Attributed to John Bull (composer), Samuel Francis Smith (lyricist): America (39-43, 276, 283); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit (59-61), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (132, 134, 136, 138), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (133), Vier ernste Gesänge (136), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (254); Robert Schumann: Ich grolle nicht from Dichterliebe (61-63); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (63, 65, 69-70); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Pathétique (63, 70, 254); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (63, 65, 70, 254), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (223-28, 230, 232-34, 236, 241), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (224-28, 241); Schubert: Symphony No. 8, D. 759, Unfinished (63, 70); George F. Root: Shining Shore (70-71, 86-87, 89, 167-68, 191-93), The Battle Cry of Freedom (166-67, 168, 184, 188, 201-2, 205, 276-77, 283), Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (168, 188, 262-63, 276-77); John R. Sweney: Beulah Land (70-71, 86-87, 89, 134-35, 163-64, 262-64); Anonymous (bugle calls): Taps (71, 183-85), Reveille (138, 188, 276); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (71, 132, 136, 138, 144, 186-89, 237, 253, 254, 263, 276-77); Horatio Parker: Hora novissima (81-82); J. S. Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (“Dorian”) BWV 538 (85), Prelude in B Minor BWV 869 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (131), Three-Part Invention in F Minor BWV 795 (132, 136), Fugue in E Minor BWV 855 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (137-38); Oliver Holden: Coronation (85, 87-88, 89); Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth: Nettleton (87, 135, 167, 210, 254, 262-63); George J. Webb: Webb (88); Karl Langlotz (composer), Harlan Page Peck (lyricist): Old Nassau (94-95); Anonymous: Hy-Can Nuck a No (94-95); Anonymous: Harvard Has Blue Stocking Girls (94-95); Carl Wilhelm (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Bright College Years (Dear Old Yale) (95); Philip Bliss (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Hold the Fort, McClung Is Coming (95); Nelson Kneass: Ben Bolt (118); Ellen Wright: Violets (118-19); Joseph E. Howard: Hello! Ma Baby (118); Anonymous: The Campbells Are Coming (118-19, 178-79); John Philip Sousa: Washington Post March (119), Semper Fidelis (204-5), Liberty Bell March (204-5); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (131-32, 135, 137-38, 141-43, 178-79, 201-2, 205, 210, 214, 240-41, 254), De Camptown Races (136-37, 178, 263, 264), Old Black Joe (137-38, 142-43, 201-2, 210), Old Folks at Home (177-78, 180); Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (131-32, 137-38, 179); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (132-34, 142), Marching Through Georgia (184, 187-89, 201-2, 205-6, 253, 254, 262, 264, 276-77); George A. Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (133-34, 168, 210); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where Are the Verdant Freshmen? (133-34); Gregorian chant, Lowell Mason (arranger): Hamburg (133-34); Johann G. Naegeli, Lowell Mason (arranger): Naomi (133-34, 154-55); Samuel A. Ward: Materna (134-35); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (135), Lohengrin (227); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (135, 224-28, 266-67); George Washington Dixon or Bob Farrell: Turkey in the Straw (137-38, 166-67, 178-79, 253, 264); Carl Gotthelf Glaser, Lowell Mason (arranger): Azmon (153-54, 156-57, 267); Charles Converse: Erie (153-54); William B. Bradbury: Woodworth (154, 156-57, 274, 275-76), Jesus Loves Me (161-62, 210); Andrew Young, Lowell Mason (arranger): There Is a Happy Land (155); William H. Doane: Old, Old Story (161); Robert Lowry: The Beautiful River (162, 164-65, 273-74), Need (163-66); Ira Sankey: There’ll Be No Dark Valley (164-65); François-Hippolyte Barthélémon: Autumn (166, 273-74); Anonymous: College Hornpipe (Sailor’s Hornpipe) (166-67, 178, 188); Anonymous: Money Musk (166-67, 178-79); Anonymous: The White Cockade (166-67, 178, 188); George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (168, 277); Henry R. Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! (177-78, 180); Anonymous: For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow (178); Anonymous: Fisher’s Hornpipe (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Irish Washerwoman (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Garryowen (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Saint Patrick’s Day (178-79, 188); Edwin P. Christy: Goodnight, Ladies (179, 180); John Francis Wade: Adeste fideles (183-85); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (184, 276-77); William Steffe (composer), Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (184-85, 187-89); Philip Phile (composer), Joseph Hopkinson (lyricist): Hail! Columbia (188, 205, 253, 254, 263); Anonymous: The Girl I Left Behind Me (188); Anonymous: London Bridge (188); John Hatton: Duke Street (191-93); Henry K. Oliver: Federal Street (191-93); Anonymous: The British Grenadiers (203-6); Ives: Overture and March “1776” (203-4), Country Band March (203-4, 236, 264, 276), Ragtime Dances (210, 283), Emerson Overture (218, 228-29), Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England (236, 264, 276), Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (257, 273-74), The Celestial Railroad (257, 258), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (257, 258, 263), String Quartet No. 1 (257, 265-66), String Quartet No. 2 (257, 267), A Song—for Anything (273), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano (273-74), Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano (273-74), Symphony No. 3: The Camp Meeting (274, 275-76); Anonymous: Arkansas Traveler (205); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (205, 264); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (206, 276); Isaac B. Woodbury: Dorrnance (207-9, 266-67); Edward S. Ufford: Throw Out the Life-Line (210, 262, 263); Anonymous: Happy Day (210); Lewis Hartsough: Welcome Voice (210, 266); James P. Webster: In the Sweet By-and-By (211-14, 260, 262-63); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (224, 236-7, 262, 263-64, 267); Anonymous: Loch Lomond (227); A. F. Winnemore: Stop That Knocking at My Door (227); Dan Emmet: Dixie (253, 276-77); William Crotch: Westminster Chimes (255-56, 260, 266-67); William G. Tomer: God Be With You (262); Handel, Lowell Mason (arranger): Antioch (Joy to the World) (266); Handel: Saul (274-75); Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (276, 283); Anonymous (composer), James Ryder Randall (lyricist): Maryland, My Maryland (276-77); George M. Cohan: Over There (277); Oley Speaks: On the Road to Mandalay (282)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Busoni's "young classicism" views music as a simultaneous mixture of old and new styles, "the mastery, the sifting and the turning to account of all the gains of previous experiments and their inclusion in strong and beautiful forms." He believed (pp. 85-95, 150-51) that Liszt's operatic fantasies are different from the "plebeian pot-pourri" and that the transcription is a legitimate art form, because (1) Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, and Brahms wrote quality transcriptions, (2) notation itself is the transcription of an abstract idea, (3) performances are all transcriptions, (4) some great compositions sound like transcriptions, and (5) transcriptions are like variations, which also change original music.

Works: Liszt: Don Juan Fantasy (89-95), transcription of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique (151).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The long-standing appeal of the Fulget dies refrain in twelfth- and thirteenth-century hymns, through the Counter-Reformation, and into nineteenth-century Catholic hymnals is linked to its association with liturgical time and relationship with multiple feasts, seasons, offices, and chants. The Fulget dies refrain originated sometime in the twelfth century within a family of contrafact tropes on Benedicamus Domino, each related to a different feast. By 1220, the refrain was found in hymns as well, as illustrated by its appearance in at least five hymns found in the Worcester Antiphonal. By 1300, the refrain had made its way to Hungary, Spain, Norman Sicily, France, and England. While Fulget dies appears in a variety of musical and liturgical contexts, it generally functions as a marker of festivity. Even after many office and mass tropes fell out of favor, Fulget dies lived on as a refrain in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century hymnals. The Feast of Corpus Christi hymn O salutaris hostia and the Marian hymn Matrem per integerrimam illustrate its continued association with important feasts and the ways in which the text and melody of Fulget dies gradually changed over time. In sources from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the refrain was transmitted only in ordinals which did not contain notated music, just text. Here, Fulget dies became primarily associated with the Christmas season. Two sources, the thirteenth-century Worcester Antiphonal and a sixteenth-century Hungarian ordinal, document the erasure of the Fulget dies refrain from hymn transmission. Through the sixteenth century, Fulget dies had a degree of stability attached to three Christmas hymns, most often to Fit porta Christi pervia, with both the text and music demonstrating a high degree of similarity. Accounting for its longevity as a refrain, the text of Fulget dies (the day shines forth . . . this day shines forth) exhibits both poetic brevity and flexibility to engage with any number of theological cycles from daily rituals to the cycles of seasons.

Works: Anonymous: Iam lucis orto sidere (91-97, 114-16, 120-23, 138, 141-42), A solis ortus cardine (107-11, 120, 126-27, 133-25, 142), Nunc sancta nobis spiritus (107-11), O salutaris hostia (117-20, 125), Matrem per integerrimam (117-20), Ordinarius Stringoniensis (122), Deus tuorum militum (125-26), Enixa est puerpera (126-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (126-32), Venez vos gens chantez Noé (132); Willaert: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32, 142-43); Orlando di Lasso: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32)

Sources: Anonymous: Fulget dies from tropes on Benedicamus Domino (91-144), A solis ortus cardine (126)

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The chaconnes in Bach's unaccompanied Violin Partita in D minor, Beethoven's Thirty-Two Variations in C minor for piano, and the finale of Brahms's Symphony No. 4 in E minor are similar in many respects. Bach's Partita was not published until twenty years after Beethoven's death, thus it was impossible for Beethoven to have known Bach's work. Brahms, on the other hand, having transcribed the Bach chaconne for piano left hand and practiced Beethoven's Thirty-two Variations, borrowed the themes from both Bach and Beethoven and incorporated them in the finale of his Symphony No. 4. A comparison of the treatment of meter, accents, harmonic structure, rhythmic movements, paired variations, ostinato, tetrachord, rondo form, contrapuntal devices, and sequences well illustrates the differences and similarities among the three composers in applying the old Baroque chaconne form, and the various degree of departure they made from the tradition.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (69-72).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Violin Partita No. 2 in D Minor, BWV 1004 (64-66); Beethoven: Thirty-Two Variations on an Original Theme in C Minor for Piano, WoO 80 (67-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Brahms wished to emulate his models, and after Schumann lamented that the piano sonata was in decline, he published three forays into the genre. Hummel was a friend of Beethoven and a brilliant improvisor and composer, and his Sonata in F-sharp Minor was well known and admired by Schumann, which made him an ideal model for Brahms. Hummel’s layered (though not quite contrapuntal) pianistic texture can be seen in the three-stave section of Brahms’s own F-sharp Minor Sonata. Brahms’s Scherzo, Op. 4, also has a similar melody to the scherzo from Hummel’s Piano Quintet, Op. 87, and it employs flat sixth chords in a similar way as well. Additionally, in his Sonata, Op. 2, Brahms employs direct quotation in several places, a reworked version of the opening passage of Hummel’s Sonata, and contrapuntal passages in the finale similar to those in Hummel’s sonata. Both pieces also employ prominent harmonic and melodic movement by thirds. The motives used in Brahms’s “developing variations” in the piece are similar to the improvisatory motives in Hummel’s. The similarity in structure of the two pieces goes beyond the basic sonata form to the ways in which they stretch the traditional system.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 2 (133-38, 142-56), Scherzo, Op. 4 (138-42).

Sources: Johann Nepomuk Hummel: Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 81 (133-38, 142-56), Piano Quintet, Op. 87 (138-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although Ives's writings discuss concepts of sardonic wit in composition, his songs reveal a wide range of expression of humor, which became more complex over the course of his career. His humorous compositions can be categorized into at least four categories: parody, whimsical reminiscence, philosophical humor, and exaggerated insignificance. Ives's techniques of humor often do not rely on musical borrowing, but rather from outlandish performance directions, general stylistic allusions, or incongruous juxtapositions of styles. Nonetheless, musical borrowing can contribute to the humor.

Works: Ives: The Side Show (125, 129-31).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

The exclusive right of the artist to the benefits that accrue from his or her intellectual property is a characteristic of modern culture. Borrowing is a common phenomenon, and exists in three types: (1) self-borrowing, or use of themes from one piece in another; (2) borrowing which is done as an obvious tribute or burlesque of the original, and (3) unacknowledged borrowing. Modern sensitivities consider this latter type of borrowing to be outright theft. The eighteenth century acknowledged but did not condemn this type of borrowing.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Ignacy Jan Paderewski’s Polish Fantasy, Op. 19 follows the conventions of the piano fantasy genre and one-movement concerto forms. The work contains original folk-inspired themes that borrow characteristics from the Mazur, Krakowiak, and Oberek Polish folk dances, which can be identified throughout the work. Particularly, the theme from the rondo section shares similar rhythmic patterns and melodic direction as the Krakowiak melody Albośmy to jacy tacy. The rhythmic pattern of the Mazur can also be found in other works by Paderewski, such as the third piece of his from Dances Polonaises, Op. 9. A comparison with Chopin’s Mazurkas and the Piano Concerto in E Minor, Op. 11, demonstrates how stylistic allusions from Polish folk dances can be incorporated into original themes.

Works: Ignacy Jan Paderewski: Polish Fantasy, Op. 19.

Sources: Anonymous: Albośmy to jacy tacy (23).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

The musical continuity in Rachmaninoff's Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini represents the culmination of his approach to writing a set of variations explored in his earlier pieces as well as in those of his predecessors. Through such continuity he resolves the stop-and-start method that composers such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms employed in variation writing: the breaks that occur when one variation ends on a cadence and the next one begins at once. Musical continuity in the variation process was not new but was revitalized by Rachmaninoff, who focuses more on the variations as a whole rather than on their individuality. Within such continuity, his variation sets are connected to his models. For example, in the Corelli Variations, the majority of the variations retain the regular phrase structure, similar length, and simplicity of the Folia melody. In the Paganini Rhapsody, Rachmaninoff's use of chromaticism, particularly in the introduction, is a direct reference to the chromatic contrary motion that resolves the augmented-sixth harmony in the penultimate measure of the original Paganini theme.

Works: Rachmaninoff: Variations on a Theme of Chopin, Op. 22 (19-26), Variations on a Theme of Corelli, Op. 42 (26-33), Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 43 (34-205).

Sources: Chopin: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 20 (23-24); Corelli: Violin Sonata, Op 5, No. 12 (30); La Folia melody (30); Paganini: Caprice in A Minor, Op.1, No. 24 (42-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Four-hand piano transcriptions are arguably the most important medium for the dissemination of concert repertory in the nineteenth century and played a destabilizing role by breaking down the geographic boundaries between public and private spheres of music. Before the recording era, piano transcriptions were the primary means of disseminating concert music and four-hand transcriptions in particular struck a balance between practicality and verisimilitude. Advocates of the medium praised it as the ideal way to understand and personally connect with the music while detractors lamented the piano’s limited timbre. Arrangers took different approaches to adapting orchestral textures to the piano. Carl Czerny’s arrangement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony strictly adheres to the orchestral doubling and range of the Beethoven’s score while Hugo Ulrich drastically pares down the texture. Additionally, there were many critical debates over which composers could and could not be faithfully translated to four-hand piano. Contemporary to the four-hand transcription craze, the process of lithography was developed which allowed historical artworks to be similarly reproduced and owned by the masses. Thus, the debates over the aesthetics of the domestication of art extended from music to visual art and largely defined reception histories of the nineteenth century. One understudied aspect of four-hand transcriptions is the effect the practice had on listening habits, particularly as a way for the public to practice dedicated, sustained listening and appreciation for orchestral music that facilitated the Romantic symphonic aesthetic. This, along with the visceral experience of playing four-hand transcriptions, contributed to the breakdown of barriers between the public and private music spheres.

Works: Carl Czerny: le Symphonie en Ut arrangée pour le Piano à quatre mains par ch. Czerny et composée L. Van Beethoven (270-72); Hugo Ulrich: Symphonien von L. Van Beethoven für Pianoforte zu vier Händen arrangirt von Hugo Ulrich (272-75)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (270-75)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The discovery of Beethoven's précis and analysis of the Kyrie fugue from Mozart's Requiem on a sketchleaf containing a draft for the Credo fugue Et vitam venturi of the Missa Solemnis on the reverse side raises the question, whether Beethoven used this piece as a model for his fugue. The following findings reinforce the assumption of a close connection: (1) Beethoven most probably made the Mozart copy during his work on the Credo and Gloria portions of the Mass. (2) The Gloria subject features similarities of gesture (with Mozart's countersubject) and presentation (with Mozart's subject, first in the bass). (3) Like the Mozart example, the Credo fugue is a double fugue. (4) The pairing of subject and countersubject in the Credo exposition involves the same voices. (5) Like Mozart, Beethoven makes extensive use of the compound 4/4 meter in his Gloria.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although the French quadrille of the 1830s and 1840s has often received censure for its limited expressive qualities and aesthetically detrimental arrangements, the dance was a critical nexus in Parisian musical life, connecting the worlds of "high" and "low" culture and often serving as the public's first point of contact with operas. With the standardization of the form of the quadrille around 1820, it began to receive criticism for the mechanical quality of the dancing it supported. Although some attacked the genre's poor arrangements, the quadrille both directly and indirectly could benefit the operas from which it drew tunes. Quadrilles did not always destroy the music they borrowed; French composers typically did not use irregular phrases or rhythms, and melodies such as Auber's often are readily suited to dance arrangement. Furthermore, although quadrilles could break up the narrative of the opera from which melodies were drawn, often the sheet music covers or performances might allude to or seek to recreate the narrative of the original.

Works: Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Tolbecque: Pantalon from Guillaume Tell (520), La Muette de Portici (520-22); Louis Antoinie Jullien: La Muette de portici (522-23), Les Huguenots (523).

Sources: Auber: La Muette de Portici (520, 523).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1800s

Humor and programmatic effect are the two primary reasons for Debussy's musical borrowings. Debussy draws his borrowed material from classical music, popular songs, and national anthems. These points are illustrated through detailed analyses of pieces in which Debussy incorporates national anthems.

Works: Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (20); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake-walk" from Children's Corner (20), "La Boite à joujoux," from Images oubliées (20), "Jardins sous la pluie" from Estampes (20), "Rondes de printemps" from Images (20), 9th Prelude (Book II) (20), Berceuse heroique (20, 22-23), En blanc et noir (second piece) (20, 23-26), "Feux d'artifice" from Préludes, Book II (21); Fauré: Fantasie en forme de quadrille sur des motifs du Ring (20); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (20); Clementi: Symphony No. 3 in G Major, "Great National Symphony" (21).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (20); Mendelssohn: "Wedding March" from Midsummer Night's Dream (20); Arne: God Save the King (20-22); Campenhout, François van: "Brabançonne" (20, 22-23); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (21-22, 24, 26); Luther: Ein feste Burg (24-25); Haydn: Symphony in G Major, Hob. I:100, "Military" (24)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

[from AG's dissertation: "According to Conati, Verdi saw both Milan productions of Robert le diable, modeling portions of Macbeth (1847) and possibly Giovanna d' Arco (1845) on Meyerbeer's work, whether in certain touches of instrumentation, the role of the grotesque, or abandoning of formal conventions in some places."]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Schubert's last three piano sonatas, composed during the summer of 1828, borrow from or are modeled on works by Beethoven. Schubert may have been insecure about this particular musical form and subsequently turned to Beethoven's works for help. Detailed examples of Schubert rondos that may have been modeled on Beethoven rondos support this hypothesis.

Works: Schubert: Sonata in C Minor (780), Sonata in B Flat Major (780), Sonata in A Major (782-86), Rondo in A Major for Piano Duet, Op. 107 (788-93).

Sources: Beethoven: Thirty-two Variations on an Original Theme in C minor, WoO 80 (780), String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 130 (780-82), Piano Sonata No. 16 in G major, Op. 31, No. 1 (782-86), Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor, Op. 90 (788-93).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

In examining the composition and performance of musical works, the question of persona is raised: whose persona does the music represent--that of the composer, the performer, or (in the case of vocal music) the character portrayed by the performer? With respect to musical borrowing, the relevant question is: whose voice or persona is speaking in the borrowed material, the original composer's or the borrower's? In the case of self-borrowing by a vocal composer, it is the composer's own voice, rather than that of the poet whose text he or she originally set, that speaks through the borrowed material (p. 41). In an instrumental transcription of a vocal work, the vocal melody retains its original textual associations, thereby preserving the original composer's voice despite the removal of the text (pp. 76-78). When the situation is reversed, as in a popular vocal arrangement of an instrumental classic, the original composer's persona is still felt, as is the case with arrangements of Chopin and Tchaikovsky melodies (p. 45). Concerning the transcription of an existing instrumental work for a new instrumental combination, the integrity of the transcription (its preservation of the original composer's voice) rests on its use of a restricted choice of instrumentation (p. 108). Lastly, folk-tune or anthem borrowings can seem ridiculous if they are too obvious, where the original composer's voice completely overpowers the borrower's persona, disrupting the new piece. Puccini's use of The Star-Spangled Banner in Madama Butterfly is a prime example of this (p. 162).

Works: Brahms: Chaconne in D Minor by J. S. Bach (arranged for piano left hand); Busoni: Chaconne in D Minor by J. S. Bach (arranged for piano); Liszt: Liebestraum No. 3, Sonnets of Petrarch; Puccini: Madama Butterfly ; Webern: Ricercar a 6 voci by J. S. Bach (arr. for orchestra).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Within a wider survey of Beethoven's compositional methods, the author discusses the composer's reworkings of his own previous material (chapter 5, 59-74). Beethoven's distinctive style can be said to derive to a large extent from a stock of musical ideas that recur throughout his work; these may be rhythmic motives and harmonic progressions, or larger-scale tonal patterns and formal devices. Consideration of sketch material is particularly helpful in understanding this, as it shows how many ideas that were initially rejected in one piece would be "salvaged" for the purposes of another. Beethoven tended to borrow in a more detailed fashion from unpublished material, whereas reference to previously published works was usually considerably more general.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 (62), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (62), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (64), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 ("Waldstein") (65), Bagatelle in A-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 7 (66), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (66).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1800s

Arthur Sullivan, had he been free of the repressive Victorian mood, would have been one of Europe's greatest composers. However, the philistine repugnance of the English towards expressed emotion forced him to treat his serious opera aspirations in a farcical manner. Instead of developing his own operatic talents, he relied upon burlesquing or copying other masters including Schubert, Donizetti, and Bellini. This imitation was extended to his serious works, including melodic derivations from Mendelssohn.

Works: Sullivan: The Light of the World (11), Princess Ida (11), The Yeoman of the Guard (11), Ivanhoe (12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

This very general article on Tchaikovsky's symphonies makes note of several instances of borrowing or modeling, especially in terms of quoted folk songs (first and last movement of the Second Symphony) and operatic influences. The latter concern mainly the last three symphonies, including distinctively operatic phrases, repeated climaxes mounting almost to hysteria, sudden brutal interruptions, and others. The finale of the Sixth Symphony may possibly be modeled on the last act of Verdi's Otello, emulating the atmosphere and orchestration of Otello's appearance.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4 (27, 42), Symphony No. 3 (32-33, 255), Symphony No. 2 (33, 35f.), Symphony No. 6 (40), Symphony No. 1 (40, 255).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (27); Folk song: Down by Mother Volga (32); Tchaikovsky: Undine (33, 39), Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Op. 80 (40).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Varying definitions and expectations about the fantasy as a genre have resulted in a devaluation of both Tchaikovsky and his music, but a survey of nineteenth-century fantasies and an examination of definitions of the term show that the techniques for which Tchaikovsky is often criticized in his symphonic works were consistent with a contemporary understanding of the fantasy. The term “fantasy” was applied to works based upon their design rather than their use of borrowed or original material. There are four main processes that are important to the fantasy: the overall structure’s relationship to established forms, developmental processes within the fantasy, types of interruption, and methods of linkage. Methods of linkage are especially important because of the fantasy’s discontinuous nature, and in works based on existing themes, transitional passages tend to link incongruous sections. Historically, fantasies have been divided into various categories, including a four-fold typology by Czerny that considered the “Fantasia Forming a Pot-pourri” as his fourth category; this category consisted of “beautiful melodies of favorite operas, tastefully and connectedly strung together.” These fantasies were valued for their use of variation in linking passages. Marx also considered the musical potpourri as a type of fantasy. The melodies in Francesca da Rimini resemble many of the motives found in Wagner’s Die Walküre, and while the works share topical similarities such as forbidden love, the strong resemblances may be read as acknowledgement of Tchaikovsky’s desire to free himself from the expectations of conventional symphonic form.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (170, 181-88).

Sources: Wagner: Die Walküre (183-85).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

In the midst of the English Victorian era’s focus on propriety, commercial theatres found ways to cater burlesque to the respectable bourgeoisie. Theatre managers promoted their offerings to middle-class tourists by removing sexual innuendo and references to drinking, lower-class subjects, and social satire. The 1860 production of Lucrezia Borgia! included more operatic numbers than previous performances, because it was assumed that the middle-class audience would have been familiar with continental opera. The English burlesque practice of interpolating various numbers grew out of the need to restructure and abridge Italian operas to fit English lyrics and audiences. Burlesques typically kept the arias with the most memorable melodies, while substituting dialogue for the action scenes and adding popular songs to increase interest. The production of Little Don Giovanni, although staged elaborately and requiring higher ticket prices, included a wide variety of numbers, including parlor songs and music-hall songs, reflecting the diverse nature of the English middle-class. The songs it used were those that listeners would have been able to play on the piano. Robert the Devil, on the other hand, drew mostly on operetta numbers. The juxtapositions of “high” and “low” music in mid-Victorian burlesque was intended for variety, and not as much for political commentary or satire. Tables describe the origins of every number in each of the three burlesques discussed.

Works: Anonymous: Lucrezia Borgia! (burlesque) (82-88, 91-95), Little Don Giovanni (88, 95-102), Robert the Devil (89, 102-6).

Sources: Donizetti: Lucrezia Borgia (83); Mozart: Don Giovanni (88); Meyerbeer: Robert le diable (89).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Franz Liszt’s Deux Polonaises provide a case study demonstrating the combined interpretive power of and dynamic interplay between intertextuality and multiple subjectivities. These two piano works are intertextually related to other musical works (especially other polonaises) and to a literary work: Liszt’s biography F. Chopin. Throughout F. Chopin, Liszt develops a narrative of Polish music and culture leading up to Chopin, who fully embodies the Polish character. Liszt’s Deux Polonaises relate to F. Chopin’s narrative and alludes to many different styles, genres, and composers through multiple subjective voices. The opening of Polonaise I has clear similarities to Chopin’s Polonaise in E-flat Minor, Op. 26, No. 2, and throughout the work there are stylistic allusions to Chopin and Michał Kleofas Ogínski. The subjective voices in Polonaise I are the musical narrator, the musical subjects (militaristic style and the sentimental style), and the performer, who all interact to construct a history of the genre in the manner of F. Chopin. In Polonaise II, Liszt suggests the subjectivities of soloist and orchestra. These voices are also related to the construction of Polish history by way of funeral march references. In particular the concept of Polish messianism, the believe that Poland was an innocent victim of foreign powers that will rise again, plays out in the soloist perspective winning out against the orchestral. Again, this reading is suggested by an intertextual connection to F. Chopin. The combination of intertextuality and subjectivity in Deux Polonaises reveals how abstract musical drama is developed in nineteenth-century piano music.

Works: Franz Liszt: Polonaise I (121-23, 126-35), Polonaise II (124-25, 135-45), Polonaise brillante (135-36)

Sources: Chopin: Polonaise in E-flat Minor, Op. 26, No. 2 (122, 126-27), Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1 (124, 135-37); Michał Kleofas Ogínski: Polonaise No. 10 in D Minor (127-128), Polonaise in A Minor (128-29); Carl Maria von Weber: Polacca brillante (135-36); Liszt: Polonaise brillante (135-36), Funérailles (139-40)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Franz Liszt's 1859 variations on the theme from J. S. Bach's cantata Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12 effectively transforms Bach's structurally and tonally restrictive passacaglia theme into a large-scale, goal-oriented work. The theme is short and harmonically closed and thus has the potential to be repetitive and static. To create forward momentum, Liszt incorporates the suspensions of the theme into many of the variations and dovetails many phrases, a technique used by Bach, to drive the piece forward and conceal the regularity of the repeating passacaglia theme. Additionally, he creates large-scale form and goal direction by ending the set of variations with a statement of the chorale from Bach's cantata, providing a focal point for the developmental process. Liszt turns the genre of the Baroque passacaglia into a more Romantic theme and variations genre by incorporating a more pianistic texture, chromatic harmony, and freer use of the theme as the variations progress. While this work is four times longer than Bach's set of variations in the cantata, the overall structure of the new work reflects the narrative of the original, which can be construed as Lizst's method of paying homage to Bach.

Works: Franz Liszt: Variations on a Theme from "Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen," S. 180 (37-49).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12 (37-49).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: General, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

In letters written between 1834 and 1836, Georges Sand traced the developments of Romanticism and provided a narrative for its artistic, religious, and social aspects. Giacomo Meyerbeer's borrowing of Martin Luther's Ein feste Burg in Les Huguenots is one such example of an emerging Romantic aesthetic. Even though Meyerbeer turned to an older German chorale form in his opera, he updated it to become Romantic by using the tune as "local color" for crowd scenes on the stage and in particular for Huguenots. Meyerbeer effectively truncated the tune in a culminating scene in Act V, in which Catholic assassins enter, and the Huguenots stop singing it. Throughout the opera, Ein feste Burg signifies perseverance in the face of religious persecution.

Works: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (92-93).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (92).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Dale lists works (from Beethoven till present) that include quotations. They can be grouped into pieces (1) quoting Dies Irae, (2) quoting Beethoven, (3) by Wagner quoting other works, (4) by Borodin, Elgar, and Ives quoting other works, (5) in which Schumann was quoting, and (6) by other composers. The principle of quoting is clearly separate from parody, the stylistic imitation of an other composer, which is not included in this essay.

Works: Borodin: The Valiant Knights (626); Elgar: The Music Makers (626); Ives: An Elegy for Stephen Foster (626).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Schumann's Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17, contains both a direct quotation of and several allusions to "Nimm sie hin denn diese Lieder" from Beethoven's song cycle An die ferne Geliebte. The quotation fulfills several functions. First, it provides one of the thematic connections between the slow inserted section called "Im Legendenton" and the surrounding movement in sonata form. Second, the literal quotation in the coda can be seen as the climax toward which the whole movement develops. This view is supported not only by the increasing clarity of the quotation (from allusion in the exposition to clearer allusion in the section called "Im Legendenton" to literal quotation in the coda) but also by the fact that the Fantasy opens quasi in medias res on a dominant ninth chord. Rather than analyzing the Fantasy as developing from a theme, there is the option to analyze it as developing toward a theme. Other quotations in the Fantasy are mentioned only briefly.

Works: Schumann: Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17 (151-53, 156-58).

Sources: Schubert: Die Gebüsche, D. 646 (151), Der Fluss, D. 693 (151); Beethoven: Wo die Berge so blau, Op. 98, no. 2 (151, 156-58).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Self-borrowing occurs for many reasons, such as creative impotence, haste, or desire to reuse an especially felicitous phrase. For Bizet, it was an effort to make use of cast-aside or unfinished materials that otherwise might not have been completed. His self-borrowings were always from unpublished works and those which had never been performed; thus, his borrowing could go undetected during his lifetime. Reworkings include reuse of an entire movement or aria, or adaptation of an older theme to a new context.

Works: Bizet: Symphony in C Major (240, 241), Vasco de gama (240), Le golfe de Bahia (240), Ivan IV (240), Te Deum (240), Don Procopio (240), Clovis et Clotilde (241), Marche funèbre (241), "Le doute" (241), "La coupe de Roi de Thulé" (242, 243), Grisélidis (243), "La jolie fille de Perth" (243), Don Rodrigue (244), L'Arlesienne (244).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

This book is divided into three sections: a biography, a psychological profile, and a discussion of his music. The discussion of stylistic borrowings is located in the second section along with discussions of how he relates to church music, how he relates to other people and their opinions and music, and how he relates to his own music. Specific borrowings are considered in the last section, where Decsey discusses each of Bruckner's major works with an eye to the sociological implications associated with each. Biographical reasons for compositional style are proposed and substantiated with sketches, writings, or conjecture. Decsey attempts to lay to rest critics of Bruckner, especially those who decry "formlessness," and "massiveness" in his music.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Throughout this thorough examination of Strauss's life and works, musical borrowings are cited in music of every genre in which Strauss composed. There is a separate list of self quotations for Ein Heldenleben in vol. 1, p. 177.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Chabrier's excursion to Spain proved to be highly influential on his style. In letters sent to his friends and family, he recounts experiences and notates music later utilized inEspaña , including melodic ideas and distinctive regional dance rhythms.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Ravel himself acknowledged his great debt to the music of Chabrier. There are few works by Ravel which do not to some extent echo one or another work by Chabrier. Some specific allusions are noted. Ravel's harmonic procedures are also influenced by Chabrier.

Works: Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte (547), Jeux d'eau (550), "Ondine" and "Scarbo" from Gaspard de la Nuit (550), Alborada del graciozo (550), Rapsodie espagnole (550), Vocalise en forme de habanera (550), La Valse (550), Histories naturelles (551).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Beethoven considered his Op. 35 to be entirely original, but in fact the theme and many significant details of the work are based upon C. P. E. Bach's Rondo in E flat. Beethoven came in contact with Bach's keyboard works in his years at Bonn. The theme of Op. 35, derived from the Bach, is also used in the Contredanse in E-flat WoO 14/7, the finale of the music for The Creatures of Prometheus, Op. 43, and the finale of the Third Symphony (Eroica). In the dynamics of long-term memory, several specific items are remembered in the context of a more general memory and reproduction of the memory involves elaboration and revision. Both of these aspects in the workings of long-term memory are evident in Beethoven's unconscious recollection of the work by Bach.

Works: Beethoven: Variations in E-flat, Op. 35 (passim), Contredanse in E-flat, WoO 14/7 (48, 53), Prometheus, Op. 43 (48).

Sources: C. P. E. Bach: Rondo in E-flat, W. 61/1 (passim).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Luther's chorale Ein feste Burg represents not only a religious message but also a symbol of the identity of all Protestants. Its many settings reflect both its religious and its cultural impact. Many composers identified with the revolutionary spirit the Reformation and saw the potential of the tune as a symbol of the time and its historical significance. Depending on the political context in which composers used the tune, the meaning of it changed. For example, Meyerbeer used it in Les Huguenots as a gesture to Protestantism, even though the tune was not necessarily a historical emblem for Huguenots. Mendelssohn's symphonic setting added a programmatic element to the tune. Debussy, on the other hand, used the tune in wartime by evoking it as a symbol of German aggression. He juxtaposed the tune with French anthem, La Marseillaise, which musically triumphs over Ein feste Burg in the end. The various settings of the tune also allow it to assume a multifarious spectrum in that it can be meaningful in an ecumenical sense. Essentially, it became a "banner Lied" for faithful believers and critics across centuries of use.

Works: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (36); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (37-39); Debussy: En blanc et noir (39-40).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (29-34, 40-41).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Irony in Schumann is explained by comparing his compositional techniques with those found in Heinrich Heine and Jean Paul Richter. In Romantic literature, irony resulted from the principle that the author should hold a position above the work and himself; he should not unconsciously get lost in the creative process but control it by introducing a stage of consciousness, which is achieved by irony. Irony breaks up coherent units, as does quotation in a musical piece; it creates dialectical tension. For Schumann, quotation (irony) solved another problem: it imbued Classic rhetoric with new life, and at the same time freed him of the demand for "desperate independence" from his predecessors.

Works: Schumann: Carnaval (176, 186-87), Intermezzo, Op. 4, No. 2 (176), Symphony No. 2 (176, 179), Fantasy in C Major (176), Papillons (176), Faschingsschwank aus Wien (176), Die beiden Grenadiere (176), Davidsbündlertänze (176, 186-87), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (178-79).

Sources: Schubert: Gretchen am Spinnrade (176); Schumann: Carnaval (176, 187), Papillons (176, 187); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte (176,179); Grossvatertanz (176-77); Rouget de Lisle: Marseillaise (176-77).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In evaluations of Liszt's works his keyboard transcriptions and paraphrases are often ignored or considered only for their advances in pianistic techique. The analyses of three paraphrases, all composed in 1841 and called Reminiscences, reveal Liszt's unique formal approach to each. His results superseded mere objective recounting of popular themes; instead, Liszt produced condensed, subjective interpretations of the original operatic works, expressed in pure keyboard style.

Works: Liszt: Reminiscences de Norma (132-36), Reminiscences de Don Juan (136-39), Reminiscences de Robert le Diable (140-47).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Several features of Berlioz's music create an effect of discontinuity, among which is quotation. Specific instances include the offstage use of the Dies Irae and the quotation of the "aeolian harp" section (originally in La Mort d'Orphée) in Lélio.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Although Liszt's Missa solemnis (1853) is indebted to Beethoven's Missa solemnis (1823), Liszt did not "appropriate" Beethoven's techniques but differentiated his work. Liszt's admiration for Beethoven's music is well illustrated in the fact that he frequently performed, conducted, and taught Beethoven's works. Liszt would have used Beethoven's Missa solemnis as a model for his first large-scale choral piece, written for the consecration of a new basilica. There are several musical parallels, movement by movement, between Beethoven's and Liszt's masses. As an example of the structural parallels, the two composers distinguished the Credo from other movements tonally. In scoring, the similar opening in the two Kyries goes beyond mere coincidence, yet after that Liszt deploys a distant key while Beethoven uses a home key. In thematic relationships, Liszt distinguished himself from Beethoven?s thematic recall and transformation in contrast with Beethoven's use of different themes for each movement as well as his limited recall of thematic motives. Liszt's references to Beethoven?s monumental piece are a natural outcome of his seeking the model for a cyclic mass; in that genre, Beethoven?s serves as an essential model.

Works: Liszt: Missa solemnis (240-46, 248-52).

Sources: Beethoven: Missa solemnis (240, 247-52).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Luther's Ein feste Burg resembles the B-A-C-H motive in that it signifies something outside of its musical character. In addition, Ein feste Burg begins with four memorable notes, comparable not only to the four notes of B-A-C-H but also to the striking four-note opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Insofar as Ein feste Burg has a broader function outside of its musical characteristics, it epitomizes the powerful and energetic voice of evangelical Christianity, in a tradition began by Luther. Bach felt deeply moved by the religious sentiments of the tune and set it in a cantata with eight movements. Meyerbeer altered the tune more than Bach did and subjected it to various musical treatments, including theme and variations as well as parody, in Les Huguenots. The Romantic generation in particular responded to the tune in various compositional manners, especially by means of reinstrumentation and paraphrase technique, including settings by Mendelssohn, Nicolai, and many others. Wagner set the tune in his Kaisermarsch in order to evoke the sense of driving away the enemy. All of these settings discussed seek to maintain the spirit of the tune. The prolific uses of the tune reinforce the religious connotations that Luther intended. Although the B-A-C-H motive is not specifically associated with a source, many composers, including Schumann, Rimsky-Korsakov, Liszt, and others incorporate it in various ways into their works.

Works: J. S. Bach: Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (7); Beethoven: Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (7); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (8); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (9-10); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Heinrich Karl Breidenstein: Grosse Variationen über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel (10); Friedrich Lux: "Ein feste Burg" Konzertfantasie für Orgel (10); H. Schellenberg: Fantasie über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl Stern: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl August Fischer: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel mit Blasinstrumenten (10); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (11); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op. 127 (11-12); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier (12); Heinrich Schulz-Beuthen: Reformationssinfonie (12); Richard Bartmuss: Liturgischen Feiern No. 5, Reformation (13); Heinrich Pfannschmidt: Reformationsfestspeil (13); Hans Fährmann: Fantasie und Doppelfuge für Orgel über "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott," Op. 28 (13); Reger: Chorale fantasia "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (14), Schumann: Sechs Fugen über den Namen Bach, Op. 60 (16-17); Rimsky-Korsakov: Sechs Stücker über BACH, Op. 10 (17-18); Liszt: Präludium und Fuge über Bach (18-19); Wilhelm Middelschultes: Kanonische Fantasie über BACH und Fugue über vier Themen von J. S. Bach (19); Hans Fährmann: Orgelsonata in B moll, Op. 17 (19-20), Vorspiel und Doppelfuge für Orgel (20); Georg Schumann: Passacaglia und Finale für Orgel, Op. 39 (20).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (7-8).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

In composing Canada’s national anthem, O Canada, Calixa Lavallée used multiple musical models including the March of the Priests from Mozart’s Magic Flute, crafting a patchwork of paraphrased segments to convey the national spirit. Lavallée, who was born near Montreal but spent much of his musical career performing in the United States, composed O Canada in 1880 on a commission from the Congrès Catholique Canadiens Français. Around 1936 it began to be used as Canada’s semi-official national anthem, and it was officially recognized as such in 1980. Critics have long noted the similarities between the opening eight measures of O Canada and March of the Priests, with the two prevailing positions being that this is a case of unintentional borrowing or a coincidental use of a common musical figure. The identical first three notes, the strikingly similar harmony and contour, and the thematic relevance of Mozart’s tune to a national anthem together make a strong case that Lavallée deliberately chose to use Mozart as a model. Liszt’s Festklänge (1853) also appears to be a source for Lavallée as it too uses the same triadic opening as well as a distinctive transition phrase sharing both contour and function. A model for the second eight bars of O Canada can be identified as well. This passage closely resembles Wach auf from Wagner’s Die Meistersinger (1868) in melody and pedal point. While it is difficult to know for sure that Lavallée was familiar with Festklänge and Wach auf, both pieces were readily available and popular in their own right, and Lavallée was a well-traveled musician with contemporary taste. The final section of O Canada also closely resembles another popular tune: Matthias Keller’s Speed Our Republic (or The American Hymn). In constructing a new composition out of paraphrases of several sources, Lavallée created a patchwork, a fact that should not diminish his anthem’s importance as a musical symbol of Canada.

Works: Calixa Lavallée: O Canada (12-22)

Sources: Mozart: The Magic Flute (12-16); Liszt: Festklänge (16-18); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (18-20); Matthias Keller: Speed Our Republic (20-22)

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Liszt’s large output of piano transcriptions reflects the demands of his virtuoso career as well as his lifelong interest in other composers’ music. When transcribing various marches by Franz Schubert, Liszt, in keeping with his usual practice, made several modifications in his adaptations. He often moved beyond the simple ternary forms of the originals, usually by adding large-scale codas based on the theme from the marches’ trio sections. Additionally, Liszt frequently added new thematic material in his arrangements, sometimes borrowed from other Schubert marches, other times newly composed. Several movements from Schuberts Märsche, orchestriert v. Liszt, R. 449/S. 363—later arranged for piano four-hands as Vier Märsche von F. Schubert, R. 354/S. 632—are especially notable, as they contain newly-composed transitions that enhance the latent “Hungarian” quality of Schubert’s original pieces, while also linking the large sections of a march together to create a more organically unified piece.

Works: Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert, R. 250/S. 425 (135, 137, 140-41), Schuberts Märsche für das Pianoforte Solo, R. 251/S. 426 (135-39, 142-44), Schuberts Märsche, orchestriert v. Liszt, R. 449/S. 363 [Vier Märsche von F. Schubert R. 354/S. 632] (135-37, 142-45).

Sources: Schubert: Divertissement à la hongroise, D. 818 (135, 145), Six Grandes Marches, D. 819 (135, 142-43), Deux marches caractérisques, D. 886/D. 968b (135, 142-43), Grande Marche Funèbre, D. 859 (135, 142).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Many of Mahler's motives and themes remind us of preexisting musical phrases. They sound familiar already at their first appearance. The musicologist makes it his task to locate these allusions. It is, however, impossible or at least misleading to attempt this. These seemingly borrowed excerpts are rather Mahler's attempt to evoke a "colloquial" sound (umgangssprachlicher Ton) or the impression of déjà vu. The use of military fanfares and posthorns should not be interpreted as quotation, even if Mahler consciously quoted one. What is important is the meaning of the fanfare or the posthorn according to the context in which it is found, not as a quotation but as an event. Eggebrecht, however, also discusses the obvious reuses of material such as "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" (from the Wunderhorn-Lieder) in the Second Symphony and "Oft denk' ich, sie sind nur ausgegangen" (from the Kindertotenlieder) in the Ninth. All three aspects are of importance for the interpretation and understanding of Mahler's works and enable the author to explain their meaning.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In a full-length discussion of Schubert's life and music, the author mentions numerous examples of the composer's borrowing, both from works of other composers and from his own previous works. As might be expected, Schubert's early years of compositional development contain the most instances of formal and thematic modeling of the music of others; perhaps surprisingly, Mozart seems to have been a more pervasive source than Schubert's immediate predecessor Beethoven. In his mature works, Schubert borrows less from others, while placing greater emphasis on the reuse of his own material, particularly the songs. Yet borrowing formal procedures from other composers (particularly Beethoven) continues to be an important practice of Schubert until the end of his life and can be seen even in such late works as the last three piano sonatas.

Works: Schubert: Fantasia for Four Hands, 1811 (29), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (36), Der Teufels Lustchloss (50), Mass in F Major (56, Rondo in D Major for Violin and Piano, Op. 70 (76, 275), Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major (86), Symphony No. 4 in C Minor ("Tragic") (108), Fantasia in C Major ("Wanderer") (143), Fugue for Four Hands, 1828 (152), Rondo in D Major for Four Hands, 1818 (153), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 29 (167, 214), Impromptu, Op.90 (173), Impromptu, Op.142 (214), Suleika I D. 720 (193), Divertissement à la Hongroise, D 818 (242), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 845 (247), Piano Sonata in D Major, D. 850 (250), String Quartet in D Minor, D. 810 (254), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (256), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (286), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D. 960 (287), Mass in E-flat Major (298).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

The myth that the black spiritual was completely derived from white folk hymns is one of the most pervasive in the literature about black folk music. Early studies of black folk music such as Richard Wallaschek's Primitive Music (1893) and George Pullen Jackson's White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands (1933) relied solely on transcriptions, a process which does not account for performative and aural contexts of folk music. In effect, these studies mistakenly equated transcriptions with the music as it was performed and thus tacitly assumed that any deviation from the diatonic scale was due to a performer's misinterpretation of music of white origins. These analyses do not account for the process of syncretism which had to have taken place between African- and European-derived musical elements in the development of the black spiritual.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Donizetti’s turn toward gothic opera subjects in the late 1830s included a spate of self-borrowing, a compositional practice that resembles gothic concepts of corporeality and reanimation of the dead. Two operas from 1838, Maria de Rudenz and Gabriella di Vergy, exemplify this gothic attitude as both plots deal with the hidden or supernatural forces that animate our bodies. In the finale of Maria de Rudenz, after being stabbed, the title character appears to her rival as (he assumes) a ghost, accompanied by eerie musical signifiers of the supernatural. As she reveals herself to be alive and exacts her revenge, Donezetti uses the unusual technique of rewriting (reanimating) the cantabile melody in the cabaletta, blurring the lines between life and death, love and revenge. Gabriella, written in about a month after a cool reception to Maria, repurposes musical material from the earlier opera, including Maria’s cabaletta from the finale. In the final scene of Gabriella, the titular heroine discovers the still-warm heart of her lover in his funeral urn and sings a reworking of Maria’s cabaletta. In contrast to Maria embodying the supernatural, Gabriella is placed in a dialogue with the supernatural. Supernatural elements resonate throughout the finale with echoes of earlier music in addition to the resurrected cabaletta from Maria. The gothic trope of echoes and repetition becomes a way to understand Donizetti’s self-borrowing outside of a purely utilitarian framework.

Works: Donizetti: Gabriella di Vergy (99-106)

Sources: Donizetti: Maria de Rudenz (99-106)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

After Tchaikovsky's death the famous choreographer Marius Petipa rearranged the numbers of the composer's ballet Swan Lake for a revival performance. He felt that some additional numbers were necessary and borrowed them from Tchaikovsky's Piano Pieces, Op. 72, namely "L'Espiègle" (no. 12), "Valse Bluette" (no. 11), and "Un poco di Chopin" (no. 15). These pieces were probably orchestrated by Riccardo Drigo, the conductor of the performances at the Marynsky Theater in 1894 (Act II only) and 1895.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Swan Lake (192f.).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

In his Opus 59 string quartets, Beethoven juxtaposes learned styles and Russian folk styles in a self-conscious critique of highbrow Viennese music. This reading is informed by the German reception of Russian folksongs and Count Andreas Razumovsky’s cosmopolitan persona. The common argument that Beethoven parodies Russian folk music by misrepresenting the lament Ah, Whether It’s My Luck, Such Luck is less clear-cut than it is often presented. Beethoven’s use of the Russian tune as a fugue subject in the finale of Op. 59, No. 1 suggests a playful juxtaposition of high and low art while the coda presents the tune as the ultimate goal of the movement and quartet. Many critics read the quasi-fugal setting of the hymn tune Slava in Op. 59, No. 2 similarly as a parody of Russian music. However, the dissonant counterpoint can be read as referencing the sublime in the manner of Mozart’s “Jupiter” symphony. Thus, Beethoven’s use of folk music as the basis for strict counterpoint calls attention to the artifice of counterpoint itself. Furthermore, given Russia’s political position at the turn of the nineteenth century, the inclusion of specifically Russian folk music should be understood as a political act. Beethoven’s setting reflects the persona of his patron Razumovsky, a “European Russian” who negotiated between two cultural worlds: old Russia and cosmopolitan Vienna. Op. 59, No. 3 is unlike the other two quartets in the set as it does not contain a marked thème russe, posing the question of whether a folk song is included. A possible Russian folk song source for the Andante movement of Op. 59, No. 3 is an arrangement of Ty wospoi, wospoi, mlad Shaworontscheck printed in a July 1804 issue of Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (translated as Singe, sing’ein Lied). The movement shares its key, meter, and tempo with the printed arrangement and the opening bars of the movement paraphrase the opening melody and bass line. This rendition of Ty wospoi continues the work of the first two quartets in engaging with a cosmopolitan blend of Russian folk music with learned styles.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet No. 7 in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 (78-80, 81-92), String Quartet No. 8 in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (79, 92-112), String Quartet No. 9 in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (112-16)

Sources: Traditional: As, Whether It’s My Luck, Such Luck (78-80, 81-92), Slava (Uzh kak slava Tebe Bozhe) (79, 92-112), Ty wospoi, wospoi, mlad Shaworontscheck (Singe, sing’ein Lied) (112-16)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Das himmlische Leben, a Wunderhorn text-setting from Mahler's Fourth Symphony, provides much of the material for that work, and portions of it were incorporated into the first and third movements of the Third Symphony. It was originally to be included in the Third Symphony as its final movement, and, later, as its second movement, though Mahler ultimately changed his mind about both ideas. The fifth, choral movement of the Third Symphony was originally to be part of the Fourth. These changes of mind and heart show the composer's inspiration coming from a single source that resulted in two very different symphonies.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 in D Minor (90-102), Symphony No. 4 (95-96, 99-100), Symphony No. 5 in C sharp Minor (102, 107), Symphony No. 10 (102), Symphony No. 9 (103).

Sources: Mahler: Des Knaben Wunderhorn (90-107).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Chopin’s Etudes—Op. 10, Op. 25, and the three Nouvelles etudes—are a unique synthesis of musical style and performance technique, and they are examples of the genre in its pristine form. Music critics since Chopin's day have recognized a certain intuitiveness and ingenuity of these works in terms of both musical conception and keyboard technique that cannot be adequately explained by invoking antecedents. However, one can trace a variety of precedents for the musical and technical features of Chopin’s etudes by comparing examples from a group of didactic and non-didactic works. Chopin’s detailed harmonic structures and elaborate chromatic embroidery also point to a strong connection to J. S. Bach. In particular, Bach’s influence on Chopin’s harmonic language is best demonstrated in the contrapuntal tension between the linear, horizontal aspects of the piano figures and the underlying harmonic ground-work that is characteristic of Chopin’s etudes.

Works: Chopin: Etude in C-sharp Minor, Op. 10, No. 4 (54), Etude in A Minor, Op. 25, No. 11 (55), Prelude in F-sharp Minor, Op. 28, No. 8 (62), Etude in C Major, Op. 10, No. 1 (62-65, 69-71), Etude No. 3 from Nouvelles etudes (66-67), Etude in F Major, Op. 10, No. 8 (67-68), Etude in A-flat Major, Op. 10, No. 10 (68-69), Etude in E-flat Major, Op. 10, No. 6 (71-74), Etude in F Major, Op. 25, No. 3 (74-76).

Sources: Hummel: Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Minor, Op. 85 (54), Etude in C Major, Op. 125, No. 1 (63-65); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 12 in A-flat Major, Op. 26 (55), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (55); J. B. Cramer: 84 Studies (55, 61-62); John Field: Piano Concerto No. 2 in A-flat Major (55); Kalkbrenner: Etude in E-flat Major, Op. 20, No. 7 (55): Ludwig Berger: Etude in C Major, Op. 12, No. 1 (63-65); J. C. Kessler: Etude in C Major, Op. 20, No. 1 (63-65); Moscheles: Etude No. 9 in A-flat Major, from Studies for the Perfection of Already Advanced Players, Op. 70 (66-67); Maria Szymanowska: 20 Exercises and Preludes (67-68); J. H. Müller: Preludes and Exercises (68-69); Johann Sebastian Bach: Prelude in C Major, BWV 846, from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I (69-71).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

This article was written to accompany a Deutsche Grammophon set of records on the symphony. It discusses Brahms's symphonies in the style of liner notes for a general audience. Brahms's Symphony No. 3, cited as being influenced by Schumann, includes a "near quotation allusion of the principal theme of the first movement [of Schumann's Rhenish Symphony]."

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

The reception during Mahler's lifetime of his songs based on the Wunderhorn texts was unusually varied. As explanation for this, Mahler's use of the texts may be linked with a debate, which began with the publication of the texts of Des Knaben Wunderhorn in 1805-8 and spanned the nineteenth century, between those who wished to preserve the German folk heritage in its purest form and those who saw it as a malleable commodity for a politico-cultural end. Art, too, exhibited this tension between "folk" and "folk-like" material, and Mahler's Wunderhorn songs, which manipulate pre-existing folk material in a "high-art" setting, fall on the latter side of the debate. It was sensitivity to his place within that tension that informed the reception of the songs by contemporary critics.

Works: Mahler: Lieder aus des Knaben Wunderhorn.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

While Franz Schubert's Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (1828) clearly quotes the theme from Beethoven's Variations in C Minor, WoO 80, Schubert inserts music that disrupts the momentum in a very un-Beethovenian manner. These disruptive passages seem to suggest a musical memory, recalling numerous earlier works by Schubert including several allusions to songs from his song cycle Winterreise. The theme of death in the songs might be one reason for the allusion to Beethoven, who had died the previous year. Ghostly echoes of Winterreise themes from "Erstarrung" and "Der Lindenbaum" might suggest the ghost of Beethoven haunting Schubert. Yet the theme of exile in Winterreise resonates more with Schubert's personal life at the time he wrote this sonata. The chromatically distant B section, which echoes many previous works of Schubert including his Moment Musical in A-flat, supports this reading by equating harmonic distance and emotional or physical exile.

Works: Schubert: Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (635-53).

Sources: Beethoven: Variations in C Minor, WoO 80 (635-36), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (641-42); Schubert: Winterreise (639-43, 647, 652), Moment Musical No. 2 in A-flat Major, D. 780 (645-46).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Quotation in Bruckner's music allows a deep view into his compositional method, psyche, and spiritual state. Bruckner cited his own masses in his symphonies along with quotations from Haydn, Liszt, and Wagner. Long thought to be "absolute" music, Bruckner's compositions carry significant semantic meaning when the composer desired.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1800s

The final movement of Bruckner's Ninth Symphony is not "absolute music," since it contains religious symbols and allusions to the composer's approaching death. This conclusion is supported by taking into account not only sketches, structural analysis, and Bruckner's own hermeneutic statements, but also interpretations of borrowed material. In his opening theme, for example, Bruckner strongly alludes to his Fifth Symphony, the Sehnsuchtsmotiv from Wagner's Tristan, and the "Dresden Amen" from Parsifal. The following climax (or Klangfläche) quotes Liszt's "symbol of the cross" from the Graner Messe, and the second theme (letter C) presents and develops a motive ("miserere") taken from the D Minor Mass. Several other self-quotations (from the Benedictus of the Mass in F Minor and the Seventh and Eighth Symphonies) reinforce the impression of the look back suggested by Bruckner himself for the passage at letter B ("Abschied vom Leben," mm. 29-44).

Works: Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (90), Symphony No. 9, Mass in D Minor (90).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This book is the result of Floros's intensive study of Mahler, during which he found hitherto undiscovered clues to the interpretation of Brahms's and Bruckner's works. Most of the borrowings discussed confirm differences between the two composers in both ideologies and musical heritage. A comparison of the German Requiem by Brahms and the F Minor Mass by Bruckner shows that the corresponding excerpts from the Credo use different models. Brahms used Bach's cantata Wer weiss wie nahe mir mein Ende BWV 27, whereas Bruckner borrowed from Liszt's Graner Messe (41-51). The indebtedness of Brahms to Mendelssohn (64f.) and Schumann (124-143) and of Bruckner to Wagner (159f., 171-78 and 211-13) and Liszt (159f., 167-70) is underlined with many musical examples. That Bruckner modeled the second movement of his Fourth Symphony on Berlioz's March of the Pilgrims from Harold en Italie is the clue to his program (Lied, Gebeth, Ständchen), since the same sequence of sections is found in Berlioz's work. Movements or whole symphonies by Bruckner can beinterpreted by a comparison with Wagner's operas. Thematic concordances with the monologue of The Flying Dutchman (Act I, Scene II) lead to a psycho-programmatic interpretation of the Eighth Symphony, an interpretation that extends Bruckner's own vague explanations. Even if the two composers borrow from the same piece, they emphasize different aspects. Both of them emulated aspects of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Brahms's interest (First Symphony, last movement) lies in the Freudenmelodie and the recitative character of the introduction to the last movement, whereas Bruckner imitates the flash-backs, the rondo-like adagio and the original opening of the first movement (55-60).

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 (56f.), Symphony No. 4 (64f.), Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (124-51), Ein Deutsches Requiem (41-47); Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (51, 159, 168-70), Symphony No. 4 (159, 178-81), Symphony No. 8 (159f., 186-88, 21113), Symphony No. 9 (51, 168-70), Mass in F Minor (41-44, 50), Mass in D Minor (44, 51), Mass in E Minor (168-70), Helgoland (168-70), Tota pulchra es (168-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros discusses three main elements of Mahler's music with the aim of a philosophical or programmatic interpretation: form and formal procedures; the use of specific genres such as chorale, pastorale, march, scherzo, and dancelike movements; and interpretation of symbols. All the elements are interpreted in the context of other composers, especially Berlioz, Liszt, and Bruckner. In interpreting the first two categories, Floros focuses on Mahler's position in the history of music. But in the third category, by locating the same musical symbols (e.g. the tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes in Liszt and Bruckner; see also Floros, Gustav Mahler III: Die Symphonien, 1985) in works of other composers where the meaning is clear, Floros can offer interpretations that would otherwise be impossible. Without the interpretation of symbols, no real progress in musicology is possible.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros's study of Mahler's music is an attempt to interpret it comprehensively, taking into account especially Mahler's intellectual background. In these semantic analyses, the author discusses borrowings and quotations of all sorts: (1) quotations of tunes and their integration into compositions (e.g. Bruder Martin in the First Symphony), (2) borrowings of complete sections (e.g. in the Second Symphony), (3) reuse of whole songs (e.g. Urlicht in the Second Symphony), and (4) quotation of short motives (such as the beginning of Dies irae or Liszt's tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes ["sounding" symbol of the cross]) to symbolize titles or programs. Decoding these borrowings is one of the most important steps in finding the program that is the basis even of the purely instrumental symphonies. Above all, some passages can be interpreted by comparison to similar passages from works by Richard Strauss where their meaning is clear. These comparisons may throw light on composition dates, for instance that of the Scherzo of the Sixth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Among several devices mentioned in this article which have been used for humorous effect in music is quotation. Various means of achieving humor through quotation are by paradox, pun, parody, and exploiting the historical significance of the music quoted, all of which assume previous knowledge on the part of the listeners of the music being referred to.

Works: Beethoven: Es war einmal ein König, der hatt' einen grossen Floh (693); Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (692); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake Walk," from Children's Corner (691); Falla: The Three-Cornered Hat (692); Saint-Saëns: Le Carnaval des Animaux (690); Satie: Sonatine bureaucratique (695).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Mahler scholarship occasionally invokes the term “Kapellmeistermusik” to describe the eclecticism and variety in the composer’s music. This eclecticism, which resulted in part due to Mahler’s background as a conductor, is commonly assumed to be intentional, implying that Mahler deliberately quoted other works for listeners to identify and interpret. But Mahler’s eclecticism, and the relationships between his own music and existing works, can be far more complicated than is often assumed. Some of the parallels between Mahler’s works and those of other composers may have been coincidental, and in other cases Mahler may have “unconsciously” referenced an existing piece because he was familiar with it. Although one can identify several correspondences and quotations from other works in Mahler’s music, some are more likely to be intentional (either consciously or unconsciously) than others. Additionally, a case for borrowing in Mahler’s works cannot be made based on musical analysis alone, as other kinds of supplemental evidence can either reinforce or undercut the possibility of a connection between pieces. One can argue, for example, that Mahler could have borrowed a melody from Liszt’s Piano Concerto in E-Flat Major for his Sixth Symphony, given the close similarities between the two themes and the strong likelihood that Mahler knew Liszt’s concerto as both a pianist and conductor. On the other hand, the parallels between Schubert’s song Mainacht, D. 194, and the first song of Mahler’s Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen are likely coincidental, as Mainacht was first published posthumously in 1894, almost a decade after Mahler composed his song cycle. Some possible borrowings from works by Berlioz, Chabrier, and Bizet require further research but may be significant.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 4 in G Major (10), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor (10), Symphony No. 6 in A Minor (“Tragic”) (10-11), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (“Titan”) (11), Das klagende Lied (11, 13), Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (11-12), Symphony No. 7 (13), Symphony No. 10 (13), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (“Resurrection”) (13-14), Symphony No. 9 (13, 15-16), Symphony No. 5 (16).

Sources: Schubert: Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, D. 568 (10), Piano Sonata in D Major, D. 850 (10), Liszt: Spanish Rhapsody, S. 254 (10); Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (10); Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 (10); Liszt: Piano Concerto No. 1 in E-flat Major, S. 124 (10-11); Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (11); Chopin: Ballade in G Minor, Op. 23 (11); Schubert: Mainacht, D. 194 (11-12); Mozart: Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425 (“Linz”) (12); Weber: “Schreckensschwur” Aria from Oberon (12); Wagner: Siegfried (13), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (13); Bruckner: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (13); Berlioz: Les francs-juges, H 23 (13-14); Chabrier: Gwendoline (13, 15-16); Bizet: L’Arlésienne (16).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Tempi in the Variationen über ein Thema von Joseph Haydn are determined by rhythmic figures which are in turn dictated by melodic patterns present in the theme. Although the analysis of this composition and its rhythmic elements is not Schenkerian, the terminology derives from Schenker's system. The discussion of the background, middleground, and foreground demonstrates at three levels how the melody provides inherent patterns through individual note groupings, tonal values, and recurring pitch accents. The interrelation of these areas can be described as either subdivisions or shifting of rhythmic units, and all of the rhythmic constructions stem from these techniques. The exact tempi derive from correlations between the variations; in order to maintain the perception of proper stress and accent (as dictated by the analysis), it becomes necessary to stay within the confines of a narrow range of tempo.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Brahms's influence on the composers of the succeeding generation has often been slighted or eclipsed by the "white heat" of Wagner's effect on the same artists. Traces of Brahms are apparent in many late-nineteenth-century composers ranging from Herzogenberg, who plagiarized his oeuvre, to Reger and Schoenberg, who were both indebted to him for pianistic models.

Works: Herzogenberg: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (2); Reger: Resignation (3).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Max Reger developed an aesthetic of historicist modernism that placed J. S. Bach as the primary model. With the introduction of the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft and similar events around 1900, the nineteenth-century trend viewing Bach as the embodiment of the German musical spirit intensified. Part of this trend included emphasizing Bach’s melodic art, which was held to be more useful to modern composers than his counterpoint. Reger was an active participant in this trend of Bach discourse in several areas, including producing many arrangements of Bach’s music. Reger’s form of modernist historicism also manifests in his prolific composition of organ works and avoidance of symphonic poems and music dramas. Reger’s 1895 First Organ Suite, Op. 16, dedicated to the memory of J. S. Bach, draws on several historical models. Most notably, Reger borrows several chorales famously set by Bach, but he alludes to Brahms’s Fourth Symphony and Joseph Rheinberger’s Organ Sonata No. 8 as well. Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Bach, Op. 81 (1904), offers a more complex form of historicism, but one still rooted in the music of Bach. For its theme, Reger uses the opening ritornello of the aria “Sein’ Almacht zu ergründen” from Bach’s Cantata Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein, BWV 128. Throughout the fourteen variations, Reger develops the theme in two styles: strict–past and free–present with the fugue combining these styles. The work represents Reger’s nuanced awareness of historical time and documents his historicist modernism.

Works: Reger: Suite for Organ in E Minor, Op. 16 (301-307), Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Bach, Op. 81 (308-12)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 582 (303), O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde gross, BWV 622 (303), Aus tiefer Not from Clavierübung, BWV 686 (305), Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein, BWV 128 (308-12); Rheinberger: Organ Sonata No. 8, Op. 132 (307); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (307)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

There is no straightforward way to assign operas as “nationalist” or “non-nationalist” when considering the categorization of Russian operas, and methods that attempt to do so are unreliable or based on mystification. Instead, the older concept of “local color” should be revived in scholarly discourse. There are six categories of assigning Russianness in music: by intention, by reception, by interpretation, by association, by blood or culture, or by school. Assigning Russianness by culture or by school can lead to conflicting claims about many operas as well as scholarly misconceptions. An example of this is Rosa Newmarch’s misreading of the Minstrel’s Song from Tchaikovsky’s Maid of Orleans as a Ukrainian tune that would be incongruous to the French setting, rather than the French song it actually is. To nineteenth-century Russian opera composers like Rimsky-Korsakov, the concept of local color was both familiar and important to the construction of their work. Operas taking place outside of Russia or dealing with universal themes often avoided Russian coloring. Tchaikovsky in particular developed a sophisticated sense of period coloring in The Queen of Spades, quoting appropriate French and Russian anthems. Approaching Russian opera through the lens of local color, disparate “nationalist,” “non-nationalist,” and “symbolist” operas can be compared side-by-side.

Works: Tchaikovsky: The Maid of Orleans (117-18), The Queen of Spades (129)

Sources: Anonymous: Les belles amourettes (117-18); André Grétry: Richard Coeur-de-lion (129); Eustache de Caurroy: Vive le Roi Henri IV (129); Osip Kozlovsky: Grom pobedy razdavaysya (129)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

In July of 1824, the English Opera House staged its first production of Carl Maria von Weber’s Der Freischütz, and within a few months, seven other London theaters had produced their own versions. All of these productions, however, changed Weber’s original score and text to some degree, and these changes reflected the many practical and aesthetic issues of London’s opera business in the 1820s. Some productions added numerous speaking parts and ballads to conform to audience tastes and English theater conventions, while others amplified the opera’s melodramatic, comic, and supernatural elements so that it conformed more to their usual repertoire. Although many adaptations were heavily modified, some retained most of Weber’s original score, and these less modified versions were soon favored by audiences and critics alike. The numerous London versions of Der Freischütz ultimately reflect an increasing vogue for foreign opera in the city, as well as the aesthetic and cultural issues of transplanting a foreign opera onto an English stage in the nineteenth century.

Works: Weber: Der Freischütz (115-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Liszt's Salve Polonia, published in 1884, has long languished in obscurity, overshadowed by the composer's Hungarian rhapsodies. This Polish rhapsody, however, deserves more attention, especially for its incorporation of two Polish national themes. First, Liszt placed the Polish national hymn, Boze, cos Polske in the opening Andante pietoso section. In the second and final section, the Polish national anthem Jeszce Polska nie zgiela appears. Liszt had already composed much of the music from Salve Polonia in his unsuccessful efforts to complete an oratorio, Die Legende vom heiligen Stanislaus.

Works: Liszt: Salve Polonia (34, 36).

Sources: Kurpinsky: Boze, cos Polske (34-36); Oginsky: Jeszce Polska nie zgiela (34-35).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Berlioz probably derived the title to his Symphonie fantastique from a scene in Act IV of Ossian ou Les Bardes, by LeSueur, in which the words simphonie fantastique were printed in the full score. Similarities, both orchestral and programmatic, between the two works strengthen the connection.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Surface thematic resemblances between Richard Wagner'sWesendonck-Lieder and his operaTristan und Isolde indicate that the songs were borrowed from in the composition of the later opera. Deeper and more subtle relationships between the two, however, indicate that the songs were studies for the opera, and were parodied in more profound ways, as well. In addition to resetting three sections of "Träume" in the Love Duet with very few alterations, Wagner uses a similar voice-leading pattern in the first sections of the two pieces, an ascent through an octave (Eb to Eb). He also explores bVI and bIII as tonal areas in both sections. In the second sections, Wagner uses bVI as a pivot, retains the same basic harmonic scheme, and employs the octave ascent (Eb to Eb) once again. In terms of the opera as a whole, bVI and bIII figure prominently after the occurrence of the Love Duet. All of these relationships combine to indicate that Wagner employed a kind of parody technique in Tristan.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

See abstract for English version, "The Structure of Beethoven's Diabelli-Variations," The Musical Quarterly 50 (October 1964): 496-503.

Index Classifications: 1800s

The structure of Beethoven's Diabelli Variations, Op. 120, as a whole might be considered a macrocosm of the structure of the waltz theme by Anton Diabelli. Many previous composers have ended their variation sets with a return to the opening theme; the thirty-third and final variation, a minuet, can be thought of as Beethoven's transformation of this theme to a higher sphere, acting as a crowning epilogue or coda. This leaves thirty-two variations, corresponding to the thirty-two measures of the theme. The waltz theme is symmetrically organized into eight four-measure groups. Likewise, the thirty-two variations can be described as a set of eight groups of four successive variations, related by sequences of tempi, meter, texture, and character.

Works: Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (496-503).

Sources: Anton Diabelli: Waltz (498-503).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Ruggero Leoncavallo’s account of the creation of his most famous opera, Pagliacci (1892), distorts and obscures the work’s history in order preserve its legacy against charges of overt influence, borrowing, and plagiarism. In the “Appunti,” his incomplete autobiography dictated in 1915, Leoncavallo misrepresents several aspects of the genesis of Pagiacci, including its initial presentation to impresarios and the source of the libretto. Leoncavallo additionally obfuscates earlier fragments of an abandoned opera based on De Musset’s La Coupe et les lèvres. Several passages composed for La Coupe were reused in Pagliacci. The most apparent case is Leoncavallo’s reuse of the cantabile “Esprits! Si vous venez m’annoncer ma ruine” from La Coupe as “Sperai, tanto il delirio accecato m’aveva” in Pagliacci. Moreover, it is evident that Leoncavallo had planned to use “Espirits” in the final scene of Pagliacci while planning the libretto. However, Leoncavallo consistently ignores this self-borrowing and emphasizes originality in his own history of the opera. It is probable that this avoidance was a way for Leoncavallo to preemptively deny charges of plagiarism, a standing concern in Italian opera. In another act of self-historicizing, Leoncavallo attached Pagliacci to the verismo tradition in order to preserve his legacy as a composer.

Works: Leoncavallo: Pagliacci (240-49)

Sources: Leoncavallo: fragments from La Coupe et les lèvres (240-49)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The solo baritone's recitative intervention in the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony has often been interpreted as a commentary on the instrumental discourse of the symphony, but a newer interpretation of the recitative hears the baritone's words as a call to song in both a literal and idealized sense. Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" tune, which is borrowed from his setting of Bürger's poem Gegenliebe and was also used as the basis of his Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, provides added layers of meaning, especially in relation to the poetic sources. The connection between Bürger's Gegenliebe and Schiller's An die Freude is provocative when considering that both Schiller and Goethe rejected Bürger as a poet who failed to keep any sense of the "general" within his poetry. By using the Gegenliebe tune for An die Freude in the Ninth Symphony, Beethoven brings Bürger's folksy nature aesthetic and advocacy of simple, diagetic song (as heard in the laundry or sitting rooms) to bear on Schiller's abstract idealism of song. In addition to investigating the song-like aspects of the Finale, the effects of silences are also explored as folk elements and compared with Beethoven's settings of Johann Gottfried Herder's poetry.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125.

Sources: Beethoven: Gegenliebe (60-63), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (60-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

In a survey of Chabrier's works for piano, features of his style that foreshadow the styles of later French composers are noted. The use of unresolved seventh and ninth chords is a technique later incorporated by Debussy and Ravel. In a more general sense, a number of pieces by Chabrier seem to be linked to pieces by Ravel. These pieces are listed in a table in the concluding section of the dissertation.

Works: Poulenc: Le Bestiaire (85); Maurice Ravel: Jeux d'eau (83), La Valse (15), Menuet antique (46), Valses nobles et sentimentales (15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Mendelssohn was the first to incorporate ideas from Beethoven's late works into his own compositions. For example, his Piano Sonata in E major, Piano Fantasia in F sharp Minor, and String Quartet in A Minor (1826-1833) make use of Beethoven's last piano sonatas and string quartets. Yet these pieces of Mendelssohn involve a high degree of novelty. For instance, a recitative in the Piano Sonata in E Major, which resembles the third movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 101, is used as a fugue subject. Mendelssohn's borrowing from Beethoven may also be construed as a unique reinterpretation of their less accessible models for the Biedermeier age.

Works: Mendelssohn: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 6 (272-77), Fantasie for Piano in F sharp Minor, Op. 28 (272, 277-78), Fantasia for Piano in E Major, Op. 15 (272, 279-80), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13 (280-84).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101 (272, 275), Piano Sonata in B flat Major, Op. 106 (276-77), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 (276, 278-79), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, Op. 81a (278), Piano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2 (278), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (280-84), String Quartet in B flat Major, Op. 130 (282-83).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Quotation in music is often considered without exploring the context of the quoted material. Many of Beethoven's overtures follow the model of the French overture, which requires one or more quotations from the stage music. Material which is recognizably from another piece but is altered in some way is placed in the category of "adaptation," which is defined as the removal of a piece of music from its original context and conforming it to a new environment and function. This may require a new context (transcription); transposition and new instrumentation (such as placing material from a piano sonata into a chamber music piece); or new words, this last condition being termed "parody." Parody is discussed extensively with the relationships between the Joseph cantata, Leonore, and Fidelio, and between the Choral Fantasy and the Ninth Symphony. A more exhaustive investigation is necessary to determine the true extent of Beethoven's creative methods in terms of quotation, adaptation, and parody.

Works: Beethoven: Overture to Zur Weihe des Hauses, Op. 124 (172-74), Overture to Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (172-73, 175, 183-84), Overture to König Stephan, Op. 117 (172-73), Overture and drafts to Leonore (171, 187-89), Fidelio (171-72, 187-89), Overture to Egmont, Op. 84 (174), Overture to Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (171, 174-75), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (175), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3 (175), Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20 (175), Piano Variations, Op. 35 (176), String Quartet in C Minor, Op. 18, No. 4 (177-78), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (178), Missa solemnis (179-80), Grosse Fuge, Op. 133 (181), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 (182), Sring Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (182), Diabelli Variations (182-83), Blümchen der Einsamkeit, Op. 52, No. 4 "Maigesang") (184, 186), Chorfantasie, Op. 80 (189-95), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (172, 194-95), Lied aus der Ferne, WoO 137 (186), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (176).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

It is clear that Mendelssohn emulated Beethoven’s late string quartets, particularly the Op. 132 String Quartet in A Minor, in his String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13. While he decided to explore certain compositional methods and techniques from Beethoven, he used them to further his own musical ideas in the piece. Op. 13 is more intense than Mendelssohn’s earlier works, but still conveys a different a mood than the Beethoven piece. Beethoven’s quartet is characterized by lack of stability and contradictory fragments, with the work’s narrative crisis somewhat resolved at the end. While Mendelssohn’s theme does not imitate the stops and starts of Beethoven’s, it resembles Beethoven’s theme in contour and harmonic ambiguity. Most of Mendelssohn’s themes are more complete and regular. However, he begins by morphing a single motive into the theme in a Beethoven-like manner. Like the Beethoven piece’s struggle between the march theme and the sustained theme, Mendelssohn’s piece also includes a contrapuntal tension between two themes. These characteristics of Beethoven’s late works were controversial in his time, and Mendelssohn’s more measured and structured interpretation of those elements in his Op. 13 was his own commentary on those works.

Works: Mendelssohn: String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13.

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor, Op. 132; Mendelssohn: Sinfonia in F Minor, Op. 11 (110-14).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

That Stephen Foster's style was indebted to folksong is unquestioned. However, the source of folksong is not the Negro spiritual as has been assumed, but the folk tunes of England. This is proved by an analysis of structural harmonies. The pattern I-IV-I-V I-IV-I-V-I found in about thirty percent of Foster's songs resembles the seventeenth-century ground Passamezzo Moderno. Thus, Foster's folksongs demonstrate a strong connection to this popular bass pattern rather than to American folk sources.

Works: Foster: The Voice of Bygone Days (136), The Little Ballad Girl (138), Cora Dean (139).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

During his 1828 tour, Nicolò Paganini gained a reputation as a romantic virtuoso that to the present day has obscured the influences of Italian comedy on his compositions, in which his groundbreaking techniques often suggest not rarified virtuosity, but rather farcical gestures and drama. For example, Paganini's imitations of animal sounds surpass mere mimicry and imply comic character types, and his evocations of human voices can suggest operatic dialogue (and in the case of Scène amoureuse, modeling on "Là ci darem la mano" from Mozart's Don Giovanni). Paganini's many variation sets, often upon themes from operas familiar to his audiences, further demonstrate his ability to transform a snippet of borrowed material into a compelling and self-contained drama through rapid changes in register and special effects, which are characteristic of a category of his works that can be called mélange. Recognizing Paganini's apparent debt to the aesthetics as well as the music of opera buffa, farsa, and grottesco ballet in his mélanges helps explain the often unoriginal and seemingly ridiculous nature of his mélanges.

Works: Paganini: Scène amoureuse (382-83, 397), Le streghe (383-85, 390-92, 401-2, 415), Nel cor più mi sento (386-87), I palpiti (387); Robert Schumann: Carnaval (409-412).

Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni (382); Rossini: Di tanti palpiti (387); Franz Xaver Süssmayr and Salvatore Viganò: La noce di Benevento (390-92); Paganini: Carnival of Venice (397-99, 410-12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Gioachino Rossini gained fame and developed his compositional style during his Neapolitan years (1815-1822), yet many of these works were once thought to be lost. The discovery of the manuscripts of several non-operatic Neapolitan works (the cantata Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo, four other cantatas, and the Messa di Gloria) reveals much about Rossini's compositional style. All of these works, especially Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo, contain a significant amount of self-borrowed material, most likely because they were made hastily for specific occasions. The self-borrowing comes in several types: setting a melody to a new voice part, borrowing from two separate sources, keeping the same medium (such as deriving a chorus from another chorus), changing the medium (such as deriving a trio from a chorus), modeling on an earlier composition, and paraphrasing an earlier melody into a new melody.

Works: Rossini: Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo (317-25), Cantata for One Voice and Chorus, Omaggio umiliato a Sua Maestà (317-318, 325-327, 331), Cantata for Three Voices and Chorus (317, 328-330), Messa di Gloria (318, 331-39).

Sources: Rossini: Sigismondo (321), Ciro in Babilonia (321), L'Equivoco stravagante (321), Tenor concerto aria (321), Il Barbiere di Siviglia (321-25, 331), Torvaldo e Dorliska (321-22), Aureliano in Palmira (321), Il Turco in Italia (321), La Scale di Seta (321-22), Demetrio e Polibio (323), Cantata for One Voice and Chorus (330), Matilde di Shabran (331), Mosè in Egitto (336); Haydn: Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser (329).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

There is rarely a single best version for Rossini's operas, since in the first half of the nineteenth century, Italian opera was treated as a collection of individual units which could be rearranged, substituted, or omitted depending on varying local conditions. This dissertation examines all the authentic versions of fourteen operas by Rossini in printed or manuscript sources in order to establish the correct texts for the works. An authentic version is defined as one with which Rossini can be shown to have been directly connected in the capacity of composer, director, or arranger, or one that he personally approved for inclusion in his operas but was composed by somebody else. Although not dealing primarily with borrowing, this dissertation examines Rossini's reuses of his own music in great detail, since he frequently made use of this practice in his operas or in later versions or revivals of the same work. Rossini's self-borrowings are viewed as an important characteristic of his compositional style and as a result of his time and milieu.

Works: Rossini: L'inganno felice (166-172, 190), Tancredi (198-200), L'italiana in Algeri (247), Il barbiere di Siviglia (276-79, 293), Otello (313-14), La Cenerentola (338-39), La gazza ladra (358), Armida (381), Mosè in Egitto, Moïse (307, 434), Maometto (456), Semiramide (490), Le Comte Ory (508), Guillaume Tell (524).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

The archetype of Rossini's overture is defined in order to test attributions of dubious pedigree from his first period of compositional practice (1808-1813). Rossini's self-borrowings in his overtures are examined indirectly but in great detail since they are a very prominent characteristic of his compositional style and can help to solve matters of authorship. An alternate overture to La scala di seta is shown not to be by Rossini on the basis of its borrowing technique. This overture quotes in full two melodies that will appear in later operas by Rossini and Gossett shows that Rossini never uses melodies from an earlier overture in the body of a future opera unless he intends to preface the latter with the same overture. A table with comments about Rossini's self-borrowings is shown on page 15.

Works: Rossini: Zelmira (3), Otello (7, 8), Il Turco in Italia (8), Sigismondo (8), Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (8), Matilde di Sahbran (8), Il barbiere di Siviglia (12, 18), La cambiale di matrimonio (14, 15, 24), L'inganno felice (14), Ciro in Babilonia (14), Il signor Bruschino (15, 24, 25), Adelaide di Borgogna (15), Tancredi (15), Aureliano in Palmira (18), alternative overture to La scala di Seta (22), Bianca e Falliero (22), Le siège de Corinthe (30), L'equivoco stravagante (30, 31).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Fryderyk Chopin’s Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 contains musical material borrowed from two songs by Franz Schubert, which can be contextualized by the role of the Parisian salon and Schubert’s reception in France. The subject of Chopin’s Prelude is a song without words, depicting two personas (the singer and the piano) who struggle and ultimately fail to recapture a distant song. As Chopin made his entry into Parisian salon culture in the 1830s, Schubert’s music was also being discovered in Paris thanks to the efforts of Franz Liszt and opera singer Adolphe Nourrit, both of whom Chopin associated with. One of the earliest Schubert lieder to reach French salons was Nacht und Träume, D. 827 (published 1825). The textural layout of Chopin’s Prelude strongly resembles the opening of Nacht und Träume, specifically the phrase “Heil’ge Nacht” (holy night). Chopin augments the dissonance of the model, inverting Schubert’s poetic “dream.” Chopin also borrows from another Schubert lied: Der Wanderer, D. 489 (published 1821). Specifically, Chopin borrows the tune of the phrase “mein geliebtes Land” (my beloved land). A second brief motive could also relate to the phrase “wenig froh” (little joy). In alluding to these two Schubert songs in a convoluted manner in his Prelude, Chopin evokes the realm of dreams, a frequent theme in his music. The dream analogy helps to explain the two performer personas in the piece as existing within the mind of the dreamer. The narrative of a troubled performance can further be read as a metaphor for a wanderer’s journey toward an imaginary homeland. The Prelude’s harmonic journey toward (but failing to reach) the “Polish key” of A major supports this reading. A “program” for the Prelude can be created by superimposing the text of the borrowed Schubert songs onto Chopin’s song without words. It is possible that, given the culture of musical reworking in Parisian salons, listeners would have recognized Chopin’s borrowed material and genre bending. Rather than treating the Schubert fragments as quotations, Chopin recontextualizes them to create a multi-layered musical and metaphorical narrative.

Works: Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (12-32)

Sources: Schubert: Nacht und Träume, D. 827 (12-15, 25-26), Der Wanderer, D. 489 (17-20, 25-32)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Grant argues that Bruckner and Mahler are dissimilar in many respects, which he enumerates, and suggests that the linking of Mahler with Richard Strauss might be more meaningful. Their influence was reciprocal. Part of the last song in Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen may be seen as the ancestor of the final duet in Der Rosenkavalier, and the off-stage fanfares in the outer movements of Mahler's First Symphony may have suggested the off-stage fanfares in Ein Heldenleben. Strauss also influenced Mahler, with apparent connections between Ein Heldenleben and the last movement of Mahler's Eighth Symphony; the neuroticism of Salome and parts of Das Lied von der Erde and the Ninth Symphony; and "wandering" solo violin passages in Strauss's Don Juan and Ein Heldenleben and similar solo violin passages in Mahler's Eighth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Background information on the Dies Irae sequence notes no records of the melody's origins and attributes the text to Thomas of Celano. Composers have used the chant in two ways: (1) as an integral part of their settings of the Requiem Mass in its proper context; (2) in secular works, often in a debased form to help create the appropriate diabolical or supernatural atmosphere. Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique was the first in a Romantic trend of using this theme associated with death and the last judgment in its most terrible aspects. The character of the melody's significance has changed significantly from its original connotation. Composers of the Romantic era used the melody for its associations with terror and dread, while ignoring the message of hope that is also explicit in the words. Some manifestations of the Dies Irae melody served as models for other composers to follow. One example is Liszt's Dante Symphony, which influenced Mussorgsky's Songs and Dances of Death and Tchaikovsky's Francesca da Rimini. In the twentieth century, the tradition was kept alive by Sergei Rachmaninaov, who used the Dies Irae to represent evil spirits in the Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini.

Works: Berlioz: Requiem (135), Symphonie Fantastique (135-36); Alfred Bruneau: Requiem (135); Liszt: Totentanz (136, 137); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death (136); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (137); Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (137), In Dark Hell (137), Suite in G Major (137); Rachmaninoff: Tone Poem, Op. 29 (138), Symphonic Dances, Op. 45 (138), Symphony No. 3 (138), Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini (138); Vaughan Williams: Tudor Portraits (138).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang, Randy Goldberg

Schubert’s relationship to Viennese musical tradition and his use of conventional procedures has often been interpreted in scholarship as pure imitation or even plagiarism, and thus a foil to understanding him as a truly original composer. Instrumental music in Schubert’s Vienna, however, tended to be uniform and steeped in convention, and the procedures and structures for traditional genres like the symphony were well defined. To label Schubert’s supposedly “imitative” procedures as markers of plagiarism or lack of originality is to ignore the historical context and creative processes of Schubert’s musical world. Even so, a question arises over how to interpret evidence in Schubert’s symphonies that he modeled large sections or even entire movements after works by Mozart and Beethoven. In the first movement of his Symphony No. 2, for instance, Schubert features a false recapitulation (cued by the woodwinds) seemingly inspired by Mozart’s “Jupiter” Symphony, while the slow movement of Schubert’s “Great” C Major Symphony bears several strong resemblances to the Allegretto of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. While the symphonies composed during Schubert’s late teens can be viewed as the products of a symphonist in training, they also demonstrate some of Schubert’s lifelong stylistic individualisms, such as reminiscences of earlier composers’ music, or reworking traditional procedures from his models in unique and different ways. More general reminiscences can be found in later works such as the String Quintet in C Major, the opening of which can be heard as an extended reworking of the beginning of Haydn’s Symphony No. 97. More specifically, Schubert’s strategies for first-movement recapitulations in several symphonies reveal a composer who is steeped in traditional procedures, while simultaneously developing his own individual voice and seeking out ways to move beyond them.

Works: Schubert: Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major, D. 125 (301, 306-8), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, D. 125 (301), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (302), Rondo in B Minor for Violin and Piano, D. 895 (302), String Quintet in C Major, D. 956 (302, 304), Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D. 944 ("The Great") (302-6), String Quartet in A Minor, D. 804 (303), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (303), Die Götter Greichenlands, D. 677 (303).

Sources: Mozart: Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 (300-1), Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551 ("Jupiter") (300-1); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 16 in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1 (302), Violin Sonata No. 9 in A Major, Op. 47 ("Kreutzer") (302); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major, Hob. I:97 (302); Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (302-3, 307).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Although a general biography, Haas covers specific borrowing on pages 113-57 of his study, where he deals with Bruckner's symphonic music. Haas, as the first editor of Bruckner's collected works, has drawn together a sketch study with biographical material to give an insightful look into developments of particular borrowings that Bruckner used.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

A letter written in response to a previous correspondence by Frank Hill on Shostakovich's borrowings (Oct. 1983 Gramophone). Hall wants to clarify that over 115 composers have used the tune of the British National Anthem in their compositions, in over 125 works of all types. No specific works are mentioned, but the list of composers includes J. C. Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Liszt, Verdi, Brahms, Ives, and Stockhausen.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Schubert's song Auf dem Strom shares a special kinship with Beethoven's cycle An die Ferne Geliebte. Both concern the union of loved ones despite separation, and this general similarity of spirit and sentiment is reinforced in specific musical terms. The coda of Schubert's song appears to have been modeled on that of Beethoven's cycle, and the central strophes are an almost literal quotation of the funeral march from the Erioca Symphony. This latter allusion is particularly appropriate, as the song was written for, and first performed at, a concert held on the first anniversary of Beethoven's death; this song can therefore be seen as Schubert's musical 'memorial' to his great predecessor.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Examines the controversy between Berlioz and Liszt as to who first orchestrated the Rakoczy march. Through an historical examination of how Berlioz came to orchestrate the tune and a comparison of the two pieces, Haraszti determines that Berlioz's accounts in his Memoirs concerning the piece's history are largely correct, and that Berlioz's version is not based on that of Liszt. Haraszti also describes the origins of the tune and its significance to Hungarian society.

Works: Berlioz: Rakoczy March; Liszt: Rakoczy March.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Maria Szymanowksa’s piano music influenced Chopin as a young composer, and Chopin’s works subsequently influenced the piano works by Pauline Viardot-Garcia and Clara Schumann. Chopin, who attended a number of Szymanowska’s concerts, adopted all of Szymanowska’s musical genres, and there are several musical and stylistic similarities between Chopin’s Études and Szymanowska’s Vingt exercises et preludes. Both composers’ piano works share textural similarities, but Szymanowska’s mazurkas, which were written to accompany salon dances, are not as virtuosic as Chopin’s. Towards the end of Chopin’s life, Pauline Viardot-Garcia arranged fifteen of Chopin’s mazurkas for voice, and it is likely that Chopin’s Mazurka in E minor, Op. 41, No. 2, was the source for some of her settings. Clara Schumann also composed works in several of the genres that Chopin frequently composed in, such as the mazurka and polonaise. Her Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7, may have been inspired by the Adagio from Chopin’s “La ci darem la mano” Variations, Op. 2. Schumann also borrowed gestures, textures, accompaniment styles, and fragments of several themes from Chopin’s piano works. For example, the “sighing” motive of a descending fourth in Schumann’s Soirees musicales, Op. 6 also appears in Chopin’s Mazurka in G minor, Op. 24, No. 1.

Works: Chopin: Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2 (31), Etude, Op. 10, No. 2 (31), Etude in C major, Op. 10, No. 7 (31), Etude in A-flat major, Op. 25, No. 1 (31), Prelude in E-flat major, Op. 28, No. 19 (31); Pauline Viardot-Garcia: L’Oiselet (34); Clara Schumann: Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7 (40), Soirees Musicales, Op. 6 (41), Caprices en forme de valse, Op. 2 (41), Valses Romantiques, Op. 4 (41), Rondo in B minor (41), Souvenir de Vienne, Op. 9 (41), Variations de concert sur la cavatine du Pirate de Bellini, Op. 8 (41), Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7 (42).

Sources: Maria Szymanowska: Etude in D minor (31), Etude No. 15 in C major (31), Etude No. 17 in B-flat major (31), Etude No. 8 in E-flat major (31), Nocturne in B-flat major (31); Chopin: Mazurka in E minor, Op. 41, No. 2 (34), Mazurka, Op. 68, No. 2 (34), Variations, Op. 2 (41-42), Mazurka in G minor, Op. 6, No. 6 (41), Mazurka in G minor, Op. 24, No. 1 (41), Mazurka in B major, Op. 7, No. 1 (41), Mazurka in E major, Op. 6, No. 3 (41), Mazurka in F-sharp minor, Op. 6, No. 1 (42), Mazurka in E minor, Op. 17, No. 2 (42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Saint-Saëns's song Danse macabre (1872), his symphonic poem based on the melody of the song (1874), and Liszt's transcription of the symphonic poem (1876) all demonstrate Saint-Saëns's ironic compositional style as well as its influence on Liszt. Saint-Saëns and Liszt showed esteem for one another. Liszt?s high estimation of Saint-Saëns is evident in his writings, including one in 1874 when Saint-Saëns composed the symphonic poem. In comparison with Saint-Saëns's symphonic poem, Liszt's transcription heightens the dramatic effect, expands the length, inserts his own unifying elements, and adds complexity. For example, in the introduction, Liszt inserts a new harmonically unstable passage before the theme of Saint-Saëns's introduction appears. He also retains the regularity of four-bar phrasing from the model and at the same time interrupts it by a three-beat pause, adding rhythmic uncertainty. In Scene two, he develops Saint-Saëns's penchant for modulation in mediant relationships, which in Liszt's version goes further to Eb major/D# major, a major third from both G and B. Liszt's transformations of the model enrich the complexity of his work, at the same time eliminating the humor with which Saint-Saëns imbued his work.

Works: Liszt: Danse macabre (106-15).

Sources: Saint-Saëns: Danse macabre (95-106).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Ives's method of quotation is seen as a reworking of borrowed material by altering melodic segments. These modifications range from omission or substitution of several notes to the paraphrasing of a hymn, with preexistent forms used in order to describe and/or serve as a structural foundation. Many musical examples illustrating Ives's techniques are cited. Examples are rhythmic transformation seen in the Fourth Symphony's use of Nettleton, treatment of the head motive of Foster's Old Black Joe in the Three Places in New England, and the improvised qualities of Erie in the First Piano Sonata. The article concludes with a diagram of the architectonic structure of."The 'St. Gaudens' in Boston Common" from Three Places in New England.

Works: Ives: Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (24), Piano Sonata No. 2 ("Concord, Mass., 1840-1860") (24), Three Places in New England (24, 25, 28), Washington's Birthday (25), Symphony No. 4 (24-26), String Quartet No. 2 (24), Three Quarter-tone Piano Pieces (26), Piano Sonata No. 1 (26), Central Park in the Dark (26), Symphony No. 3 (26), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (26), Sonata No. 3 for Violin and Piano (26).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Debussy's early works involve explicit reliance on existing models while in his later works the models become more tacit and personalized. This process can be observed in his formulaic openings to works. There are three main categories of such openings: (1) monophonic openings, (2) modal/chordal openings, and (3) introductory sequences and expansions. Numerous examples are cited for each. Such formulas are primarily a mid-to-late nineteenth-century phenomenon. Hepokoski invokes Dahlhaus's concept of originality and the influence of the Symbolists.

Works: Debussy: Printemps (46), La Damoiselle élue (48).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Perhaps the quintessential Lutheran hymn, Ein feste Burg embodies Martin Luther's faith and had lasting musical effects, not only on his own generation but also on generations of composers to come. The verse structure of Psalm 46 appealed to Luther most strongly in the last line, which stands on its own in the rhyme scheme and makes the text more powerful, as though one could reduce the psalm to a simple statement of faith. Further, Luther's musical setting, with three repeated notes to begin the tune, made a lasting impression on future composers. Some composers, such as J. S. Bach and Mendelssohn, use the tune in order to let it emerge from a complex texture, reinforcing its victorious and ultimately religious connotations. Others, including Meyerbeer, use the tune for programmatic rather than religious purposes, as the tune accompanies "undressing girls." The diversity of uses, whether religious or not, reflects the lasting power of Luther's original.

Works: J. S. Bach: "Ein feste Burg" from In Festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (166); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (167); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier, Op. 191 (167); Wagner: Huldigungsmarsch (167); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (167); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op.127 (167); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (167-68).

Sources: Martin Luther: Ein feste Burg (159-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

While this correspondence has nothing to do with Shostakovich's borrowings, it contains several interesting comments on musical borrowings in general. Hill states that "Notte e giorno faticar" from Mozart's Don Giovanni is quoted in Offenbach's Tales of Hoffman because Hoffman is waiting for his latest love, Stella, who is appearing in a performance of Don Giovanni in the theater next door. Hill parenthetically adds that "it is very difficult to think of a work of any length without a quote," and states that at least 24 works borrow from God Save the King.

Works: Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

A list of twenty-nine works using B-A-C-H, the majority of which are by German composers.

Works: Joseph Ahrens: Triptichon; Johann Albrechtsberger: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. C. Bach: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue on the name BACH, Art of Fugue; Otto Barblan: Chaconne, Op. 10, Passacaglia, Variations, and Triple Fugue, Op. 24; Ludwig van Beethoven: 2 sketches for an Overture and Canon, 10th Symphony; Heinrich Bellerman: Organ Prelude and Fugue, Op. 8; Johannes Brahms: Cadenza to Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major; Alfred Herbert Brewer: Meditation; Ferruccio Busoni: Fantasia Contrappuntistica; Alfredo Casella: Due Ricercari sul nome di Bach; Cyril S. Christopher: Soliloquy on B-A-C-H and the Chorale "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein; Hanns Eisler: Piano Trio on the 12-tone Scale; Wolfgang Fortner: Fantasia; Vincent d'Indy: "Beuron," No. 11 from Tableaux de Voyage, Op. 33; Sigfrid Karg-Elert: Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 150, Basso Ostinato, Op. 58, repeated in one of his two Op. 142, Sempre Semplice; Johann Ludwig Krebs: Organ Fugue in B-flat Major; Franz Liszt: Prelude and Fugue for Organ, Fantasia and Fugue for Piano; Felix Mendelssohn: 6 Fugues; Wilhelm Middelschulte: Canonical Fantasia; Riccardo Nielsen: Ricercare, Chorale and Toccata; Ernst Pepping: Three Fugues; Walter Piston: Chromatic Fantasy; Max Reger: Organ Fantasia and Fugue, Op. 46; Josef Rheinberger: Organ Fughetta, Op. 123a No. 3; Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: Six Variations, Op. 1; Robert Schumann: 6 Fugues, Op. 60; Georg Andreas Sorge: 3 Fugues.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

In Psalm 90, Ives quotes Louis Moreau Gottschalk's famous piano work, The Last Hope. The quotation appears in the second half of Verse 6, with the text "in the evening it is cut down, and withereth." Ives's borrowing may refer to The Last Hope, subtitled "religious meditation," or to the hymn Mercy, also known as Gottschalk, itself derived from The Last Hope and attributed to Edwin Pound Parker.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The poetic trope of distance is central to philosophical definitions of Romanticism as well as Robert Schumann’s music criticism and composition. Schumann’s Papillons, Op. 2, was influenced by the ideas of romantic distance and the sublime in Jean Paul’s novel Flegeljahre, which often uses musical metaphors in conceptualizing the sublime. An example of Schumann’s musical aesthetic of distance is the Aria movement of his Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, adapted from his earlier song An Anna, which itself borrows from Carl Gottlieb Reissiger’s Heimweh. The aria is presented as a purely instrumental song without words, but it is descended from song and echoes the aesthetics of vocal music. Schumann expresses a more personal form of distance and memory with his quotation of Clara Schumann’s Valses romantiques in both Carnaval and multiple numbers in Davidsbündlertänze. Similarly, Schumann’s Fantasie, Op. 17, evokes the imagery of romantic distance present in Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte through veiled melodic references. In the Im Legendenton movement of the Fantasie, Schumann again appropriates Clara’s music, this time her Romanza variée. The musical exchange between Robert and Clara Schumann can be read as a way of musically closing the distance between them. In closing the distance between lover and beloved, Schumann also closes the distance between music and language.

Works: Robert Schumann: An Anna II (83-91), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (86-91), Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 2 (100-9), Carnaval, Op. 9 (102-9), Fantasie, Op. 17 (113-126), Novelletten, Op. 21 (126-31)

Sources: Carl Gottlieb Reissiger: Heimweh (83-91); Robert Schumann: An Anna II (86-91); Clara Schumann: Valses romantiques, Op. 4 (102-9), Romanza variée, Op. 3 (121-24), Soirées musicales, Op. 6 (126-31); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (113-19)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Beethoven's influence on Schubert was a psychological as much as musical one, against which the composer struggled. The Great C Major Symphony is an illustration of how much of this influence had been absorbed by the end of his life. Important rhythmic and formal features of the central movements are related to those of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, and a theme in the finale is strongly reminiscent of the "Ode to Joy" theme from his Ninth. However, the most important influence of Beethoven can be seen in the tight-knit thematic organicism (based primarily on the third-motive of the Introduction) that characterizes the entire work.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

The subjective nature of Schubert's music is manifested in his use of self-quotation. Symbols found in the early songs recur in later works with their significance deepened through personal experience, including musical usage. One such symbol, dactylic rhythm, which represents the wanderer (Schubert himself) and death, appears in various guises throughout Schubert's compositions, including recall of melodic themes in similar psychological situations. This form of self-quotation differs from that found in other Schubert compositions such as variations on his own themes.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Schubert's Wanderer Fantasie; Schubert: Fantasia for Violin and Piano in C Major, Impromptu No. 4 in B-flat Major, Der Jüngling und der Tod, Octet in F Major, Rosamunde, String Quartet in A Minor, String Quartet in D Minor, Der Tod und das Mädchen, Variations on Die Forelle, Variations on Trockne Blumen for Flute and Piano, Wiegenlied, Der Wanderer, Wanderer Fantasie, Wanderers Nachtlied.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Liszt's piano transcriptions of Chopin's songs, Op. 74, illustrate how Liszt expanded the range of pianistic techniques and sonorities, and how he intended to create technically demanding music for his own concert repertoire as well as to promote Chopin?s songs. The nineteenth century saw growing interest in and popularity of piano transcriptions--of which Liszt was the most prolific composer--which provided a vehicle for new sonorities in a different medium. Liszt's transcriptions focus on the composer's musical portrayal of the original text, as well as his use of expression markings, virtuosic and improvisational elements, and ossia. For example, in Liszt's transcription, Frühling, of Chopin?s song Wiosna, Liszt transforms Chopin's tempo and markings of andantino with semplice and sempre legato to andantino malinconico with una corda and un poco pesante, creating more descriptive instructions. Liszt's transcription, Meine Freunden, of Chopin's Moja Pieszczotka shows Liszt's free, improvisatory writing style, his own tempo and expression marks, his virtuosic writing, and his use of ossia. The comparisons among several editions of the Liszt transcriptions with respect to editorial indications, including pedaling, fingering, and text, are a useful source for modern pianists.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Chopin's Six Chant Polonais, Op. 74 (64-131).

Sources: Chopin: Six Chant Polonais, Op. 74 (64-131).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Niels Gade was a great influence on Grieg's style and compositions as seen in the formal structures, choice of keys, number of movements, tempos, and related themes of the latter's works. Gade's works show the influence of Scotch and Danish folksongs, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Wagner. Grieg experienced difficulties with sonata form movements and hence relied on models; Gerald Abraham's comparison of the Schumann and Grieg piano concertos illustrates this point. Gade and Grieg's first symphonies, both in C Minor, and each composer's only piano sonata, both in E Minor, are compared. Musical examples and a brief history of the Grieg Symphony are provided.

Works: Gade: Balders drom (28), Ossian Overture (28), Piano Sonata (1840) (28, 33), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 5 (28), Siegfried og Brunhilde (operatic fragment, 1847) (28); Edward Grieg: Piano Concerto in A Minor (32), Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 28 (32), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (29).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

An inventory of the uses of self-quotation in Schubert's works is provided. In addition to the well-known cases of self-borrowing, Hoorickx cites 33 lesser known compositions in which Schubert reuses his own material. Each individual case of self-borrowing is discussed in enough detail to establish a clear relationship between the borrowed material and its former setting. Hoorickx proves that self-borrowing was a compositional device frequently employed by Schubert.

Works: Schubert: Ich sass an einer Tempelhalle, D. 39 (373), Fantasia for Piano Duet in G Major, D. 1 (373), Leichenfantasie, D. 7 (374), Overture for String Orchestra, D. 8 (374), Piano Duet Fantasia in G Minor, D. 9 (375), String Quartet No. 7 in D Major, D. 94 (375), Octet for Wind Instruments (376), Piano Piece in C Major, D. 29 (376), String Quartet in C Major, D. 32 (376), String Quartet in B-flat Major, D. 36 (376), Salve Regina, D. 223 (377), Der Jüngling am Bache, D. 30 (377), String Quartet in C Major, D. 46 (378), Fantasy in C Major for Piano Duet, D. 48 (378), Sehnsucht, D. 52 (378), Gesang der Geister über den Wassern, D. 484 (379), Fierarbras, D. 796, No. 18 (379), Drei Klavierstücke, D. 946, No. 2 (379), An die Nachtigall, D. 497 (380), Hermann und Thusnelda, D. 328 (380), Ellen's Gesang I, D. 837 (380), Atys, D. 585 (380), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (380), Geist der Liebe, D. 414 (381), Lied der Mignon, D. 877, No. 4 (383), Elysium, D. 584 (383), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (384), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (384), "Der Tag entflieht" from Das Zauberglöckchen (385), Deutsche Messe, D. 872 (385), Der häusliche Krieg (386), Nachtgesang im Walde, D. 913 (386), Täuschung, D. 911, No. 19 (386), Rosamunde Overture, Op. 26 (387), Der Jäger, D. 795, No. 14 (388), Violin Sonata in A Major, Op. 160, D. 574 (388).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Originality is considered among the most essential qualities in the age of Enlightenment. It is especially difficult to attain in music, an entirely imitative art, and music plagiarism is seen in both young composers struggling to pass mediocrity as well as great composers. The measure of their offenses often increases in proportion with their experience and reputation. There are composers guilty of "musical felony" such as Corelli and Handel. Handel's adaptations of pre-existing music have been noted by historians, but none have accused Handel of plagiarism. Boyce, Mozart, Clementi, and Rossini have all committed different degrees of "petty larcenies." The act of musical plagiarism must be brought to light in order to warn young composers and encourage them to create styles of their own.

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Information on stylistic borrowing, such as the Viennese Classic style and church music, is located in the preliminary section of this dissertation. Specific information about Bruckner and the Caecilian movement (pp. 29-37) focuses on Bruckner's attitude toward the movement. Details of specific stylistic borrowing and quotation appear from page 270 to the end of the dissertation, including an exhaustive list of borrowings from Bruckner's own sacred music in his symphonies (pp. 289ff). Howie maintains that Bruckner's sacred music is shrouded in spiritualism and symbolism without sacrificing the composer's unique and eclectic compositional style.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Beethoven's Irische Lieder can be traced to three sources (which, in turn, are the origins of Irish national music): the work of the bards (the Irish equivalent to the German Meistersinger), non-vocal harp tunes (music for dancing, tunes for convivial uses and funeral dirges), and ballads. Beethoven took the preexistent melody and provided a harmony, unaware of the history or nature of the tunes (which often lacked words). The question is posed whether Beethoven's setting of these tunes reflects their true nature.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Virtuosic transcriptions of opera themes became very popular in the nineteenth century. In many cases this led to an overfamiliarity that resulted in contempt. Among composers who made arrangements of opera arias were Liszt, Chopin, Huten, Czerny, Thalberg, Herz, Krebs, Rummel, and Heller. Some arrangements were for several pianos. Others were variations by several composers on the same theme.

Works: Czerny: Fantasy on themes from Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable (21); Thalberg: Fantasy on Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots, Op. 20 (21); Herz: Variations on Ein feste Burg (21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Strauss's songs contain a variety of quotations and allusions to preexistent material. The musical borrowings are cited but are not included in separate lists.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Luther's hymn Ein feste Burg falls into a category of many tunes with a revolutionary cause, from La Marseillaise to John Brown's Body, because it signifies the German Reformation and the religious triumph of Lutheranism. Indeed, Luther's hymn emerges from a vernacular tradition, not only in the translation of the Bible into German, but also in the poetic and musical union meant to appeal to the people in the entire congregation rather than to specific members of the choir and clergy. J. S. Bach, inspired by many Lutheran chorales, chose to exhibit this piece for a Festival of 1730, marking the Bicentenary of the Confession of Augsburg in which the Protestants declared the aims of the Lutheran church. Bach entitled his setting In Festo Reformationis, and he meant for it to represent his piety. Some movements, including the soprano and bass duet as well as the bass recitative, feature the relatively unembellished tune to evoke its military and unifying purposes. In a more complex setting, the chorale fantasia on verse one, Bach uses the tune as a cantus firmus embedded within a set of variations. In addition, later composers such as Mendelssohn and Roderick-Jones, like Bach, use the tune to invoke powerful religious sentiment, whereas Meyerbeer strips it of its religious content and uses it to accompany a ceremonial march.

Works: J. S. Bach: In Festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (16-47); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (46); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (46); Richard Roderick-Jones: Chanticleer (46).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (9-15).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Brahms’s complex feelings for Clara Schumann are demonstrated by the imprint of her emblem into the structural fabric of his most beloved choral compositions. Brahms often employed musical allusions in his works, but rarely provided clues to interpretation for fear of being criticized as an unoriginal composer. Musical allusions serve as a key to understanding Brahms’s thematic sources, and this is evident in his Ein deutsches Requiem, presumably composed in commemoration of Robert Schumann, whose penchant for using musical symbols and ciphers influenced Brahms significantly. Brahms notably inherited the “Clara emblem” from Robert Schumann, referring to the brief melody in the opening movement of his Fantasie, Op. 17, which in turn was borrowed from Beethoven’s song cycle, An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98. Brahms’s Requiem as well as his Nänie both grapple with the concept of death and consolation, and both works are further connected through the central mother image of the texts. In the B-section of Nänie, a fragment from the fifth movement of the Requiem forms the basis for motivic development, and at a climactic moment, Clara’s emblem appears, sung by the sopranos. Brahms carefully crafted the “Requiem fragment” from the Clara emblem, suggesting it is the essential idea behind most of the fifth movement. The final song of Brahms’s Neue Liebeslieder, Op. 65, also suggests strong connections to the Requiem. It is in ABA’ form, with the second half of the Clara emblem forming the structural basis for both A sections, while the B section is a retrograde treatment of A. Brahms therefore manages to infuse a certain poignancy to his quotation, implying Clara as the source of his sorrows which inspired the composition.

Works: Robert Schumann: Fantasie, Op. 17 (16), Frauenliebe und -leben, Op. 42 (16), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 41, No. 2 (16), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (16); Brahms: Piano Trio in B Major, Op. 8 (16), Schaffe in mir Gott, Op. 29, No. 2 (16), Nänie, Op. 82 (16), Neue Liebeslieder, Op. 65 (16), Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (16).

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (16); Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (16).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Mussorgsky had a lifelong admiration for the music of Beethoven and Robert Schumann, and their influence is clearly seen throughout his oeuvre. A number of early pieces, such as the Scherzo in B-flat Major and the Intermezzo in modo classico, were clearly modeled on movements from Beethoven’s symphonies, but later works like Boris Godunov and Songs and Dances of Death drew upon Beethoven’s symphonies and late string quartets, as well. Mussorgsky also incorporated many of Schumann’s most notable compositional procedures into his music, including cyclical structures, ostinato-driven melodies, and ambiguous chord progressions. In particular, Schumann’s Fourth Symphony and his Lieder seem to have inspired several passages in Mussorgsky’s art songs. While Mussorgsky was far more critical of Wagner in general, he did not dismiss him completely, and borrowings from Wagner can be traced in Pictures at an Exhibition and Boris Godunov.

Works: Mussorgsky: Scherzo in B-flat Major (47-49), Intermezzo in modo classico (49-50), Alla marcia notturna (50-51), Salammbô (51-52), Boris Godunov (52-54, 57, 62-63), Songs and Dances of Death (54-55, 62), Khovanshchina (55), Pictures at an Exhibition (56-59), No jesli-by s toboju ja vstretit’sja mogla (60), List’ja schumeli unlyo (60), Zhelanije (60), Strekotun’ja beloboka (60-61), Kozjol (61), Zabytiy (61), Kinderlied (62), Ohne Sonne (62).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Minor, Op. 92 (47-48, 50-51), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (47-50), Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 (48-49, 52-54), Fidelio, Op. 72 (51-52), String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (52), String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 (53-54), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (54-55), Große Fuge, Op. 133 (54-55); Gregorian Chant: Dies irae (54); Wagner: Siegfried (56-57), Lohengrin (57); Robert Schumann: Carnaval, Op. 9 (58-59), Kinderszenen, Op. 15 (58-59), Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (60, 62), Der Bräutigam und die Birke, Op. 119, No. 3 (60-61), Liederalbum für die Jugend, Op. 79 (61), Die beiden Grenadiere, Op. 49, No. 1 (62), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (62-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Throughout his career, and especially during his formative years, Wagner was greatly inspired by late Classical and early Romantic music. The influences from German Romantics, particularly Weber and Felix Mendelssohn, and French composers such as Berlioz and Spontini are most apparent, but some of Wagner’s works also reveal a special affinity with Joseph Haydn. Wagner’s borrowings from these composers and others were extensive, with themes, motivic gestures, harmonic progressions, and various other musical devices being incorporated into his music dramas. In some instances, Wagner’s borrowings serve the same dramatic or affective function as they did in the source work, but other times Wagner modifies or transforms the borrowed material for a new purpose or effect. As he matured, Wagner also developed a penchant for self-borrowing, reworking several themes and harmonic techniques from his older compositions into his late music dramas. This use of self-quotation, coupled with Wagner’s advanced procedures of motivic development in his mature works, foreshadows the musical modernism of the twentieth century and the works of Mahler, Berg, Bartók, Ives, and others.

Works: Wagner: Christoph Columbus (43-44), Das Liebesverbot (44-45), Der fliegende Holländer (44-46), Tannhäuser (46-47), Lohengrin (47-53), Das Rheingold (53-56), Die Walküre (56-62), Siegfried (63-65), Tristan und Isolde (65-68), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (68-70), Götterdämmerung (71-72), Parsifal (72-75).

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt, Op. 27 (43-44), Elijah, Op. 70 (48-49, 52-56, 62-64), Ein Sommernachtstraum, Op. 61 (50-51, 57-58), Paulus, Op. 36 (52), Die schöne Melusine, Op. 32 (53-54), Symphony No. 3 in A Major, Op. 56 (“Scottish”) (60-62), Die Hebriden, Op. 26 (62-63), Symphony No. 5 in D Major/D Minor, Op. 107 (“Reformation”) (73-74); Joseph Haydn: Symphony No. 104 in D Major, Hob.I:104 (“London”) (44-45), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 76, No. 5 (56-57); Weber: Oberon, J. 306 (45-46, 54-56), Euryanthe, J. 291 (47-50, 58-59, 72), Jubel-Ouvertüre, J. 245 (68); Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette, Op. 17 (46-47, 65-68), Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (64-65, 67); Franz Schubert: Erlkönig, D. 328 (56-57); Spontini: La Vestale (59-60); Heinrich Marschner: Hans Heiling, Op. 80 (60-61); Liszt: Eine Faust Symphonie, S. 108 (61-62), “Excelsior!” from Die Glocken des Strassburger Münsters, S. 6 (72-74); Robert Schumann: Symphony No. 1 in B-flat Major, Op. 38 (“Spring”) (65); Wagner: Die Walküre (67-68), Tristan und Isolde (70-71, 74), Tannhäuser (70-71, 74), Das Rheingold (74), Lohengrin (74-75); Otto Nicolai: Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor (69); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 3 in F Minor, Op. 5 (69-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

A detailed study of Archduke Rudolph's Forty Variations on a Theme by Beethoven (1818-19) is provided on pp. 69-118. The variations represent the culmination of Rudolph's years of composition study with Beethoven, and they stand at the core of his oeuvre. In the spring of 1818 Beethoven wrote out a four-measure Liedthema, "O Hoffnung" (WoO 200), and sent it to Rudolph as an assignment in variations composition. Rudolph took to the assignment with great enthusiasm, producing a set of forty variations on the "O Hoffnung" theme. Beethoven kept a close eye on Rudolph throughout the writing process; his corrections and suggested revisions can be found on Rudolph's original manuscript. The first thirty-five variations are "strict" in that they bear a direct bar-by-bar structural correspondence with the original theme. But the last five of the set are "fantasia" variations, deviating greatly from the original in length and harmonic design. The final variation (no. 40) adopts the theme as the subject of a four-voice fugue that extends for ninety-six measures. The fugue especially reveals Rudolph's allegiance to the pianistic style of his teacher in many ways, including the lengthy passages in consecutive thirds and sixths, the long sustained trill under which new melodies emerge, and the unconventional pedaling in the final measures.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

The slow introduction of Beethoven's Second Symphony bears a striking resemblance to Mozart's introduction to his symphony K. 504. A number of features are similar, including the chord progressions, the length (of the entire introduction, the second section, and the concluding pedal point), the enharmonic reinterpretations of preceding chromatic tones, the use of mode mixture in the second section, melodic details, and the rhythmic acceleration that prepares the opening Allegro. Yet Beethoven also departs from his Mozart model, for instance in composing a more symmetrical, shorter opening section. Beethoven's sketches for the symphony further indicate the existence of a link to Mozart's introduction.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36.

Sources: Mozart: Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K. 504, Prague.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Paganini’s 24 Caprices, Op. 1, have had a profound influence on many composers, including Liszt, Schumann, Brahms and Rachmaninoff. However, there is little knowledge about the work’s composition and early reception. The work might have been influenced by burlesque musical theatre or by the caprices by Lietro Locatelli in L’arte de violin (1733). Robert Schumann wrote two works, each based on six different Paganini caprices from Op. 1: Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (1832) and Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (1833). Schumann captures his amazement at Paganini by imitating his violin technique on the piano. Franz Liszt, in his Grandes Etudes de Paganini, follows a similar process of virtuosic imitation, remaining faithful to the original but creating new effects for the piano. Johannes Brahms’s Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 39, uses Paganini’s theme from the A-minor caprice as a departure point for a new work that contains several characteristic elements of Brahms’s style and practice.

Works: Schumann: Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (33), Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (33); Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini (34); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 39 (34).

Sources: Paganini: 24 Caprices for Solo Violin, Op. 1 (31–34).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

During the rise of the violin concerto as a virtuosic showpiece, militaristic musical topics and virtuoso codes of performance were combined to create the overall impression of the violinist as a hero, a symbol of military power. Many composers, including Haydn and Beethoven, incorporated ideas from military bands or revolutionary songs into their instrumental works because these borrowings were popular with audiences. Violin concertos, especially, began using elements such as the timpani, march topics and rhythms, and brass fanfares alongside brilliant technical passages, highlighting the performer’s “victory” over the challenges. This practice originated in the French concertos of the late eighteenth century, which were often quasi-programmatic, suggesting peacetime military exercises with the violin “commanding” the orchestral army. The violin bow also became symbolic of a sword. Performers cultivated their heroic image by staging violin “duels” or imitating famous generals such as Napoleon. Inherent in these views was the cultivation of the violin as an essentially masculine instrument; symbolic language surrounding the violin often had violent connotations, and it was seen as inappropriate for a woman to play it.

Works: Charles de Beriot: March (91), Violin Concerto No. 1 in D Major, Op. 16 (93-94); Paganini: Violin Concerto No. 3 in E Major, MS 50 (93, 96), Violin Concerto No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 6 (95); Karol Lipinski: Concerto Militaire (93-95); Rodolphe Kreutzer: Violin Concerto No. 14 in E Major (93-94); Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61 (95); Luigi Boccherini: String Quartet in D Minor, G. 172 (102-3); Giovanni Battista Viotti: Violin Concerto No. 2 in E Major (103).

Sources: Charles-Simon Catel: “Marche guerrière” from Sémiramis (102).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Like the Symphonie fantastique,Roméo et Juliette includes borrowings from earlier works. A passage of recitative in the Roméo "Introduction" resembles a motif in the "Méditation" from the 1829 Prix de Rome cantata Cléopâtre. Berlioz himself explained the inspiration behind the Cléopâtre music, indicating that he intended the "Méditation" for a Roméo et Juliette of some sort. A melody from the withdrawn Ballet des ombres, in particular from the section referring to an invitation to a dance, appears with the same meaning in "La Reine Mab," at the place where Mab is about to take the young girl to the ball. The Larghetto oboe melody and the dance theme from "Roméo seul" derive from the cantata Sardanapale (1830), with which Berlioz actually won the Prix de Rome. From this cantata survive only a fragment of the finale "Incendie" and Peter Bloom's reconstruction of the text. The fragment contains the two themes mentioned above, but the Larghetto melody likely also formed the basis of the "Cavatine" and the allegro theme the basis of the "Bacchanale" that preceded the "résumé-cum-coda" fragment. In both the cantata and "Roméo seul" the themes are associated with arousing and intensifying desire.

Works: Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette (53-59).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Strauss's tone poems contain a variety of quotations from preexistent sources. There is a separate list of self-quotations in Ein Heldenleben on pp. 46-47.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Allusions to well-known tunes or passages may (1) deliver a concealed comment (as in a theatrical "aside") and (2) depend on the listener's knowledge of the source if the comment is to be effective or even noted. Several categories can be differentiated: incidental thematic quotation, topical thematic reference (to tunes such as the Marseillaise and to less familiar tunes), and quotation of vocal works in which the text is of significance. Commentarial quotation is distinguished from self-quotation (here with reference to Mahler, Rossini, and Beethoven) since in the latter knowledge of the source is of no significance. Commentarial quotation is a predominantly Romantic phenomenon and fits in with the desire to be exclusive and the tendency to refer to things outside the work of art.

Works: Elgar: Enigma Variations (473); Saint-Saëns: Carnival of Animals (473), Danse Macabre (474); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (474); Schumann: Die beiden Grenadieren (474); Weber: Jubilee Overture (474), Battle Symphony (474); Brahms: Song of Triumph (474), Academic Festival Overture (474); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (474); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (474); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (474); Liszt: Totentanz (474), Dante Symphony (474); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death (474); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (474), Variations on a Theme by Paganini (474); Schelling: A Victory Ball (475); Wagner: Parsifal (476), Die Meistersinger (477), "Wesendonck" Songs (477), Siegfried Idyll (478); Puccini: Il Tabarro (479); Mozart: Don Giovanni (480), The Marriage of Figaro (480); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (481), Capriccio (482); Sterndale Bennett: Études Symphoniques, Op. 13 (483).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (473); Berlioz: Dance of the Sylphs (473); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (474); Arne: God Save the King (474); Luther: Ein feste Burg; Anonymous: Gaudeamus Igitur (474), Dies Irae (474); Rossini: "Una voce poco fa" from Barber of Seville (475), "Di tanti palpiti" from Tancredi (475-76); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (477-78); Strauss: Death and Transfiguration (480); Martín: Una Cosa Rara (480); Sarti: I Due Litiganti (480); Marschner: The Templar and the Jewess (483).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Verdi often utilized recurring themes, most notable in Rigoletto,Aïda, and Otello. The use of a recurring motive (a term semantically preferable to Erinnerungsmotiv (reminiscence theme) provides a dramatic focal point, as opposed to an identification motive used for characterization. Verdi recalls earlier music for dramatic purposes, often reusing the same harmonic constructions. The recalling of a kiss in La Traviata,La Forza del destino, and Aïda is represented both by similar melodies and by a harmonic shift from minor to major mode.

Works: Verdi: Rigoletto (300), Aïda (503), Otello (505).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

In his Etudes de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10, Robert Schumann abandons the paradigm of relatively strict transcription he adhered to in his 6 Etudes pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3, and instead seeks to capture the expressive qualities of Paganini's 24 Caprices, Op. 1. Schumann's poetic aesthetic results in freer treatments of Paganini's material than found in Liszt's transcriptions, which sought to transmit Paganini's virtuosity and more frequently preserved the idiosyncrasies of Paganini's violinistic idiom. Schumann's writings attest to his vision of Paganini as an ideal virtuoso, inspirational not only as a performer, but as a romantic hero.

Works: Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini (9, 26-27); Robert Schumann: 6 Études pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (12-15, 27), Études de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (12, 15-25).

Sources: Paganini: 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (9, 12-30), Violin Concerto No. 2 in B Minor (9).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Liszt’s two-piano arrangements of his symphonic poems, composed during his tenure as Kapellmeister of the Grand-Ducal court in Weimar, exhibit new techniques and a meticulous approach to reworking orchestral material into the two-piano medium. Starting with his 1853 two-piano arrangement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Liszt was at the forefront of the development of the medium. However, even at the height of their popularity from the 1880s through the 1910s, two-piano arrangements were far less common than four-hand arrangements. Liszt’s two-piano arrangements were primarily performed by a circle of professional pianists at private gatherings arranged by the composer to promote his orchestral music. Liszt uses a variety of distinctive techniques to craft faithful reworkings of orchestral music, not simple reproductions. For instance, the distribution of musical material between the two pianos is used to recreate subtle timbral differences in orchestration in passages of both Les Préludes and Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia. Liszt also adds virtuosic figurations which often relate to the program of the piece, as in his arrangement of Mazeppa. The two-piano rendering of Hunnenschlacht uses several techniques to highlight the battle between the Huns and Romans. Hand crossings and dissonances give visual and aural flair to the Huns’ theme. The addition of a chromatic scale-passage to the Romans’ theme not only renders the ominous timpani roll in a pianistic way, but also juxtaposes the two pianos against each other, creating an impression of a continual battle that is not present in the original. Liszt’s two-piano arrangements were an important part of his development as a prominent arranger and composer in Weimar and demonstrate a complementary approach to fidelity and creativity.

Works: Liszt: Les Préludes, two-piano version (310-11), Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia, two-piano version (311-13), Mazeppa, two-piano version (313-15), Hunneschlacht, two-piano version (315-22)

Sources: Liszt: Les Préludes (310-11), Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia (311-13), Mazeppa (313-15), Hunneschlacht (315-22)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Due to its rushed composition for the premiere performance, the musical material of Felix Mendelssohn's Serenade and Allegro Giojoso, Op. 43 (1838) is based largely on his Piano Concerto No. 2 in D Minor, Op. 40, composed the previous year. Many of the similarities between the works are evident: they share the same ensemble, key area, and some thematic material. Further evidence for the self-borrowing can be found in Mendelssohn's sketches. In the Nachlaß 19 manuscript, a passage originally intended for the Piano Concerto was reused as a transition between the movements of the Serenade and Allegro Giojoso in an early performance. The Nachlaß 30 manuscript shows evidence of Mendelssohn revising Op. 43 to more closely resemble the earlier Op. 40. Also, documentary evidence shows that he was editing the proof of Op. 40 while finishing Op. 43, and thus it is likely that the musical material of each shared many features.

Works: Mendelssohn: Serenade and Allegro Giojoso, Op. 43 (358-87).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 40 (359-87).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Beethoven was first influenced by Bach during his Bonn years, and that influence grew and became more profound in his late works. In several instances a specific piece by Bach is intimated as Beethoven's model, yet that influence rarely amounts to straightforward borrowing. For instance, the C minor episode in the finale of Beethoven's "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 recalls Bach's Prelude in C minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. This stylistic allusion, which involves a relentless ostinato that stresses turn figures, is incorporated by Beethoven as a dramatic element. The finale of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54, refers to Bach's Fugue in E Minor from WTC I. Both sonatas evoke the toccata-like idiom of the Bach works, yet the model is transformed by Beethoven and assimilated into his dramatic framework. Beethoven's Diabelli Variations (notably Nos. 29 and 31) include textural and melodic resemblances to Bach's Goldberg Variations, and are best construed as an homage to Bach.

Works: Beethoven: "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 (85-87), Cello Sonata in A Major, Op. 69 (88), Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 110 (88, 97), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (101-3).

Sources: Bach: Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in C Minor (85-87), "Es ist vollbracht" from St. John Passion (88), Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in E flat Minor (97, 101), Goldberg Variations (101-3).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Beethoven's use of specific sonorities in the Missa Solemnis (Credo and Benedictus) and in the Ninth Symphony (Finale). Most significant is an Eb Major sonority first heard at the start of the Credo. This sonority takes on a symbolic meaning in both the Credo and Benedictus since it is associated with texts which evoke celestial regions. This symbolic association holds in the Ninth as well. The musical ideas involved are also evident in the String Quartet in Eb Major, Op. 127, which is the final work in which these ideas are treated. These referential sonorities, then, bind together three of Beethoven's late works.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Wagner's Die Meistersinger makes several allusions to Tristan und Isolde. These begin furtively in the second act, gradually come near the surface, and culminate in Act III, scene 4. The allusions include explicit quotations of the Tristan chord and a passage originally sung by King Marke, a relationship in key, orchestration and voice leading that is reminiscent of the love music in Tristan, and an adaptation of larger formal structure from the prelude to Tristan. Analysis of the above, as well as the "Cobbler's Song" from Act II, helps reveal the complexity and meaning of Hans Sachs's inner conflict and resignation.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (161-83).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (161, 170, 172-83).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Study of the sketches for Beethoven's Diabelli Variations reveals that the variations were composed in two stages, before and after the composition of the Piano Sonata Op. 111. In view of this, the melodic shape of Diabelli's theme can be seen as a clear model for that of the Arietta of Op. 111, while at the same time the Arietta influences the structure and character of the variations composed after the sonata. This is especially true in the case of the final, thirty-third variation; by almost literally quoting the Arietta, this causes the entire set to constitute both a musical and numerical "postscript" to the 32 sonatas.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111, Thirty-Three Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli, Op. 120.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Among the various pastoral elements in Beethoven's 6th symphony are the use of a genuine ranz des vaches melody, characteristic Austrian rhythms, bagpipe sounds, and bird calls.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

This article discusses the deep symbolic ramifications of musical quotations and leitmotivs. According to Kirchmeyer, quotations and leitmotivs possess demagogical powers or properties. He feels that composers of the German school such as Mahler, Schoenberg, and particularly Wagner were highly aware of these demagogical powers and properties, and consequently exploited them through the use of quotations and/or leitmotivs in their compositions. Kirchmeyer discusses the way in which these three German composers strengthen the symbolic meanings of their works through the use of quotations and leitmotivs.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

In the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven uses numerous rhetorical gestures to express the meaning of the text. Some of the gestures were conventional in his day, such as a static motive with which to begin the Kyrie, used at least as far back as Benevoli in 1628. Known to have been studying Handel's Messiah while he composed the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven is indebted for the Katabasis (lowering of the elevated host) in his Agnus Dei to "He shall feed his flock," and for a fugato subject to the "Hallelujah Chorus," both from Messiah.

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Wagner's Tristan und Isolde illustrates how he attempted to avoid the conventional periodic structure of music. His solution was indebted to Liszt?s "unfolding form," suggesting that his encounter with Liszt's symphonic poems, particularly Orpheus, during Liszt's Weimar period (1847-61) played a decisive role in the formal idea of Tristan. It has been acknowledged that Liszt influenced Wagner with regard to harmony. Further influence by Liszt on Wagner involves structural aspects of musical form. Wagner's admiration for Liszt's symphonic poems, particularly Orpheus, is evident in his letter after Liszt conducted his Les Préludes and Orpheus in 1856. Liszt, in his symphonic compositions, provided an alternative form to the conventional sonata form, achieving an "unfolding form" in which small elements are repeated, developed, and varied into greater units. His avoidance of a closed form allowed Wagner to achieve the concepts of "poetic-musical period" and "verse melody" in his Tristan. His earliest sketches for Tristan in 1856 demonstrate how he solved the problem of traditional sonata form by linking his formal idea to Liszt's, suggesting the significance of his encounter with Orpheus.

Works: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (245-50).

Sources: Liszt: Orpheus (234-41).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Brahms's Cello Sonata in E Minor is so closely patterned on the E minor cello sonata of Bernhard Romberg that it could be considered a parody, using the sixteenth-century definition of the term. Besides the obvious connection of the key, the choice of opus number and other musical details suggest that Brahms modeled his sonata on that of Romberg. Both utilize similar tempo markings and harmonic progressions. Combinations of Romberg's first and third movement themes appear throughout Brahms' composition, and much of the original accompaniment also appears in reworked form. Some of the more contrapuntal passages seem to derive from Bach. It is possible that Brahms's familiarity with Romberg's work is due to the influence of his friend Gänsbacher, who might have pressed the composer into accompanimental duties. Perhaps Brahms's cello sonata, patterned so closely on Romberg's, was the result of improvisations over Romberg's accompaniment and a subsequent reworking of its ideas.

Works: Brahms: Cello Sonata in E Minor.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Of the various compositional challenges Brahms faced in writing his symphonies, integrating oneself into past traditions was one challenge most easily overcome with the use of stylistic allusion as a subtle and complicated form of borrowing. These allusions exist as component parts in larger "webs," which are created when a given passage or melody from one of Brahms's symphonies may simultaneously allude to a multitude of different, and possibly interrelated, sources. Likewise, Brahms may simultaneously allude not only to specific pieces as sources, but also to generic types, thereby creating a more general stylistic resonance while obscuring a listener's ability to accurately recognize and identify potential source compositions. For Brahms, these allusions provide a "double-edged sword" with which he can either pay homage to, or make an ironic departure from, a possible model. This multifaceted practice of simultaneous allusions was Brahms's way of engaging not only with past traditions but also with his present audience (who could, conceivably with some effort, recognize and appreciate the allusions). Consequently, Brahms's symphonies are more retrospective or nostalgic because of these allusions than they would have been if he had simply borrowed from himself.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (81-85, 88-92, 103-4, 110-11, 113, 124-25, 128-29, 134), Symphony No. 2 in D Major (105-6, 110, 115, 117, 119-21, 123), Symphony No. 3 in F Major (91, 93-95, 107, 122, 134), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor (91, 96-97, 100-101, 105, 108-10, 129-30, 132).

Sources: Bach: St. John Passion (82-84, 88, 91, 124, 126), Weihnachts-Oratorium (92), The Well-Tempered Clavier (96, 98), Cantata No. 150, Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich (131), Partita No. 2 for Solo Violin, Chaconne in D Minor (131-32); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (81, 83, 90-91, 103, 117-18, 127-28), Symphony No. 6 in F Major (Pastorale) (88, 91-92, 102, 105, 110-11, 136-37), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (Eroica) (95, 117-120, 132), Violin Concerto in D Major (96), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (97-98, 109, 120, 122-23), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (97, 99), Symphony No. 7 in A Major (104-5), Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (108-9), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor (112-13), Piano Sonata No. 15 in D Major, Op. 28 (116-17), Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major (119, 121), Symphony No. 1 in C Major (126, 128-29), Piano Sonata No. 23 in F Minor, Op. 57 (127-28), Piano Variations in C Minor, Op. 35 (131-33); Schubert: Symphony No. 9 in C Major (Great) (88-90, 92, 100-101, 105, 118-19, 136-37), String Quintet in C Major (94), Symphony No. 8 in B Minor (Unfinished) (101-2, 113-14, 131, 133); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Major (88-89, 103-4), Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major (97, 99, 101), Ein Sommernachtstraum (106-7, 114, 116), Die Erste Walpurgisnacht (110-11, 114-15), Hebrides Overture (114, 116), Symphony No. 3 in A Minor (114-15); Brahms: Volks-Kinderlieder (89, 106), String Sextet, Op. 18 (90), Variations on a Theme by Haydn (90), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (94, 99), Waltz, Op. 39 (99), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor (126); Robert Schumann: Symphony No. 1 in B-flat Major (93, 95), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (Rhenish) (93, 95), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor (101, 107-8), Symphony No. 2 in C Major (110, 112), Manfred Overture (127-28); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major (94-95, 103-4, 124, 126), Symphony No. 103 in E-flat Major (97-98), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (106-7, 116, 119-120), Symphony No. 83 in G Minor (107-8), The Creation (110-11), Symphony No. 94 in G Major (110, 112, 116), Symphony No. 87 in A Major (112-13); Wagner: Tannhäuser (96); Handel: Messiah (96, 98); Buxtehude: Ciaccona in E Minor (96, 130); Mozart: Symphony No. 40 in G Minor (96-98, 113-14), Symphony No. 39 in E-flat Major (106-7); Couperin: Passacaille in B Minor (131).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt

While Brahms's relationship to his predecessors, in particular Beethoven, seems to warrant the application of Harold Bloom's theory of the anxiety of influence, it is perhaps more accurate to think of Brahms's anxiety as the result of tensions created by the expectations of his audience. Brahms realized that his audience would receive and judge his works in comparison to those of his revered predecessors. Therefore, he was faced with the task of creating music that was similar enough to his predecessors to be well-received by his audience while still maintaining the status of originality. Thus, Brahms foregrounded original, non-referential music while cultivating subtle and buried musical allusions that evoked his predecessors. These allusions served to invoke the music of Brahms's predecessors on a subconscious level while still allowing Brahms's music to be seen as highly original. It is this careful balancing act, not his feelings towards Beethoven and other composers, that created the anxiety for Brahms.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (10-16), Symphony No. 3 in F Major (16-25).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (11-15), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (11-16), Symphony No. 3 in E flat Major, Eroica (19, 21, 23-24); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major (16-17, 19, 23-24); Schubert: String Quintet in C Major (16-17, 20); Schumann: Symphony No. 1 in B flat Major, Spring (18, 20, 24-25), Symphony No. 3 in E flat Major, Rhenish (18, 21, 24-25); Richard Wagner: Tannhäuser (19-20, 23-24).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The ostinato subject that concludes Brahm's Fourth Symphony has connections to the Baroque tradition of the ostinato bass. However, the subject also refers to the structural coherence of the symphony as a whole, especially in the use of chains of thirds. Brahms thus had other models including Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, and Rubenstein. As a theme in and of itself, the ostinato more closely resembles Buxtehude; as evidence of compositional process, it shows strong links to Beethoven, not only his variation works but also his Fifth Symphony.

Works: Brahms: Fourth Symphony (3-17); Beethoven: Third Symphony (9).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 (3-6), Chaconne for solo violin (6-8); Buxtehude: E-Minor Ciacona (6, 12), D-Minor Passacaglia (6-8); François Couperin: B-Minor Passacaille (8); Beethoven: Variations for Piano, Op. 35 (9), C-Minor Variations (9), Third Symphony (9-10), Fifth Symphony (10), Hammerklavier Sonata (10); Mozart: G-Minor Symphony (10-11, 15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Brahms uses musical “allusions” in his symphonies to serve two utopia agendas: first, to achieve a pure and organic unity ideal of “absolute music”; second, to revitalize a languishing tradition through multiple allusive sources, thus creating referential meanings that are not devoid of the narrative dimensions or programmatic intentions of the “New German School.” These two agendas, or two “senses of belonging,” are interrelated. Brahms uses a single technique, thematic variation, as the agent of synthesis for two separate frames of reference in order to create referential meaning within a work and at the same time to establish relationships other works within the extended tradition. Brahms achieves organic unity by accommodating allusions to internal process, mainly by manipulating a network of thematic relationships from his allusive sources. Examples from Brahms's symphonies show the different ways he engages his allusive sources to acquire important meanings in a new unified musical context. In all his allusions, Brahms triggers in us the unconscious process of association with well-known music and guides us to feel our response to a shared heritage.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (139-59), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (159-69), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (169-78), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (178-89).

Sources: Joseph Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major, Hob.I:97 (141-43); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (141-44, 152-53, 181-85), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (159-69), Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 (159-69), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (167-73); Schubert: Quintet in C Major, D.956 (141), Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D.944 (“Great”) (182-85); Schumann: Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (141), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 97 (“Rhenish”) (141); Wagner: Tannhäuser (140-151, 154-59); Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (141); Mendelssohn: Ein Sommernachtstraum, Op. 61 (182-88).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

A consideration of hermeneutics compounds Lissa's list of methods of citation by proposing the necessity of composer intent in order to defend a possible quotation. The character of the citation is defined by the connection between the composer and the listener, not between the composer and the quoted material. Reasons for parody are found in Bach and Schubert examples, "contrast citation" in Debussy, Beethoven, and Bartók examples, and self quotation in Wagner, Strauss, and Mozart examples. Contemporary composers, such as Cage and Stockhausen, show their affinity for the character of earlier works through citation, even while they vocally reject such styles.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Luciano Berio's well-justified and innovative use of the third movement of Mahler's Second Symphony in the middle movement of his Sinfonia has given rise to other uses of borrowed music which are neither innovative or justified. Many more recent pieces using the technique of collage, like George Rochberg's Music for a Magic Theater, are not destined to survive because they do not represent a significant contribution by the composer.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (36); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (36); Berio: Sinfonia (36); Ian Hamilton: Alastor (38); Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann (36); Rochberg: Music for a Magic Theater (38); Richard Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (36); Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée (38), Jeux de Cartes (38), Pulcinella (38); Tippett: Symphony No. 3 (38); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Although there is ample evidence of influence from Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and others in Brahms’s music, the connections between Brahms and Mendelssohn’s works have been largely unexplored. Considering their similar social networks in the 1840s and Brahms’s familiarity with Mendelssohn’s music in his youth, it is worth undertaking a preliminary study of “Mendelssohn reminiscences” in Brahms’s oeuvre. Several of Brahms’s works throughout his career demonstrate affinities with Mendelssohn’s compositions, but the most obvious parallels can be found in Brahms’s piano music. A particularly striking example of Mendelssohn’s influence appears in Brahms’s Intermezzo in B-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 4, which features compelling formal, phrasal, and rhythmic similarities to Mendelssohn’s Song without Words, Op. 67, No. 3. Nevertheless, Brahms’s intermezzo represents a kind of subversion of the model rather than a mere copy. While both pieces are in ternary form and prominently feature syncopated accompaniments and unique phrase structures, Brahms introduces greater harmonic subtleties and elisions between larger sections and individual phrases. The resulting intermezzo is both an engagement with Mendelssohn’s work and a statement of Brahms’s own musical individuality.

Works: Brahms: Rinaldo, Op. 50 (82), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (82), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (82), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (82), Horn Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 40 (82), Piano Quartet No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 60 (82), Clarinet Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 120, No. 2 (82), Intermezzo in B-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 4 (83, 86-90).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht, Op. 60 (82), Symphony No. 4 in A Major, Op. 90 (“Italian”) (82), Symphony No. 3 in A Minor, Op. 56 (“Scottish”) (82), String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 12 (82), Piano Trio No. 2 in C Minor, Op. 66 (82), Frage, Op. 9, No. 1 (82), Song without Words, Op. 67, No. 3 (83-90).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Gustav Mahler’s significant revisions to Bruckner’s Fourth Symphony amount to what Harold Bloom calls “creative misprision,” demonstrating Mahler’s self-understanding of Bruckner’s influence on his work. Publicly and privately, Mahler had a complicated relationship with the older Bruckner. Mahler’s conducting score and the orchestral parts used for his performance of Bruckner’s Fourth Symphony reveal significant changes to the text that went far beyond the standard of the time. He started with Bruckner’s 1888 final version and throughout the work altered orchestrations and cut around fifteen minutes, including nearly one third of the final movement. Major moments in Bruckner’s score were also altered or removed entirely, including both appearances of the fortissimo theme in the finale—precisely the section with the greatest stylistic influence on Mahler. These revisions can be understood by Bloom’s theory of influence, particularly the concept of misprision: the act of alleviating the anxiety of influence by creatively altering earlier works. Other indications of Mahler’s anxiety of Bruckner’s influence include his unease at charges of the similarity between his music and Bruckner’s. The similarities between passages in the scherzos of Mahler’s Symphony No. 1 and Bruckner’s Symphony No. 3, as well as the similarities between the opening themes of the Adagios of Mahler’s Symphony No. 9 and Bruckner’s Symphony No. 9, suggest a creative influence that Mahler was intent on publicly minimizing. Acknowledging this influence helps to recontextualize both Mahler’s and Bruckner’s positions in music history.

Works: Bruckner, Mahler (revisor): Symphony No. 4 in E-flat Major, WAB 104 (367-98, 416-425); Mahler: Symphony No. 1 in D Major (407-8), Symphony No. 9 (409-11), Symphony No. 5 (411-12)

Sources: Bruckner: Symphony No. 4 in E-flat Major, WAB 104 (367-98, 416-425), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor, WAB 103 (407-8), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (409-11), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, WAB 105 (411-12)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Brahms used Chopin's Ballade, Op. 38 as a model for the second movement of his Quintet, Op. 88. Both pieces experiment with directional tonality (beginning and ending in different keys) and show structural correspondences, such as polarity between contrasted thematic segments that extend tonality, tempo, texture, and mood. In both works the second tonality is anticipated by local tonicizations of it in the initial sections; both pieces end with the opening theme, but in the second key. In addition, Brahms's Op. 88 reshapes his earlier Saraband and Gavotte in A Major (ca. 1855). Analyzing that multifaceted process of borrowing, using Harold Bloom's theory of poetic influence and Mikhail Bakhtin's concept of dialogism, shows that it resulted in a dialogic piece, which is tonally more radical than Chopin's Ballade.

Works: Brahms: String Quintet in F major, Op. 88 (48-55, 60-79).

Sources: Chopin: Ballade Op. 38 (47-55,59-68, 71-79); Brahms: Saraband in A, Gavotte in A Major (45-46, 68-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The ideas of literary critic Harold Bloom may serve as the model for a new theory of mapping musical influence. Bloom's theory (as first proposed in The Anxiety of Influence in 1973) rests on the notion that the true subject matter of poetry is poetry itself; every poem is seen as a "misreading" or "misprision" of a precursor poem or poems. Bloom divides poets into two categories, "strong" and "weak." What differentiates a "strong" poet is his ability to confront his anxiety of influence; a strong poet is one who wrestles with his great precursors to achieve his own originality. In appropriating Bloom's idea for music, compositions become "relational events" rather than "closed and static entities." The model is tested through an interreading of two compositions--Brahms's Romanze, Op. 118, No. 5, and Reger's Träume am Kamin, Op. 143, No. 2--with respect to their essential precursor, Chopin's Berceuse, Op. 57. Reger is shown to have weakly "misread" the Berceuse; although Reger places himself in direct competition with Chopin by overtly adopting the compositional strategy of the precursor (a series of increasingly florid variations over a one-measure ostinato figure, a figure that is virtually identical in both pieces), he fails to go beyond Chopin and forge an original meaning of his own. In contrast, Brahms's Romanze is shown to be a "strong" misreading of the Berceuse. Bloom's six "revisionary ratios" (clinamen, tessera, kenosis, daemonization, askesis, and apophrades) are evoked to demonstrate how Brahms is able to echo Chopin and yet go beyond his precursor, forging his own originality. For example, Bloom defines clinamen as the "initial swerve from the precursor," akin to the rhetorical trope of irony. The harmonic strategy of Chopin's Berceuse is one of extreme tonal stability, being composed almost entirely over a tonic-dominant ostinato; in making his "initial swerve" from Chopin, Brahms departs markedly from this strategy by setting his series of variations (the music most directly reminiscent of the Berceuse) as the D major middle section within a larger ternary design, framed by contrasting music in F major. Brahms's alternate strategy in the Romanze exemplifies Bloom's clinamen: "the framing action of the F major music 'ironizes' the Berceuse reminiscence of the middle section so that it says one thing ('tonal stability') and means another ('tonal instability')."

Works: Brahms: Romanze, Op. 118, No. 5; Reger: Träume am Kamin, Op. 143, No. 2.

Sources: Chopin: Berceuse, Op. 57.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

John Philip Sousa performed many orchestral transcriptions, leading both his professional band and the US Marine Band before that, but only a handful of these transcriptions still exist today. Despite the lack of material, a number of features of Sousa’s transcriptions become apparent, including keeping wind and percussion parts generally intact, writing for choirs of instruments, using clarinets like orchestral violins, and shifting scoring even when the original doesn’t change. Most of the transcriptions performed by the Sousa Band were written by Sousa’s assistants and copyists, not by Sousa himself. Only five orchestral transcriptions in full score in Sousa’s hand remain today: Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman, Elgar’s Salut d’Amour, Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4, and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time. One significant addition not in Sousa’s hand is Wagner’s Overture to Tannhäuser, which does not share the same scoring practices of Sousa’s own transcriptions. Other existing transcriptions come from keyboard music, for example Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2.

Works: Sousa: transcriptions of Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34), Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61), Elgar’s Salut d’Amour (262–66), Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77), and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Sources: Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34); Wagner: Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61); Elgar: Salut d’Amour (262–66); Massenet: “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77); Leo Sowerby: Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Chopin's Prelude in A Minor is related to recurrent patterns evident in the music and literature of the early nineteenth century. Among these patterns is that of self-quotation and Romantic representations of memory. Thus Shelley in Adonais refers to his own Ode to the West Wind, and Schubert in the String Quartet in A Minor refers to his own music to Rosamunde and to his own setting of Schiller's Die Götter Griechenlands: "Schöne Welt, wo bist du?" (This particular pattern is not, however, evident in the Chopin Prelude.)

Works: Schubert: String Quartet in A Minor (146).

Sources: Schubert: Rosamunde (146), Schöne Welt, wo bist du?, D. 677 (146).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Examining Schubert's lied Ganymed (1817), set to Goethe's poem of 1774, and comparing it to an earlier setting of the same poem by Johann Reichardt (1794) reveals that the latter was Schubert's model. Both settings use directional tonality, ending in a key a third lower than their initial key; both have their crucial division on the same words ("wohin? / hinauf!"); and both have comparable cadential melismas on the last two words. Yet Schubert, surmounting the limitations of his model, realizes the erotic atmosphere of the text by accelerating the tempo and by using lyrical, increasingly flourishing, melismas.

Works: Schubert: Ganymed (118-28).

Sources: Johann Reichardt: Ganymed (127-28).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Franz Liszt’s piano transcription of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique has been long recognized as a high point of Liszt’s exceptional pianism and technique. Liszt and Berlioz were close friends in the early 1830s, and written correspondence between the two reveals an active collaboration which shaped Liszt’s transcription and possibly even Berlioz’s own revisions to his symphony. Liszt treated this transcription as a means to push his pianistic technique to new extremes, and the Parisian critics praised his ability to magnify the best elements of Berlioz in his arrangement. Liszt’s transcriptions of Symphonie fantastique and other Berlioz works draw attention to the performer and to the original music, and thus promote both Berlioz the composer and Liszt the artistic, musically sensitive virtuoso in a concert setting. Their respective successes ultimately affected each other, and Liszt’s constant stage presence undoubtedly increased Berlioz’s popularity. After distancing himself from Berlioz in the late 1830s, Liszt still applied some of what he had learned in his Symphonie fantastique project to his later arrangements of Schubert and others, using his transcriptions to promote both the original music and his own virtuosity and musical prowess.

Works: Liszt: Grande Symphonie fantastique de Hector Berlioz (195-213, 216-35), Ouverture des francs-juges de Hector Berlioz (212-14), Ouverture du roi Lear de Hector Berlioz (212-16).

Sources: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (195-213, 224-28), Les francs juges (212), Le roi Lear (212).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone, Christine Wisch

[The many citations from himself and from Wagner in the first version of Bruckner's Third Symphony reveal a clear message in the work.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Piano Sonata, Op. 106, and String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130, demonstrate close connections to one another. The first movements of both works feature marked juxtapositions of contrasting ideas: two contrasting musical motives in the sonata, and two contrasting tempos in the quartet. Additionally, Beethoven’s original fugal finale for Op. 130, which ultimately appeared as the Grosse Fuge, Op. 133, demonstrates numerous similarities to the final movement of the Hammerklavier Sonata. Nevertheless, the very musical elements which articulate classical unity and organized structure in the sonata serve to create discord and disjunction in the quartet. Beethoven’s Op. 130 may represent a commentary on Op. 106, as the composer revisited older material and transformed it to accentuate his own stylistic and aesthetic development. A similar relationship may also exist between the Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110, and the String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (436-71), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 (468-69).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (436-71), Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (468-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Even though Chopin denounced and laughed at any attempts to relate his works to programmatic narratives, his notion of absolute music is betrayed by borrowed melodies and topical gestures that may be found in his works. The Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No 2, is an ideal subject for hermeneutic or semiotic interpretation due to its juxtaposition of funereal and religious elements. The musical texture is permeated with references to the Dies Irae chant. Chorale and funeral march topics also appear in the score. The structural troping of these elements leads one to believe that death was on the mind of the composer. The sharp decline in Chopin's health while composing these preludes gives further credence to a programmatic interpretation. Interestingly, Alexander Scriabin borrowed elements from this work for his second Prelude of Op. 74, which also alludes to his own failing health.

Works: Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (149-59); Scriabin: Prelude, Op. 74, No. 2 (159-62).

Sources: Dies Irae (149-62); Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (159-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

The Afro-Creole folk song tradition of Louisiana, as disseminated in concert adaptations, presents distinctive challenges and rewards for singers. The language of these folk songs, Afro-Creole patois, was constructed by African slaves brought to Louisiana in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and differs from standard French. While many Afro-Creole melodies have been preserved in instrumental music by such composers as Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the vocal sources are less familiar. Piano-vocal arrangements of Afro-Creole folk songs show different approaches to adapting the music for concert singers. Dansé, Conni Conné, arranged by Camille Nickerson, adapts a traditional bamboula dance song. At times, the accompaniment rises to become an equal partner of the vocal line. Maud Cuney Hare’s Dialogue d’Amour, also known as Z’Amours Marianne, is an arrangement of canlinda dance song, and features a rare brief modulation from minor to major. W. T. Francis’s arrangement of Zozo Mokeur (The Mockingbird) contains several highbrow, operatic touches. Julien Tiersot’s arrangement of the call and response counjaille, Aurore Bradère, features a sparse accompaniment, highlighting the simple melody. Afro-Creole folk songs have been neglected in performance, but offer a rich cultural tradition for singers to explore.

Works: Camille Nickerson: Dansé, Conni Conné (485); Maud Cuney Hare: Z’Amours Marianne (486); W. T. Francis: Zozo Mokeur (486-89); Julien Tiersot: Aurore Bradère (489-90).

Sources: Traditional: Bamboula (484-85), Dialogue d’Amour (486), Zozo Mokeur (486-89), Aurore Bradère (489-90).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Tenets of the Cecilian movement, including stylistic borrowing of Renaissance polyphony, chant-like melodies, and the use of wind music for accompaniment, are found in the music of Bruckner and Liszt. Bruckner's Mass in E Minor, Os justi, and Pange lingua are compared with Liszt's Missa choralis, Gran Mass, and Via crucis. Bruckner and Liszt idealize the movement.

Works: Bruckner: Mass in E Minor (14), Pange lingua (14), Os justi (14); Liszt: Missa choralis (15), Gran Mass (15), Messe für Männerchor (Missa quattuor vocum ad aequales) (15), St. Elizabeth (15), Via crucis (15), Christus (15-16).

Sources: Hymn: Pange lingua (15); Eighth Psalm tone (15); Chant: Rorate coeli, Angelus, Beati Pauperes (15); Hymn: O filii et filiae (16).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

In his transcriptions of songs by Chopin, Mendelssohn, and Beethoven, Liszt captures the essential textual and musical character of the original while transforming it into a purely keyboard idiom with distinctive elements, particularly bravura writing and pianistic sonority. The transcriptions portray the words and mood of the songs and also reflect Liszt's personal relationships with those composers whose works he transcribed. Liszt heightens the dramatic and emotional high points of each model by certain devices, including a prelude that sets up the mood, a fermata in the middle of the song, a short coda, and a cadenza, as illustrated in Hulanka and Adelaide. He often places the song's melody in different registers, doubling it in octaves or adding voices and ornaments, thus creating increasingly dazzling techniques, as found in Moja Pieszczota, Frühlingslied, and Adelaide. His interest in symphonic sound effects led him to explore a wide range of keyboard textures, well demonstrated in Frühlingslied. He differentiates the repetitions of the main melody from the model, each repetition being embellished with a variety of accompanimental patterns, as in Narzeczony, Suleika, Reiselied, Wiosna, and Adelaide. Liszt's piano transcriptions provided a means for the composer to enrich his public concert repertoire; to disseminate music in a new, altered form; and to promote composers he admired, exposing the audience to the masterworks of great composers.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Chopin's Six chants polonais, Op. 74 (30-64), Transcriptions of Mendelssohn's Suleika, Op. 34, No. 4, Frühlingslied, Op. 47, No. 3, and Reiselied, Op. 34, No. 6 (98-124), Transcription of Beethoven's Adelaide (144-69).

Sources: Chopin: Six chants polonais, Op. 74 (27-64); Mendelssohn: Suleika, Op. 34, No. 4, Frühlingslied, Op. 47, No. 3, Reiselied, Op. 34, No. 6 (95-124); Beethoven: Adelaide (144-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Recent critical response to Gioachino Rossini's opera Aureliano in Palmira (1813) has generally been negative, without any author offering a serious reevaluation of the entire work including a discussion of the opera's background, libretto, and musical content. Many passages in Aureliano in Palmira were either borrowed from his earlier works or incorporated into later works. For instance, the overture to this opera later became the overture to Il barbiere di Siviglia and, with some modifications, to Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra. Additionally, many of the macrostructures of individual scenes foreshadow Rossini's later Neopolitan style. A table indicating all the instances of self-borrowing related to this work is provided.

Works: Rossini: Aureliano in Palmira (18-30), Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (21-22), Il barbiere di Siviglia (21-22), Giunone (cantata) (21-22), Otello (22), Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo (22).

Sources: Rossini: Aureliano in Palmira (18-30), Tancredi (22).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

One finds quotation in almost every epoch. Quotation must be distinguished from parody technique, contrafactum, variation, transcription, phantasy on known themes, paraphrase, pasticcio, metamorphosis, and stylization. Some thirteen criteria for quotation are listed (pp. 365-67). Four aesthetic functions of quotation are discussed with numerous examples of each: (1) a quotation may serve as the symbol for a well-defined expressive character; (2) a quotation may be used not so much as a symbol but rather as a means of expressing the content of a programmatic work (quotation as commentary); (3) a quotation may serve as an allusion or reference which will be more or less understood by the listener; and (4) a quotation may express parody, irony, or grotesquerie. The significance of quotation must be considered in relation to the genre in which it appears, such as pure instrumental music, vocal music, opera and ballet, music for film, and Jazz.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (368); Britten: Albert Herring (368); Bax: Tintagel (368); Berg: Lyrischen Suite (368); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (369); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (369); Prokofiev: Aleksander Newski (369); Shostakovich: Symphony No. 12 (369); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (369); Liszt: Dante Symphony (369), Totentanz (369); Rachmaninoff: Die Todesinsel (369); Dallapiccola: Canti di prigionia (369); Miaskowski: Symphony No. 6 (369); Schubert: Der Tod und Das Mädchen (369); Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (370), Don Juan (370), Tod und Verklärung (370), Don Quixote (370), Also Sprach Zarathustra (370), Til Eulenspiegel (370); Offenbach: Orpheus (371); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (372).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The presence of history and of the past is very powerful in the music of today and is made evident in quotations. Quotations can function as associative symbols, as a means of representing past times, as symbols of fear, as reminiscences of specific ideas, or as parodies. Examples of each of these functions are given (see p. 26). Collage technique is also discussed with reference to works by Zygmunt Krause, Luciano Berio, Arvo Pärt, Enrique Raxach, Vittorio Galmetti, and Charles Ives. In the end, Lissa comes down hard on collage technique, wondering if it perhaps indicates an inability on the part of the composer to speak with an individual voice and stating that collage technique also devalues art by placing the quotation of artworks on the same level as street noises.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (26); Britten: Albert Herring (26); Berg: Lyric Suite (26); Tchaikovsky: The Queen of Spades (26); Liszt: Dante Symphony (26); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (26); Strauss: Heldenleben (26), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (26); Mussorgsky: Klassiker (26); Hindemith: Nusch-Nuschi (26); de Falla: The Three Cornered Hat (26); Stravinsky: Pulcinella (26); Krause: Recital (28); Berio: Sinfonia (29); Pärt: Collage sur Bach (29); Raxach: Inside Outside (29); Galmetti: L'opera abandonnata (29); Ives: Symphony No. 4 (29), Concord Sonata (29).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Beethoven did not simply transcribe his Piano Sonata Op. 14, No. 1 for strings, but rather recast the musical material to highlight the idiomatic differences between string and keyboard instruments. This is primarily indicated by changes in dynamics, which are more abundant than altered pitches or registers. For example, at the end of the development of the first movement, the piano sonata decrescendos and has a sudden forte at the recapitulation. At the same point in the quartet arrangement, the strings crescendo and then have a sudden piano at the recapitulation. Opposite dynamics such as these capitalize on the shading and sustaining capabilities of each instrument. Other alterations also point to a recasting, as opposed to simple transcribing, of material from one genre to another. Beethoven shifts the key from E major in the keyboard sonata to F major for the string quartet, exploiting the open C string sounds of the viola and cello. When changes in pitch content occur in the string quartet, the writing is idiomatic for strings. Finally, the key of F major evokes important late string quartets of Mozart and Haydn.

Works: Beethoven: Arrangement of Piano Sonata, Op. 14, No. 1 for String Quartet in F Major, Hess 34.

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Beethoven's Wielhorsky sketchbook contains sketches for a variety of works, including the Op. 35 Eroica variations for piano. Immediately following the sketches for the piano variations is a plan for the Third Symphony, with meters, key schemes, tempo markings, and rough themes for each of the first three movements. The lack of reference to a fourth movement suggests that Beethoven planned to use the piano variations as a basis for the finale to the symphony from the start. Lockwood demonstrates that the principal theme of the first movement is derived from the "Basso del Tema" of Op. 35. The finale of the symphony is thus seen as the generating force of the entire work.

Works: Beethoven: "Eroica" Variations for Piano, Op. 35, Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Eroica, Op. 55.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

When Robert Schumann was composing his Cello Concerto, Op. 129, Emil Bockmühl, the cellist who later premiered the piece, made suggestions for revisions to the composer, occasionally invoking Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto, Op. 64, as a point of reference. Although Schumann ignored virtually all of Bockmühl’s recommendations—ultimately creating an unidiomatic and cumbersome solo cello part when compared to the violin solo of Mendelssohn’s Op. 64—the noticeable similarities between the two concertos indicate that Schumann was clearly thinking of his colleague’s earlier work when composing his Cello Concerto. In both pieces, the solo parts feature numerous cantabile melodies and frequently take advantage of the instruments’ higher registers, while the openings of the outer movements are strikingly similar. Despite these broader parallels, the two works are conceptually very different. Whereas Mendelssohn’s concerto highlights the soloist and exploits the violin’s capabilities, the cello solo of Schumann’s piece rarely features such bravura, even in the cadenza. Instead, Schumann’s concerto downplays the prominence of the solo part and integrates it into the orchestra to a far greater degree than does Mendelssohn, almost inverting the genre’s traditional hierarchy between soloist and accompaniment. Additionally, Schumann’s concerto is far more musically integrated, with thematic connections across movements and a greater overall coherence of motivic material throughout the work .

Works: Robert Schumann: Cello Concerto in A Minor, Op. 129.

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Violin Concerto in E Minor, Op. 64.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Song parodies published in American newspapers were integral to American political culture from the 1790s through the 1810s as they exposed political “truth” in the first party system (Federalists versus Republicans) through mimesis, structural manipulation, and high degrees of intertextuality. Regardless of topic, word play with a model song’s lyrics was a core component of these political parodies. Some parodists just mocked their political opponents, as in Theodore Dwight’s Moll Carey, a parody of Isaac Watt’s psalm Ye Tribes of Adam Join. Others additionally mocked the model song, as in the anonymous Parody of a Federal Song, a parody of the Federalist song Friends to Order—Rise. In both cases, the model was readily apparent and the parodists made additional intertextual references to get their points across. Chains (a parody of a parody) and clusters (multiple parodies of one model) of song parodies demonstrate an even greater level of intertextual references and relationships. The chain of parodies based on Henry Mellen’s The Embargo exemplifies the way partisans on both sides of an issue argued back-and-forth through song parodies. A particularly large set of parodies on Thomas Campbell’s Ye Mariners of England appeared in 1812 debating the prospect of war with Britain. Parodies justifying or opposing the war were met with others serving non-political functions, including John Richard Desborus Huggins’s Ye Shavers of Columbia, a satirical advertisement for his barber services. The tradition of song parodies in early American political culture demonstrates the long-standing efficacy of political rhetoric delivered in an entertaining form.

Works: Anonymous: Parody of a Federal Song (39-42), A Parody Parodied or a New England Aristocratic Song, stripped of its fallacy, &dressed in the becoming garb of ‘native truth and unaffected simplicity (47-48), The Parody on Henry Miller (48-51), A Parody (55-56); Theodore Dwight: Moll Carey (42-46); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (46-47); Unus Plebis: Poetry (48-51); Simon Pepperpot, The Younger: The Embargo Parodied (48-51); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (51-53); Alexander Lucas: Ye Members of Congress (53); John Richard Desborus Huggins: Ye Shavers of Columbia. A Barber-ous Ode (54-55); A Citizen of Monmouth: To the Soldiers of America (55).

Sources: Anonymous: Friends to Order—Rise (39-42); Isaac Watts: Ye Tribes of Adam Join (42-46); John Brown Williamson: The Hobbies (46-48); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (47-48); Henry Mellen: The Embargo (48-51); Thomas Campbell: Ye Mariners of England (51-56); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, Popular

Even in his earliest compositions, Frederick Delius showcased the influence of Norwegian music and Edvard Grieg on his practice. Letters from Edvard Grieg to Delius demonstrate that the composer encouraged the young Delius to pursue his compositional craft. Further letters indicate Grieg provided comments and criticism on Delius’s works, including Song of the High Hills, which developed from the overture Paa Vidderne. Norwegian influence is shown in other works by Delius, such as the use of the Norwergian national anthem Ja, vi elsker dette landet in the 1897 play Folkeraadet. Additionally, Delius’s song Over the Hills and Far Away shows direct homage to Grieg. The period of 1909–12 marks a move away from pure Impressionism in Delius’s work, to an imitation of human states, culminating in the composer’s post-Impressionist stage, which had its roots in his Norwegian influenced works.

Works: Delius: Paa Vidderne (34), Song of the High Hills (35, 40), Folkeraadet (37), Over the Hills and Far Away (38), Life’s Dance (39–40).

Sources: Rikard Nordraak: Ja, vi elsker dette landet; Delius: Paa Vidderne.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Throughout his career, Franz Liszt frequently revised and recomposed Marche hongroise d’après Schubert, the second movement of Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (1838-39), Liszt’s arrangement of Schubert’s Divertissement à l’hongroise (1825). Over four decades, Liszt published nine different notated versions of the piece. Liszt’s continued engagement with Schubert’s Viennese approximation of Hungarian music introduces many complications with regard to Liszt’s Hungarian identity. Four transcultural readings of Marche hongroise illustrate the complex relationship between national identities and politics surrounding Liszt’s career-long engagement with the work. The first transcultural reading concerns Schubert’s adoption of Hungarian folk style in his Divertissement and Liszt’s reclamation of the Hungarian style through his transcription in Mélodies. In transcribing Schubert’s Divertissement, Liszt asserts his authority as a Hungarian musician by amplifying the idiomatic effects marking a Hungarian style. The addition of verbunkos and militaristic effects further frames Liszt as correcting Schubert’s Viennese style hongrois and revealing the heroic nature of Hungarian music. The second transcultural reading places Liszt’s work in the context of republican heroic marches. Since the French Revolution, the heroic march genre was often linked to republican and revolutionary politics. This context combined with Liszt’s own political leanings suggests a republican reading of the Marche hongroise. The third transcultural reading contextualizes Marche hongroise with Liszt’s cultural identity as a performer in Vienna. Performing variations on Schubert’s Divertissement was a way to reconcile his Hungarian identity with the critical culture of Vienna, which prized German musical style above others. Liszt’s orchestral version of Marche hongroise, recast in German as Ungarischer Marsch, allowed him to frame his Hungarian music as a Schubert transcription, which was more palatable to the Viennese establishment. Finally, the fourth transcultural reading places Marche hongroise in the context of transcultural modernism. In his orchestral Ungarischer March (1870 version), Liszt adopts a modern chromatic idiom, creating a stylistic hybrid of Hungarian and New German music. The changing musical trends also prompted Liszt to create new piano versions of Marche hongroise based on the orchestral version: Franz Schuberts Märsche (1880) and the Troisième edition of Marche hongroise (1883). Although we can never truly know what Liszt was thinking when he recomposed Marche hongroise in 1883, applying these four transcultural perspectives to his lifelong engagement with Marche hongroise reveals the complex associations attached to the piece and how it could represent (in Lachmund’s words) “the noblest Hungarian spirit.”

Works: Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (423-40, 447-49), Ungarischer Marsch (454-64), Franz Schuberts Märsche (464-65), Marche hongroise: Troisième édition et augmentée (465-68)

Sources: Schubert: Divertissement à l’hongroise (423-40); Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (454-68), Ungarischer Marsch (464-68)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

More than one third of Beethoven's compositions make use of his pre-existing music. These reworkings are frequently extensive and serve as an alternative way to access his compositional method in addition to his sketchbooks. His self-borrowings have both musical and practical explanations: (1) to correct, improve, and perfect the quality of a previously finished composition; (2) to enable him to indulge his penchant for variation, development, and invention; (3) to respond to compositional challenges; (4) to express feelings of friendship and debts of gratitude; (5) to make a composition available to a wider spectrum of the music buying public in order to earn extra money. The re-uses can be classified in four categories: (1) amelioration; (2) arrangement; (3) single composition or movement reuses; and (4) thematic or motivic reuses.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (1), Piano Sonata in C# minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (5), Piano Sonata in C major, Op. 2, No. 3 (10), Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (13), Feuerfarb', Op. 52, No. 2 (14), O welch ein Leben!, WoO 91, No. 1 (17), Fidelio, Op. 72 (21), Sonatina in G Major, Op. 79 (28), String Quintet in Eb Major, Op. 4 (32), String Trio in Eb Major, Op. 3 (49), String Quintet in C minor, Op. 104 (69), Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 (78), Der freie Mann, WoO 117 (102), Piano Concerto No. 2 in Bb Major, Op. 19 (106), Rondo in Bb Major for Piano and Orchestra, WoO 6 (110), Quartet in Eb Major for Piano and Strings (116), Septet in E Major for Violin, Viola, Clarinet, Horn, Basson, Violoncello, and Contrabass, Op. 20 (124), Trio in Eb Major for Piano, Clarinet or Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 38 (124), Opferlied (130), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 (151), Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2 (156), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 (156), Sonata in G Major for Piano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3 (156), Piano Trio in E Major Op. 70, No. 2 (156), Piano Sonata in Ab Major, Op. 110 (156), Adagio in Eb Major for Mandolin and Harpsichord, Hess-44b (164), Allegretto in C minor for Piano, Hess-66 (176), Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 (179), String Quartet in F, Hess-34 (184), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (200), Septet in Eb Major, Op. 20, arranged as Trio, Op. 38 (210), Fragment of an Arrangement for Military Band of Septet in Eb major, Op. 20 (225), Piano Sonata in Bb Major, Op. 22 (228), German Dance or Allemande in A Major for Orchestra, WoO 13 (231), Trio in G Major for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 1, No. 2 (231), String Quartet in A minor, Op. 132 (231), Fifteen Variations in Eb major with a Fugue for Piano, Op. 35 (248), Symphony No. 3 in Eb major, Op. 55 (248), Music for Friedrich Duncker's Drama Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 (260), Arrangement for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello of Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 (263), Busslied, Op. 48, No. 6 (269), Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 (270), Overture III to Leonore (1806) (273), Concerto in D for Violin, Op. 61 (287), March in Bb Major for Six Wind Instruments, WoO 29 (313), Music for August von Kotzebue's Festspiel (Nachspiel) Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (318), Introduction to Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (327), Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1 (337), Hoffnung, Op. 82, No. 1 (339), March and Chorus from Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 114 (346), An die Geliebte, WoO 140 (351), Canon An Mälzel, WoO 162 (353), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (361), Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria for Orchestra, Op. 91 (367), Hochzeitslied, WoO 105 (370), Puzzle Canon Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (378), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (381).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

A fairly extensive catalogue of Berlioz's re-use of his own compositions in later works. Macdonald reaches several important conclusions: (1) Berlioz's borrowings show "a gradual perfecting and distillation of a musical idea which is notably enhanced in detail and in aptness at each appearance" (p. 41). This idea explains to a great extent why Berlioz destroyed many of the earlier versions of pieces that were borrowed. (2) Berlioz generated most of his borrowed materials in the earliest period of his career (1825-30) in which he produced only one major work, but which yielded material that he drew upon when "time, money, or the immediate stimulus of a new literary movement . . . were lacking" (p. 39). Conversely, in his later pieces he borrowed insignificantly, if at all. (3) Berlioz did not always borrow music with the same specific programmatic elements, but instead re-used music with similar extramusical connections wherever he felt the occurrence of a similar idea. For this reason the same music is used for "the sentiments of the Abruzzi brigands boasting of their spoils [Harold in Italy], and those of the heroes of Napoleon's army returning home from their victories [Rob Roy]." (p. 41).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Scholars have disagreed over the extent of Gregorian chant’s influence on Bruckner’s sacred works, with some arguing that Bruckner’s church compositions are fundamentally rooted in the techniques of chant, and others claiming that any correspondences between Bruckner’s sacred music and Gregorian chant is coincidental. A more nuanced approach demonstrates that Bruckner’s use of chant melodies and chant-like procedures varied considerably and included direct quotation, use of alternatim, and modeling his melodic phrase structure on chants. Of the works based directly on Gregorian chant melodies, Bruckner’s Veni Creator Spiritus, WAB 50, is a useful example of nineteenth-century chant harmonization practices, while the paraphrase Ave regina coelorum, WAB 8, is an original composition derived from an existing chant melody. Other works, such as Tota pulchra es, WAB 46, and Ecce Sacerdos, WAB 13, feature more indirect allusions to the Gregorian chant tradition—for instance, setting the piece in the Phrygian mode, or adopting a call-and-response format between a single voice and full choir—which could be considered “unconscious borrowing.” It is unclear how deeply Bruckner’s use of chant and chant-like procedures was intertwined with nineteenth-century movements in reforming sacred music, and the aesthetic significance of these borrowings—particularly for the congregations who first heard Bruckner’s sacred works—warrants further study.

Works: Bruckner: Veni Creator Spiritus, WAB 50 (114-15), Ave regina coelorum, WAB 8 (115-16), Inveni David, WAB 20 (117), Tota pulchra es, WAB 46 (118-19), Ecce Sacerdos, WAB 13 (118-19), Salvum fac populum tuum, WAB 40 (119), Windhaager Messe, WAB 25 (119), Asperges me, WAB 4 (120), Tantum ergo, WAB 41 (120), Ave Maria, WAB 7 (120), Pange lingua, WAB 33 (120-21).

Sources: Anonymous (chant): Veni Creator Spiritus (114-15); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from Missa de Sancta Maria ab Adventu usque ad Nativitatem Domini (115); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from In medio ecclesiae (117); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from Officium in festo Immaculatae Conceptionis Beatae Mariae Virginis (118); Anonymous (chant): Tonus solemnis (118); Anonymous (chant): “Kyrie” from Kyrie Deus sempiterne (119); Attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas: Pange lingua (120-21); Anonymous (chant): “In Festis Beatae Mariae Virginis” from Antiphonale Monasticum (120).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

While it is known that Liszt and Wagner borrowed from one another, specific instances of borrowing have been difficult to prove. Although it has been previously argued that Wagner’s crowning motif in Parsifal, the “Grail” motive, is derived from Liszt’s prelude Excelsior, evidence reveals Wagner was unsympathetic to the work, lending the borrowing problematic to explain. However, Wagner’s utilization of a similarly constructed theme could be justified due to the composers’ sharing of an identical poetic intent. Both Wagner and Liszt believed in the suffering of the artist for the cause of true and holy Art. Evidence alludes to Liszt’s composition of Excelsior being significantly influenced by Longfellow’s poem Excelsior, which was meant to serve as “the motto of Poetry and Music.” If Liszt communicated these thoughts to Wagner, which was highly probable, it is possible Wagner’s use of the theme to represent the Grail was not merely a borrowing, but a tribute and homage to Liszt, as his partner in their artistic brotherhood. A recent discovery of Liszt’s work Am Grabe Richard Wagner confirms distinct influence from Wagner’s Parsifal and Liszt’s Excelsior. This piece thus serves as Liszt’s homage to Wagner’s artistic goals, which he felt Wagner had achieved to the highest echelon.

Works: Liszt: Am Grabe Richard Wagner (107–24), Excelsior (107–24); Wagner: Parsifal (107–24).

Sources: Liszt: Excelsior (107–24); Wagner: Parsifal (107–24).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, opera selections have had an important place in the repertoire for concert bands, but the recent trend in concert bands away from playing opera transcriptions has been detrimental to the popularity of opera in America. In the 1830s, opera tunes became a dominant genre of popular music thanks to performances by military, civic, and professional concert bands, which represented a significant portion of the music consumed by the public throughout the 1800s. The first celebrity bandleader was Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, who gained national fame in 1872 organizing music for the National Peace Jubilee after the Civil War. Through the late nineteenth century, Gilmore organized a private band with varied programs that included operatic transcriptions. Taking Gilmore’s place in the public spotlight around the turn of the century was John Philip Sousa, who also programmed a variety of music including modern opera repertoire like Richard Wagner. After Sousa’s death in 1932, nationally touring bands of that scale became a thing of the past, especially with the rise of radio and sound recording. While a few professional bands, like the Goldman Band, remained through the mid-twentieth century, performing a traditional mix of music including operatic repertoire, collegiate bands began to replace them as the dominant concert band force. Collegiate bands, especially those modelled on Frederick Fennell’s Eastman Wind Ensemble, began programming more original works for band and distanced themselves from operatic transcriptions. Without the widespread performance of opera by bands, its popularity in American declined.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

This issue of Tempo is dedicated to the works of Robin Holloway, and this article focuses on his chamber works. Scenes from Schumann involves paraphrases of six Schumann songs: two from Myrthen, one from Dichterliebe, and three from the Opus 39 Liederkreis. Holloway has "re-composed" them, delving into the songs and presenting them in enriched and intensified versions. Holloway's treatment of "Mondnacht" serves as an example. Along with harmonic changes, he adds borrowings from Wagner's Ring cycle and Tristan und Isolde, Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, and Debussy's Rondes de printemps. Holloway's Fantasy-Pieces for wind quintet offer a more subtle borrowing technique, in this case drawing on the Opus 24 Liederkreis. Several other brief examples demonstrate Holloway's basically romantic style of borrowing, which creates a feeling of separation or removal from the older material.

Works: Holloway: Scenes from Schumann (21-2), Fantasy-Pieces (22-3), Evening with Angels (23), Concertino No. 3 (23).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Nine of Anthony Philip Heinrich’s sixteen symphonies use American patriotic tunes, in conjunction with descriptive titles and programs, to articulate a national American character. These symphonies draw their influences from both the “cultivated” and “vernacular” traditions of American musical life between 1820 and 1860. On the one hand, Heinrich capitalized on the vogue for European orchestral program music; on the other hand, he also drew upon the increased prominence of vernacular genres such as patriotic songs, hymns, and ballads.

The Bohemian-born Heinrich used these nine “American” symphonies to promote his own image as a distinctly American composer. These works celebrated the composer’s idealized beliefs in the United States as a perfect democracy, a growing industrial power, and a vast frontier, which he experienced while living in Kentucky. American critics picked up on the national traits of these works, with many viewing him as a champion of American art music, while European critics often viewed these same traits as peculiar musical exoticisms unique to Heinrich’s style.

In spite of their pronounced national character, these nine symphonies are still highly individualized in their formal schemes, number of movements, harmony, programmatic content, and use of borrowed tunes such as Yankee Doodle and Hail Columbia. For some written programs, Heinrich also directly quotes passages from American literature and history books, such as John Wilson’s American Ornithology and John McIntosh’s Origin of the North American Indians. Moreover, the symphonies exhibit considerable borrowings from Heinrich’s own compositions, ranging from the simple incorporation of a borrowed song melody to a substantial reworking of previous music. Three appendices contain photocopies of large portions of selected symphony movements, while a fourth appendix gives a complete list of Heinrich’s orchestral works.

Works: Anthony Philip Heinrich: The Columbiad: Grand American National Chivalrous Symphony (6, 20, 38-39, 73-74, 87, 92-97, 112-13, 136, 165-67, 186, 194-203, 213-80), The Ornithological Combat of Kings; or The Condor of the Andes and the Eagle of the Cordilleras (6, 35-38, 87-89, 96, 107-8, 110-12, 122-24, 127-35, 145-49, 157-59, 178-79, 189-203, 281-321), Gran Sinfonia Eroica (6, 35-36, 87-89, 95, 108-10, 131, 167, 189), The Hunters of Kentucky (6, 38, 87, 98, 113-14, 123, 148, 187-89), The Jubilee (6, 45, 87-89, 99-100, 114-16, 165-67, 187-89), The Mastodon (6, 47, 87-89, 102-3, 118-19, 122-23, 137, 180-83), The Columbiad; or, Migration of American Wild Passenger Pigeons (6, 51-52, 87-88, 105-6, 120-21, 130-31, 135, 176-78, 190-93), The Indian Carnival; or, The Indian’s Festival of Dreams (6, 76, 87-88, 104, 116-17, 120-21, 183-84), Manitou Mysteries; or, The Voice of the Great Spirit (6, 84-85, 87-91, 101, 117-18, 137-41, 149-56, 159-61, 184-86, 202-3, 322-54).

Sources: Philip Phile: Hail, Columbia (4, 60-61, 112, 116, 135, 165); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (4, 60-61, 112-13, 116, 135-36, 165); Anthony Philip Heinrich: All Hail to Kentucky (4, 98, 113-14), Sensibility (22, 95, 109-10), Tyler’s Grand Veto Quick Step (102, 119, 137), Gran Sinfonia Eroica (108-9), The Columbiad: Grand American National Chivalrous Symphony (115), The Tower of Babel (166); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (190-91).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Mahler and Freud were both interested in the dynamics of dreams. Mahler's Third Symphony and Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams both involve dream images. Freud had a "dream of the stately house" (not included in his book) which makes reference to a nationalist song written by August von Binzer in 1819. The beginning of this song largely corresponds to the beginning of Mahler's Third Symphony, such that the latter is viewed as an allusion to the former. The song was sung in 1878 upon the government's dissolution of an influential youth organization to which Freud belonged and of which Mahler was aware. The shared interest of Freud and Mahler in the youth culture of the 1870s is revealed in their references to this song.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mahler's Third Symphony may be interpreted in terms of the philosophy of Schopenhauer. Mahler quotes the adagio of Beethoven's String Quartet Op. 135 at the beginning of the last movement and quotes Wagner's Parsifal at the end of the same movement.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3.

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135; Wagner: Parsifal.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In the wake of the Brahms/Wagner debate of the mid-nineteenth century, Mahler alludes in his music to Brahms both thematically and structurally. Due to his quotation of other composers, Mahler has often been criticized for lack of originality. Mahler took inspiration from Brahms and transformed it in his own music. Examples of this are seen in Mahler's First and Second Symphonies and their allusions to Brahms's First and Second Symphonies.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (216, 219-21), Symphony No. 1 (218-19), Symphony No. 4 (222), Symphony No. 6 (222-23), Symphony No. 7 (222-23).

Sources: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (216, 220-21), Symphony No. 2 (217-19), Nänie, Op. 82 (220), Symphony No. 1 (221-22), Symphony No. 3 (222-23).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

During the time of the Bach revival he led, Mendelssohn modeled many of his compositions upon the style of J. S. Bach. Mendelssohn used J. S. Bach's setting of Ein feste Burg in the fourth movement of his "Reformation" Symphony and incorporated the chorale into a programmatic setting. Meyerbeer subjected Ein feste Burg to variation treatment interspersed with the typical structural elements of a sonata-form movement. With the bridge to the recapitulation, Meyerbeer blurred the formal distinctions between the chorale and the symphonic sonata movement in order to suggest a choral movement. This alludes to the choral movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, even though Meyerbeer does not actually use a chorus. The other movements also include quotations, including a Catholic "Dresden Amen" in the first movement and allusion to Mozart's Cosi fan Tutte in the second movement.

Works: Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D minor, Reformation (111-37).

Sources: J. S. Bach: "Ein feste Burg" from In festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (112, 114-20, 122-24); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (113); Mozart: Cosi fan Tutte (131-32).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

The mid-nineteenth century American phenomenon of arranging European art music as hymn tunes—as represented by a case study of adaptations of Felix Mendelssohn’s music—reveals a conceptual shift in how Americans engaged with European classical music. As a broad classical music culture in America became more viable around the 1850s, arrangers of Mendelssohn’s tunes (among others) stuck more closely to the original sources, participating in the consolidation of a musical canon. The practice of adapting music by classical composers as hymn tunes began in London in the early nineteenth century and soon spread to America through Lowell Mason. Despite drawing criticism for their faithless adaptation, many publications intent on reforming American hymnody with arrangements of European tunes soon appeared, including Thomas Hastings and William Bradbury’s The Mendelssohn Collection in 1849. Many earlier hymn arrangements of Mendelssohn tunes modify them significantly in order to conform to hymn styles or to simplify the music for American performers. However, many arrangements depart from their source material much more than just “simplification,” demonstrating a greater degree of creative collaboration between composer and arranger. Some arrangements, such as Lowell Mason’s Howell, bear little resemblance to their source material at all, and others add significant amounts of newly composed material to the source tunes. The sources for these hymn adaptations come from sacred and secular vocal music as well as instrumental music. There is also a mix of well-known works (Elijah for example) and lesser-known works in earlier adaptations, suggesting an unfamiliarity with the classical repertoire. However, hymn adaptations appearing after 1855 only draw from Lobgesang, Elijah, and St. Paul, representing an emerging awareness of and faithfulness to the European canon. These Mendelssohn hymn adaptations ultimately show the extent of cross-pollination between Western high art music and vernacular music in nineteenth-century American culture.

Works: Thomas Tastings and William Bradbury (editors): Sweetzer (236-38), Suabia (253-55), Alleppo (256-57), Spinola (258-60); Charles Wesley (text): Hark! The Herald Angels Sing (247-48); Lowell Mason (editor): Baltic (256), Howell (257-59); Benjamin F. Baker and I. B. Woodbury (editors): Kimball (256); Charles Hackett (editor) Bonn (256); John Bodine Thompson and William Hinchman Platt (editors): Thomas (257); Isaac B. Woodbury: Barons (258-59); Charles S. Robinson: Mansfield (258-60)

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Volkslied (236-38), Defend Us Lord From Shame (253-55), Festgesang (247-48), Christus (256), Elijah (256), Frühlingslied (256), Athalie (256-57), Lobgesang (257) Three Motets (257-59), Lied ohne Worte, Op. 19b, No. 4 (258-60), Psalm 42 (258-60)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Grand paraphrase de concert of Franz Schubert’s Marche militaire, attributed to Franz Liszt and published by the Kunkel Brothers of St. Louis, Missouri in 1907, is actually the work of Charles Kunkel, who attached Liszt’s name to his own arrangement to bolster his company’s reputation. An early potential explanation of the piece posits that Liszt composed the Grand paraphrase before Carl Tausig’s well-known 1869 arrangement of Marche militaire and subsequently withdrew the work in favor of his student’s arrangement, but this hypothesis does not hold up chronologically. Kunkel, who arrived in St. Louis from Germany in 1868, was a relatively successful musician, composer, and businessman, but was known to play fast and loose with authorship and attribution at his publishing house. A close comparison between the Kunkel edition and Tausig’s arrangement of Marche militaire reveals that the former is a derivative of the latter. The structural similarities suggest that Kunkel copied Tausig’s arrangement, making changes and alterations along the way but keeping the basic structure. When Kundel’s edition appeared in 1907, it did not dislodge the popular Tausig arrangement, and the only extant copy comes from the US Copyright Office, suggesting a limited circulation. The same year, Kundel erroneously attached Liszt’s name to a transcription of Wagner’s Feuerzauber, a piece that Liszt never transcribed. Over a decade earlier, Kundel had also erroneously credited the same transcription to Franz Bendel. Given this history of unscrupulous publishing practices, it is likely that Kunkel created a musical counterfeit with the deceased Liszt and Tausig unable to contest.

Works: Charles Kunkel (arranger), Franz Liszt (attributed): Marche militaire. (Franz Schubert). Grand paraphrase de concert (10-15)

Sources: Carl Tausig (arranger): Marche militaire, Op. 51, No. 1 by Franz Schubert (10-15); Franz Schubert: March militaire No. 1 in D major, Op. 51, No. 1, D. 733 (10-15)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Hector Berlioz’s Roméo et Juliette reveals his beliefs on how instrumental and vocal/texted music can convey meaning. Roméo et Juliette fuses elements of instrumental and texted music together: the orchestral movements convey emotional content and mood through recognizable musical topics, while programmatic titles focus that emotional content towards specific characters and scenes from the original drama. Notably, the “Love Scene” and “Tomb Scene” from Roméo et Juliette are intertextually related to the Adagio movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1, which at an early stage also had programmatic associations with the tomb scene from Shakespeare’s play. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Berlioz may have been aware of this initial programmatic connection. Even if Berlioz was unaware of Beethoven’s original program, Roméo et Juliette and Beethoven’s quartet movement are intertextually related because they both utilize similar musical topics and formal strategies to depict episodes of love and parting.

Works: Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette (41-61).

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (46-58).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

The supposedly authentic folk music traits of Chopin’s mazurkas, as well as the myth that Chopin avidly listened to folksongs played by Polish peasants, have convinced many scholars that Chopin’s mazurkas contained authentic Polish folk melodies. While the Mazurka, Op. 24, No. 2, and Mazurka Op. 68, No. 3 do contain Polish musical elements, Chopin was actually borrowing musical conventions from an urban tradition, not a rural or peasant one. The mazurka models that Chopin drew upon had originated as a genre of piano works that were popular in the salons in Warsaw. Polish parlors and theaters in the early nineteenth-century became places where composers could experiment with creating a national art music that often featured the supposedly folk characteristics found in Chopin’s mazurkas. This style of music, with distinctive Polish markers, was created by cultural elites as a part of an effort to forge a national tradition. Furthermore, many of the songs Chopin heard in the country had actually derived from urban songs, vaudeville, and operas that were written in a simple and folk-like fashion.

Works: Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 24, No. 2 (114-20), Mazurka, Op. 68, No. 3 (115-21); Karol Kurpiński: Wesele w Ojcowie (133-34).

Sources: Anonymous: Oj Magdalino (118-21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Since the late nineteenth century, Stephen Foster’s songs have been widely known in Japan and hold a familiar place in Japanese musical education. Foster’s music was first introduced to Japanese Shogunate officials in 1853 by American sailors aboard U.S. commodore Matthew C. Perry’s fleet, which demanded the opening of Japanese ports. During the modernization of Japanese education beginning in the 1870s, many Western tunes were incorporated into the music curriculum as uncredited Shoka (formally Mombusho Shoka, or official songs for the school curriculum) with new Japanese texts. Shuji Izawa, director of the Institute of Music, based this new music curriculum on Luther Whiting Mason’s “Music Charts,” which Izawa studied during an 1875 trip to the United States. Several Foster songs, including Old Folks at Home, Massa’s in de Cold Ground, and My Old Kentucky Home, were adapted into educational Shoka as early as 1888. Some Foster songs were also adapted as hymns in early-twentieth-century Japanese hymnals. Before Foster’s music was banned during World War II (along with other Western composers), it was also very popular on children’s radio programs. Because Foster’s music was adopted into Japanese musical culture largely disconnected from Foster himself, there is little understanding of Foster’s biography or his place in American history. Recent Japanese music textbooks have emphasized Foster’s biography in service of a cross-cultural music curriculum.

Works: Tateki Owada: Aware no Shojo (313-14); Anonymous: Zouka no Waza (313), Kitaguni no Yuki (313), Yasashiki Kokoro (313); Yoshikiyo Katou: Haru Kaze (313-14); Kazuma Yoshimaru: Yube no Kane (313); Kokei Hayashi: Shakura Chiru (313); Takashi Iba: Wakare (313)

Sources: Stephen Foster: Old Folks at Home (313-14), Massa’s in de Cold Ground (313-14), Old Black Joe (313), My Old Kentucky Home (313)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

African-American spirituals are one important textual source for contemporary gospel music. Gospel music addresses similar themes of hardship, struggle, and perseverance, all of which are prevalent in spiritual texts. At least three different twentieth-century gospel versions of the spiritual The Old Ship of Zion have been recorded by performers such as Wings Over Jordan and Modern Gospel. Although gospel performers sometimes change or omit words of a spiritual in gospel arrangements, the importance of the text and its ability to express the oral tradition of African American music remain in the foreground. An appendix lists examples of the various ways in which spiritual texts are borrowed for gospel songs, including chorus only, borrowed incipit, substitution of words, and chorus and stanza borrowed.

Works: Anonymous: Oh, Get Away, Jordan (51-52); Wings Over Jordan (performer): Old Ship of Zion (54-55); Thomas A. Dorsey: Old Ship of Zion (54-55); Modern Gospel (performers): Old Ship of Zion (54-55).

Sources: Anonymous: Oh, Give Way, Jordan (50-51); Anybody Here (52); Jacob?s Ladder (52-53); Keep Your Lamps Trimmed and Burning (52-53); Rise and Shine (52-53); Old Ship of Zion (54-55).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

The article's first section discusses a quotation found in Die Meistersinger (when the master is so named), which is taken from Die Walküre. The second part lists a number of pieces that use quotations, including Wolf's Grenzen der Menschheit and Corregidor, Bruckner's 2nd Symphony, and Brahms's Intermezzo No. 2, Op. 119.

Works: Wolf: Grenzen der Menschheit (431), Corregidor (431); Bruckner: Symphony No. 2 (431); Brahms: Intermezzo No. 2, Op. 119 (432), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 5 (432).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

The story of the Frei aber froh motive and its significance in Brahms's music is not valid but is instead the invention of Max Kalbeck. The examples of the F-A-F motive which Kalbeck points to are not persuasive. The Frei aber einsam motive (associated with Joachim) is of course valid and appears in the scherzo movement of the F-A-E sonata as well as in correspondence between Brahms and Joachim and in Des Jungen Kreislers Schatzkästlein (the notebook in which the young Brahms noted down his favorite literary quotations).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Carl Czerny’s Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School: From the First Rudiments of Playing to the Highest and Most Refined State of Cultivation (Op. 500, 1839) and the accompanying Letters to a Young Lady, on the Art of Playing the Pianoforte (ca. 1840) reveal a pedagogical philosophy of progressive accumulation that is encoded in the musical text of the exercises themselves. Czerny’s mechanical approach to piano pedagogy is in part designed to prepare young pianists to perform his own transcriptions, demonstrated by a case study of Czerny’s four-hand piano transcription of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. In the early nineteenth century, several important piano pedagogues introduced a mechanical approach to the instrument, teaching finger movements over musical hearing. Czerny adopts these principles in his pedagogy and designs lessons that teach music theory through the mechanical sensation of the keyboard. He ties these lessons to a larger philosophy of musical embodiment wherein mechanical skill is a prerequisite to the “intellectual” and Romantic skill of musical expression. Czerny takes the same approach to his piano transcriptions such that they can be construed as a continuation of his mechanical teaching philosophy. Although critics disparage Czerny’s approach to piano and the practice of piano transcription in general as unimaginative and overly commercial, Czerny’s four hand transcription of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony provides a case study in how musical expression manifests in his mechanical approach. The primary concern with creating a piano transcription of Beethoven’s symphony is transforming the public symphony for the private chamber. Czerny accomplishes this not by literally transcribing the orchestral parts, but instead by evoking the same emotional effect with techniques specific to piano. For instance, Czerny transposes the Turkish March section of the finale up an octave to take advantage of the brilliance of the upper piano register. In other sections, Czerny utilizes “noise” effects such as holding the pedal over rapid sixteenth-note passages to recreate the fullness of an orchestra. The performative aspects of the transcription—the precise coordination, hand-crossing, and general closeness of the two pianists—add to the expressive effect, particularly in the difficult double fugue passage. Throughout the transcription, Czerny utilizes mechanical passages introduced to his students in Op. 500 and other exercises. Through abiding by Czerny’s pedagogy and transcriptions, his piano students are not mere mechanical reproducers of a musical text but instead are active participants in the mediation of expressive music.

Works: Carl Czerny: Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony for Piano, Four-Hands (392-419)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (392-419)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In his late works, Fauré returns to themes of his earlier works. These ideas can be placed in distinct groups such that each forms a sort of musical chain of references. There are three main groups or chains: (1) the Lydia Group which originates in an early song of the same title; (2) the Soir Group which originates in the song of 1894; and (3) the Ulysse Group which is named after the character in the opera Penelope. Nectoux traces these referential chains as the various ideas return in later works and in different guises. Numerous works are mentioned and discussed. The self-borrowings are not evidence of a lack of melodic inspiration since the ideas are always transformed and re-worked. Rather, these references to his earlier works in the late works are "similar in function to the memories of his youth with which his last letters are full"; they relate to the Romantic representation of memory. The chains of references also reveal a unique continuity in his work. "Fauré's output is highly unified."

Works: Fauré: La Bonne Chanson (232), Prométhée (232), Sonata for Violin, Op. 13 (232), Piano Quartet, Op. 15 (232), Elégie (232), Chanson d'Ève (236), Violin Concerto, Op. 14 (237), Symphony in F (or Orchestral Suite), Op. 20 (237), Symphony in D Minor, Op. 40 (237).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Brahms's Schumann Variations, Op. 9 refer to the theme of Schumann's Variations Op. 9. The influence of Schumann is evident in Brahms's approach to variation form, in his association of certain variations with certain characters, and in the allusion to other pieces by Schumann besides the variation set. Variations 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 all refer in some way or another to works by Schumann. Variation No. 10 refers to Clara Schumann's Romance upon which Schumann based his Impromptus, Op. 5. Furthermore, Clara Schumann's Variations Op. 20 are based on the first Albumblatt of Schumann's Bunte Blätter, Op. 99. In his Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4, Brahms refers to Carnival and includes the A-S-C-H motto. This also constitutes reference to his own Op. 9, No. 11.

Works: Brahms: Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (266), Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4 (268); Clara Schumann: Variations, Op. 20.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Variations, which often use borrowed material, fall into the following seven historical categories: (1) Renaissance and Baroque variations on secular songs, dances, and arias; (2) Renaissance and Baroque variations on plainchant and chorales; (3) the Baroque basso ostinato variation; (4) the ornamental variation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; (5) the nineteenth-century character variation; (6) the nineteenth-century basso ostinato variation; and (7) the free variation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Variations also fall into two basic plans, structural and free. Variations in categories (1) through (6) above followed the older structural plan, in which basic relationships of parts, sections, and phrases in the theme were preserved in the variations. By the early twentieth century, variations were constructed in two ways: following the structural plan and following the newer free plan, in which basic relationships of sections and phrases in the theme were disregarded. Generally, the most conspicuous elements of themes most emphatically demand change. Rhythm is the most conspicuous element, and thus must be varied the most. The melodic subject is second most conspicuous. The harmonico-structural frame is least conspicuous, was historically generally retained, and therefore may be considered as the substance of the theme. All variations are committed to the task of securing unity within a manifold. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there was a growing trend toward the use of original themes. Renaissance and Baroque themes were frequently borrowed from dances and secular songs. In the ornamental variation, borrowed themes continued to include the dance piece and the popular song and also included the operatic excerpt. In the nineteenth-century character variation, neither the secular song nor the operatic aria were important sources of borrowed themes. Instead, composers used instrumental works (such as suites and sonatas) and instrumentally conceived themes from members of their own circles. Despite the trend toward the use of original themes, borrowed themes, including folk songs, still persisted in the free variation.

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Identification of two borrowings from Beethoven in Schubert's Fantasy for Piano four hands, D. 28 (1813) helps explain Schubert's learning process, as well as the later naming of his work. In the middle Allegro Schubert borrowed elements from Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique). Schubert's friend, Albert Stadler, later affixed to the Fantasie the peculiar title Grande Sonate, which is similar to the one attached to the Pathétique, to draw attention to that borrowing. In the last twenty bars of the Allegro Schubert borrowed elements from Beethoven's Appassionata Sonata, Op. 57, and even ended his movement, which begins in B flat major, in F minor, the key of Op. 57.

Works: Schubert: Fantasie for Piano four hands, D. 28, Grande Sonate (330-31).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, Pathétique (330), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, Appassionata (330-31), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 3, No. 2 (331).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Chopin's fourth ballade, Op. 52 (1842) borrows elements from several preludes and fugues in J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, as well as from Beethoven's Appassionata Sonata. The ballade's harmonic plan is closely linked to these borrowings: the borrowed Bach pieces, which are all in B flat major or minor, make B flat minor prominent in the ballade, most notably in its main theme. The F minor ending of the ballade is best explained as a borrowing from the Appassionata sonata, which is in the same key. Also borrowed from Bach are a five-voice stretto and some thematic material (for instance, a quotation from one fugue is used as a counterpoint to material taken from another fugue). By emulating Bach, Chopin pays homage to him. From Beethoven's Appassionata Chopin borrowed thematic materials, its passionate mood, and form. Chopin also borrowed from the Appassionata in his Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24, yet there the borrowing is limited to mood and thematic material and is better construed as competitive with Beethoven. Understanding these borrowings is essential for tracing Chopin's compositional process and explaining the anomalies in the fourth ballade.

Works: Chopin: Ballade No. 4, Op. 52, Prelude Op. 28, No. 24 (104-5).

Sources: Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in B flat Minor, (96-98, 101-3), and Book II, Fugue in B flat Major (97, 109); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, Appassionata (104-7); Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in B flat Major (108-10).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The Czechs have always admired Mozart and Mozart maintained good relations with many musicians of that country. Thus whole operas or popular numbers from them were arranged for different forces or used as a basis for new songs. An example is Figaro's aria "Se vuol ballare signor contino," used in the Frühlingsliedchen (spring song) from the Sammlung einiger Lieder für die Jugend bei Industrialarbeiten mit den hiezu gehörigen Melodien, published by Franz Stiasny. Josef Mysliwetschek was one of those important friends, whose compositions Mozart liked. The theme from his D Major Symphony shows striking similarities with the opening of the Andante from Mozart's Symphony K. 95, which is also used in the Violin Sonata K. 9, and with the folksong Horela líp. Several Czech folksongs correspond with tunes from Mozart's operas, and Nettl assumes that it is more likely that the latter became folksongs than the other way round.

Works: Stiasny (publisher): Frühlingsliedchen (333); Mozart: Symphony K. 95 (337-38), Violin Sonata K. 9 (338); Mela jsem holoubka (folksong) (338); Já jsem chudej poustevník (folksong) (339); Skroup: Kde domov muj (339).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

A change in analytical methods for absolute music in the twentieth century may be the cause of a change in the critical evaluation of Schumann's Second Symphony. This analysis considers the biographical nature of the composition and its plot archetype, which is similar to that of Beethoven's Fifth. In the symphony, Schumann quotes thematic material from Haydn's last symphony and Beethoven's An die ferne Geliebte (also found in his Fantasie, Op. 17), and uses the B-A-C-H motive. By so doing he emulates his predecessors and expresses his own personal development. Thus Schumann conveys "complex musical ideas through musical context."

Works: Schumann: Phantasie, Op. 17 (246), Symphony No. 2.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Quotation must be understood as a subdivision of the larger field of borrowing, which is a principal component of composition and can be categorized in terms such as conscious vs. unconscious and legitimate vs. illegitimate. Whereas legal and ethical views of quotation have been historically variable, purely musical criteria employed by musicians have emerged to evaluate quotation practices. Quotation is distinguished from thematic reworking and plagiarism by virtue of its specifically extramusical function, intended to be heard by the listener. Quotation may be employed (1) to evoke time, place, or circumstance, (2) as musical wit, (3) as the basis for parody or caricature, or (4) as the basis for exposition of serious content.

Works: Debussy: La bôite à joujouz (136); Busoni: Arlecchino (136); Mozart: Piano Rondo in A minor, K. 511 (136); Berg: Lyric Suite (136).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher, David Lieberman

Liszt's transcription of Schubert's Winterreise represents Liszt's adaptation of Schubert to Romantic performance by introducing some new elements of performance practice, in the process transferring attention from the music to the performer. Liszt's additions of ritardandos and pauses that highlight the emotional quality of the song cycle reflect his embodiment of the contemporary performance style that focused on emotionalism. For instance, Liszt enriches Gute Nacht with several emotional markings, including capricciosamente, delicato, molto appassionato, and un poco più animato. Having a similar function to his emotional markings, his virtuosic figurations were also used to increase excitement, as in the flourishes deployed in Muh.

Works: Liszt: Transcriptions of 12 Songs from Winterreise (522-25).

Sources: Schubert: Winterreise (523-25).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Around 1840, comic blackface minstrelsy became popular with both high and low society audiences as a result of its combining visual and ideological elements from the established “blackface context” with musical elements borrowed either directly or stylistically from the European operatic repertoire. Comparing parodies and other reworkings of contemporary operatic favorites to their sources, it is evident that there were a variety of borrowing practices at work in blackface shows. Through advertising the productions as both novel and yet akin to other legitimate forms of entertainment, and promoting themes of a sentimental and nationalist nature, these shows were capitalizing on the vogues of the time.

Works: Nelson Kneass: I Dreamed Dat I Libed in Hotel Halls (349-52), See! Sir, See! (352-57).

Sources: Michael William Balfe: “I Dreamt I Dwelt in Marble Halls” from The Bohemian Girl (349-52); Vincenzo Bellini: “Vi ravviso o luoghi ameni” from La Sonnambula (352-57).

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

The works listed below are examples of classical pieces that make use of Hebrew themes.

Works: Ravel: Deux Mélodies Hebraiques (31); Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 131 (31); Bruch: Kol Nidrei, Op. 47 (32); Schoenberg: Kol Nidre, Op. 39 (32).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

In response to H. Wiley Hitchcock's "Ivesiana: The Gottschalk Connection" (I.S.A.M. Newsletter 15, November 1985), a more thorough treatment of the quotation in Ives's Psalm 90 from Gottschalk's The Last Hope is offered. A hymn setting of Gottschalk's The Last Hope was made in 1866 by the Gottschalk-enthusiast Hubert Platt Main. Alternately titled Gottschalk or Mercy, the hymn is often credited to Edwin Pond Parker and mistakenly dated to 1880. Main's use of The Last Hope, a Gottschalk signature-piece, as a hymn may have been motivated by an infamous incident in 1866 involving Gottschalk and the honor of two young women in San Francisco. In this context, the hymn Gottschalk serves as a confession for the unrepentant pianist. Both George and Charles Ives knew the hymn, and the quotation in Psalm 90 most likely refers directly to it and not to Gottschalk's piece.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

A Schenkerian analysis of Chopin's Fantaisie-Impromptu, Op. 66 (1834) and Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 27, No. 2, both in C sharp minor, reveals remarkable similarities between the two. These parallels imply that Chopin's Op. 66 was deeply influenced by Beethoven's Op. 27, No. 2, notably by the coda that ends its finale. These works share: key (the outer movements or sections in C sharp minor, the middle ones in D flat major), main motive, inversion of the motive at the end of a movement or section, literal quotation, and more. These similarities, and data documenting Chopin's fondness of Beethoven's sonata, explain Chopin's refusal to publish his piece. Chopin's study of Beethoven, epitomized in his Op. 66, is a unique case where a genius demonstrates his thorough understanding of another genius.

Works: Chopin: Fantaisie-Impromptu in C sharp Minor, Op. 66.

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Falla's friend Pahissa provides an account of the development of the composer's musical life through a series of anecdotal descriptions of their encounters. Each of Falla's most significant works receives an independent, if brief, descriptive analysis, in which Falla's change from an evocative Spanish idiom to a more severe, abstract universal idiom is noted. The use of folksong quotations (which are mentioned without documentation) changes in accord with style changes. In earlier works, folksongs and folk sounds are used for their picturesque qualities. In the later works, they are subjected to classical developmental techniques.

Works: Falla: Four Spanish Pieces (50-53), Seven Popular Songs (76-79), El amor brujo (87-91), Nights in the Gardens of Spain (93-96), The Three-Cornered Hat (98-104), Hommage pour le tombeau de Debussy (112-13), El retablo de maese Pedro (126-29), Harpsichord Concerto (137-38), Homenajes (145-47).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Beethoven's homage to Napoleon in his Symphony No. 3 has been the subject of much debate and extensive research. Of all the movements in the symphony, it is the Marcia funebre second movement that provides the most telling evidence of Beethoven's allegiance to French Republican music of the 1790s. The passage beginning at m. 19 of the Marcia funebre seems to be a direct parody of a passage from Gossec's Marche Lugubre (beginning at m. 30). Yet most of the musical devices that Beethoven employs--such as the imitations of drumrolls, cadential unison passages, and lyrical hymnlike themes--are not overt borrowings, but rather represent a unique assimilation of conventions culled from the earlier tradition.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

This study is an excerpt from Pamer's Ph.D. dissertation (Vienna, 1922). In the first part, the author lists original folksongs Mahler reworked in his own songs (122-23) and discusses their melodic features (136-38). In the second part, Pamer discusses the influence of Mahler's early musical impressions (especially folksongs, military fanfares and marches) on his songs in terms of rhythm, meter and tempo changes, thematic construction, harmony, and tonality. On pp. 125-27 he mentions the re-use of some songs in Mahler's symphonies, giving a very rudimentary interpretation. The musical examples of this second part are mostly taken primarily from Mahler's works and seldom from the material that influenced him.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Pablo de Sarasate and Franz Waxman both composed fantasies for violin based on Bizet’s Carmen. Despite the similarities in thematic content and sectional structure, when compared directly against each other, Sarasate’s fantasy can be seen as highlighting the themes from the opera, while Waxman’s version focuses on the technical skill of the violinist. As both a genre and a style, the fantasy underwent a number of changes from its Baroque origins to the nineteenth century. As the genre developed, composers made fantasies increasingly virtuosic and added idiomatic passages that displayed technical prowess. Carmen proved to be an attractive subject for a violin fantasy because its many lyrical vocal melodies transferred easily to the violin. Sarasate and Waxman use many of the same themes from Carmen for their fantasies, but they ornament these melodies differently. Sarasate’s borrowing of melodies is more direct, as he maintains phrase structure and rhythmic values, while Waxman manipulates the melodies by changing rhythmic durations and adding interpolations. Unlike the Sarasate fantasy, each section of Waxman’s fantasy ends with a violin cadenza. Although Waxman borrowed many of the same techniques that Sarasate used, as a whole, the Waxman fantasy is more demanding of the player.

Works: Pablo de Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy (2, 5, 21, 25, 30-63); Franz Waxman: Carmen Fantasie (2, 5, 21, 25, 54-63).

Sources: Bizet: Carmen (1-3, 22-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Although Brahms is widely received as a champion of absolute music, he often transmitted programmatic clues to his intimate circle while publicly distancing his music from extramusical association, leading to a double reception history. One mode of private reception in Brahms’s music comes from clues left by Brahms in personal correspondence. In one instance, Brahms made references to rain and plagiarism to ensure his correspondents would recognize his song settings of Regenlied and Nachklang as models for his Violin Sonata No. 1 in G Major, Op. 78. Another mode of private reception is Brahms’s use of inscriptions in his autograph scores. Brahms also sent full poetic texts alongside some of his compositions sent to close friends and even received response poems for Opp. 118 and 119. One anonymous poem that Brahms distributed to close friends, a response to the Intermezzo in E-flat Major, Op. 118, No. 6, offers a programmatic reading of the piece that may suggest an affinity between its main theme and the Dies irae. With these extramusical aids, it is evident that much of Brahms’s music is private program music, and a more complete picture of Brahms can be found by studying the traces of this reception history.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8 (111), Violin Sonata No. 1 in G Major, Op. 78 (113-14), Violin Sonata No. 2 in A Major, Op. 100 (114), Intermezzo in E-flat Minor, Op. 118, No. 6 (122-23)

Sources: Schubert: Am Meer from Schwanengesang, D 957 (111); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (111); Brahms: Regenlied, Op. 59, No. 3 (113-14), Nachklang, Op. 59, No. 4 (113-14), Komm bald, Op. 97, No. 5 (114), Immer leise wird mein Schlummer, Op. 105, No. 2 (114); attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (122-23)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

In his song cycle An die entfernte Geliebte, Beethoven shows awareness of the whole tradition of compositions written for "song circles" and writes to meet the conventional expectations of hidden symbolism. Specifically, the cycle contains reworked material from Ries's "An die Erwählte" from his Sechs Lieder von Goethe.

Works: Beethoven: An die entfernte Geliebte.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The numerous variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the opera La Molinara demonstrate Paisiello's extensive and lasting influence throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century and serves as a touchstone for examining the trajectory of variations procedures during this time. Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" emerged in at least three contexts. First, singers elaborated upon the work, essentially creating their own variations. Second, opera fantasias and chamber music provided a ready forum for variations on the tune, especially in cities where La Molinara was well-received. Finally, the growth of the market for published arrangements prompted popular variations on the tune. Between 1790 and 1820, variations remained close to Paisiello's classical style, and arrangements from this period generally were for private use. After 1820, emerging virtuosos also took up "Nel cor più non mi sento," using expanded proportions and new techniques. Although variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" were readily available in sheet music form in the United States throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1850 its popularity had faded.

Works: Mr. Meyer, arr.: "Ah, Will No Change of Clime," from Inkle and Yarico (43-45); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (44-47); Beethoven: Six Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento," WoO 70 (47, 51-53); Josepha Barbara von Auernhammer: Six Variations for the Harpsichord on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (49-51); Joseph Gelinek: Six Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the Opera "La Molinara" for Harpsichord or Pianoforte (49-52); Felix Janiewicz: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53); Joseph Mazzinghi: Madam Catalani's Celebrated Air (53); Louis Drouet: Variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Fernando Sor: Fantasie pour la Guitare avec des Variations sur l'Aire de Paisiello "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Paganini: Nel cor più non mi sento (54-56), Giovanni Bottesini: Nel cor più non mi sento: Variazioni de Bottesini per Contrebasse (54-55); Mauro Giuliani: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" von Paisiello en Polonaise, Op. 113, for guitar and piano (55-56); Luigi Legnani: Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from "La Molinara" by Paisiello, Op. 16 (55-56); Bartolomeo Bortolazzi: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Mandoline und Gitarre, Op. 8 (55-56); Luigi Castellacci: Nel cor più non mi sento Nouvellement Varié, Op. 35 (56-57); Johann Wenth: Variations sur un theme de G. Paisiello de l'opera "La Molinara" (57); Johann Baptist Vanhal: Sechs Variationen über das Theme "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte (Violin) und Gitarre, Op. 42 (57-58); Friedrich Silcher: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte und Klavier (57-58); Theobald Boehm: Nel cor più, Op. 4 (57-58); Heinrich Neumann: Theme und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" (57-59); Johann Wilhelm Wilms: The Favorite Air of Hope Told a Flattering Tale (57-58); Charles Bochsa: Thema und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento," Op. 10 (59); Walter P. Dignam: Hope Told a Flattering Tale, E-Flat Cornet Air Varié (60).

Sources: Paisiello: "Nel cor più non mi sento," from La Molinara (43-62); Mozart: Piano Concerto in C Minor, K. 491 (49-50); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Jewish composer Giacomo Meyerbeer used Jewish musical and literary references in his operas. However, likely due to the anti-semitic tendencies in European culture in the nineteenth century, he did this almost without anyone noticing. In Jephtas Gelüdbe, Meyerbeer inserts a particular Jewish message, but the opera is generally devoid of Jewish music. Of interest regarding the inclusion of Jewish musical influences are Meyerbeer’s operas Les Huguenots, Le Prophète, and Vasco da Gama. In Les Huguenots, Meyebeer uses the stylistic elements of cantorial singing in arias. In Le Prophète, Meyerbeer includes a Kaddish, a Jewish prayer, as well as the Hebrew chant El Adon by Samuel Naumburg. By using Naumburg’s chant, Meyerbeer is following an old practice in which he honors other musicians by using their music. The opera Vasco da Gama includes a theme from the play Der Paria, which was written by Meyerbeer’s brother, Michael Beer, as well as a quotation from Halévy’s opera Charles VI, “Guerre aux Tyrans.” In addition to Jewish influences, Meyerbeer also self-borrows in his operas. For instance, in Les Huguenots and Le Prophète, Meyerbeer includes his own music from Jephtas Gelüdbe.

Works: Jacques Fromental Halévy: La Juive (43-44), Le Juif Errant (43), Noe (43); Giacomo Meyerbeer: Jephtas Gelüdbe (43, 45-46, 53), Les Huguenots (43, 46-47, 51), Vasco da Gama (43, 49-52), Le Prophète (43, 46-48); Anonymous: Zemirot Yisroel (47); Michael Beer: Streuensee (52), Clytemnestra (52).

Sources: Giacomo Meyerbeer: Jephtas Gelüdbe (46); Anonymous: Kaddish (47); Samuel Naumburg: El Adon (47-49); Michael Beer: Der Paria (49-52); Jacques Fromental Halévy: “Guerre aux Tyrans” from Charles VI (50).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Liszt sought to achieve union of form and content in his piano music, as discussed in detail according to genre, including his piano cycles, sonatas, ballades, etudes, and fantasias. The section "Ballades, Polonaises, Mazurkas, and Other Dances" examines works by Liszt that take Chopin as a model to pay homage to him. These genres that represent Chopin par excellence were neglected in Liszt's earlier works but became more prominent after Chopin's death in 1849, suggesting homage to the Polish composer. The middle section of Liszt's Polonaise No. 2 in E Major, for instance, is modeled on Chopin's Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1, referring to the thematic material accompanied by the characteristic polonaise rhythm from the corresponding section of the model, both capturing a martial quality. Liszt's first Ballade incorporates many elements from Chopin's works and styles, including his first Ballade, Op. 23, the Funeral March, and periodic phrasing unusual for Liszt.

Works: Liszt: Ballade No. 1 in Db Major (393), Polonaise No. 2 in E Major (393, 397).

Sources: Chopin: Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (393), Grande valse brillante, Op. 18 (393), Sonata No. 2 in Bb Minor, Op. 35 (393), Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1 (393, 397).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

MacDowell knew Liszt’s Piano Sonata in B Minor well and was quite fond of the work. The use and treatment of recurring motives in his Eroica Sonata suggest the Liszt sonata as a model. MacDowell’s treatment and development of the musical motives in the Eroica Sonata follow procedures similar to those in the Liszt Sonata. Even though MacDowell’s sonata has a four-movement design, the basic structure is comparable to the one-movement Liszt sonata. The Piano Sonata in B Minor does not have any explicit programmatic meaning, but several authors have commented on potential programs due to the recurrence of thematic materials. MacDowell hinted at programmatic elements in his sonata, but did not definitively explicate a program; however, the use of recurring motives and their subsequent development suggests a program. In addition, the pianistic writing of the Eroica Sonata parallels some portions of the Liszt Sonata.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Eroica Sonata.

Sources: Liszt: Piano Sonata in B Minor (176-181, 186), Etudes d’exécution transcendante (179-80).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Quotation in music is different from literary quotation. Most examples of musical quotation are accidental, but exceptions to this include self-borrowing, universally recognized excerpts, programmatic or evocative borrowing, or humorous allusions. All other conscious quotation is plagiarism. "Making a few possible exceptions where words are used, THERE IS NO QUOTATION IN MUSIC" (capitals original).

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (218); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (218), Quintet, Op. 16 (218); S. S. Wesley: Ascribe Ye Unto the Lord (218); Beethoven, Diabelli Variations (241); Reinecke: Variations for Two Pianofortes (241); Bach: Wachet auf, BWV 140 (242), Christmas Oratorio (242); Mackenzie: Dream of Jubal (242); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (265); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (265); Volkmann: Richard the Third Overture (265); Saint-Saëns: Henry VIII (265); Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen (266); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (266); Haydn: The Seasons (266); Mozart: Don Giovanni (267).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Beethoven's influence on Chopin has been scarcely noted, partly due to the paucity of available data on Chopin's acquaintance with Beethoven. Yet Beethoven's presence is patent in Chopin's Piano Sonata in B flat Minor, Op. 35 (1839), where he bids Beethoven farewell; it is a rite of separation in which Chopin finds his own voice. The opening of the first movement refers to the opening of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111, but an interrupted cadence signals a sharp departure from it. That cadence has its closure in the funeral march that alludes to the funeral march of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 26, and signals the end of Beethoven's presence in the sonata. From that moment on, in the contrasting, nocturnal, trio section, Chopin affirms his own voice. Whereas the first three movements project a human struggle to achieve individuality, the inventive finale takes an ironic stance to that idea.

Works: Chopin: Piano Sonata in B flat Minor, Op. 35 (283-99).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 26 (285, 288-89, 294, 298), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111 (289-90, 298).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Considers the origin, reception and influences on Chabrier’s numerous operas, works eclipsed today by his keyboard and orchestral works. Extensive information on Chabrier’s obsession with Wagner, including the influence of specific Wagnerian operas on a wide variety of Chabrier compositions.

Works: Chabrier: L’étoile (17-19), Gwendoline (18-20), Pièces posthumes (19), Prélude pastoral (19), Souvenirs de Munich (19).

Sources: Wagner: Lohengrin (19), Der Ring des Nibelungen (19), Tannhäuser (19), Tristan und Isolde (19), Der Fliegende Holländer (20).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Keith Clifton

The "Es ist genug" aria from Mendelssohn's Elijah uses the aria "Es ist vollbracht" from J. S. Bach's St. John Passion as a model. The model was likely chosen because of their similar dramatic purposes: Mendelssohn's aria contains Elijah's desperate plea to God for an end to his life, and "Es ist vollbracht" depicts Jesus' emotions while dying on the cross. Mendelssohn also borrowed Bach's structural scheme, applying stark contrasts between the lamentational A section and the vigorous B section. Also in the shadow of "Es ist vollbracht," "Es ist genug" contains obbligato writing for low strings. In a more specific sense, both arias use a prominent descending sixth in the opening statement, and both statements are followed by a diminished seventh chord on the downbeat. The similarities not only illustrate Mendelssohn's indebtedness to Bach, but Mendelssohn's implication of the theological commonalities between Elijah and the St. John Passion.

Works: Mendelssohn: Elijah (24-26).

Sources: Bach: St. John Passion (24-26).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Muzio Clementi’s preoccupation with writing keyboard music for virtuosic display was only a passing phase in his long creative life. More characteristically, many of his piano compositions reveal the profound influence of J. S. Bach. Clementi’s fugal movement from the first Sonata of his Op. 5 draws harmonic, melodic, and stylistic materials from both the Prelude and the Fugue in B-flat minor from Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. The opening slow movement of Clementi’s Op. 34, No. 2, also shows Bach’s influence through its dramatic escalation of harmonic complexities and contrapuntal technique. Bach’s influence is further attested by Clementi's possession of the autograph of The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (the so-called “London Autograph”). It was this influence that led Clementi's contemporary critics to recognize the “German manner” of his music.

Works: Clementi: Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 2 (304-6), Toccata, Op. 11 (308-11), Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13, No. 6 (314-21), Sonata in G Minor, Op. 34, No. 2 (319, 322-23), Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 5, No. 1 (323-29).

Sources: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata, K. 133 (313); Johann Sebastian Bach: Prelude and Fugue in B-flat Minor, BWV 867, from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I (323-29).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1800s

The neglected master Chabrier represents what is best in French music since 1880. His music foreshadowed innovations of the twentieth century and influenced musicians such as Ravel, Debussy, Stravinsky, and Poulenc himself. Specific examples of musical borrowing from Chabrier show use of themes, prosody, and harmonies. His orchestration influenced Debussy and Ravel. Chabrier also borrowed from others (Offenbach and Wagner) and from himself.

Works: Chabrier: Briseis (28), Donnez-vous la peine de vous asseoir (30), Gwendoline (28), Souvenir de Munich (56); Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (50); Satie: Sarabandes (55); Ravel: A la manière de Chabrier (27).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1800s

The Spanish Pange lingua in Mode V known only on the Iberian peninsula has been set repeatedly by Spanish keyboard composers, revealing the change of styles and techniques over three centuries. Early settings of the hymn, including ten by Antonio de Cabezón, range from ornamented intabulations to works written in an idiomatic instrumental style. Seventeenth-century settings by Manuel Rodrigues Coelho and Sebastián Aguilera de Heredia often use a three-part texture with a slow-moving melody surrounded by faster figuration. The sixty settings by Juan Cabanilles vary from pieces using simple rhythmic motives to more complex pieces with dense imitation. In a tiento by Cabanilles, the hymn tune begins buried in the tenor before it migrates to the other voices, gradually exposing the basis of the composition. In a setting by Vincente Rodríguez, the lower voices are registered separately on the organ to oppose the treble parts. A more fugal treatment of the hymn can be seen in José Lidón's setting from the eighteenth century, where motives derived from the hymn are developed as subjects of a large fugue. Although the use of the hymn declined by the nineteenth century, pianistic settings by Hilarión Eslava and Nicolás Ledsma are found in an anthology of organ music from 1854. The short survey of keyboard settings of the hymn shows a wide spectrum of styles: intabulations in ricercar style, divided-register pieces, sophisticated fugues, and nineteenth-century pianistic styles.

Works: Cabezón: Pange lingua (67); Heredia: La reina de los Pange linguas (68); Cabanilles: Tiento de Pange lingua (68); Rodríguez: Pange lingua de mano izquierda (68); Lidón: Fuga sobre el Pange lingua (69).

Sources: Pange lingua from the Liber Processionarius Regularis Observantiae Ordinis Cisterciensis, 1569 (66).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Felix Mendelssohn’s six chorale cantatas, composed between 1827 and 1832, have often been dismissed as imitations of Bach and other models, and modern scholarship has relegated them to a less significant position in Mendelssohn’s oeuvre. However, a closer reading of Mendelssohn’s correspondence reveals that these cantatas were personally significant to him, and their composition was motivated by the composer’s strong historical interests and religious devotion. Moreover, Mendelssohn’s six cantatas demonstrate considerable creativity and originality, especially in how the composer combines or omits chorale verses, how he employs the orchestra as an expressive device, and how he presents and manipulates the chorale tune. Mendelssohn’s compositional choices ultimately reflect a highly personal interpretation of the chorale melody and the dramatic and thematic content of the chorale texts.

Works: Mendelssohn: Christe, du Lamm Gottes (2-4, 12-14), Jesu meine Freude (2-4, 9-15), Wir glauben all an einen Gott (2-6, 9-16), O Haupt voll blut und wunden (2-5, 11-13, 16-18), Vom Himmel hoch (2-6, 9-13, 18-20), Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh’ darein (2, 6-13, 18-21).

Sources: Johann Crüger and Johann Franck: Jesu meine Freude (11); Hans Leo Hassler and Paul Gerhardt: O Haupt voll blut und wunden (11); Martin Luther: Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her (11), Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh’ darein (12), Wir glauben all an einen Gott (12), Christe, du Lamm Gottes (12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Within a general survey of Schubert's piano sonatas, the author gives an example of the composer borrowing both from one of his own previous works and from one by Beethoven (p. 48). The theme of the rondo finale of the Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959, is taken from the central movement of Schubert's earlier Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 537. However, the structure of the movement as a whole is closely modeled on that of the rondo in Beethoven's Piano Sonata in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

The Lacrymosa movement of Hector Berlioz’s Grand Messe des morts contains numerous connections to the Allegretto movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. On the surface level, both movements feature contrasts of high and low registers, and Berlioz also quotes a descending line from mm. 144-48 of Beethoven’s Allegretto, which, in both pieces, abruptly pivots the music from C Major into A Minor. On a deeper level, however, the Lacrymosa “poeticizes” and exaggerates the elements of Beethoven’s Allegretto that Berlioz heard most clearly in his predecessor’s work: intense alternation between rhythmically driving and lyrical passages, the pervasive somber affect, parallels with the biblical Jeremiah and Gluck’s Alceste, and an incessant rhythmic motive pulsing throughout. Berlioz’s Lacrymosa thus constitutes the composer’s own vivid reading and re-interpretation of Beethoven’s Allegretto.

Works: Berlioz: Grand Messe des morts (394-407).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (395-402, 404-7); Gluck: Alceste (403-5).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

This article locates Mahler's music historically and analyzes its expression. While the incorporation of his own songs into the symphonies could function as "signposts for the intellectual appreciation of the hidden programme," the handling of deliberately trivial melodies symbolizes "experiences of despair or of heartlacerating self-irony." The parody of Frère Jacques in the First and a melody of a Viennese military cortège in the Fifth Symphony belong to the latter category.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 8.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Liszt's Introduction et variations sur une marche du Siège de Corinthe (1830) raises many questions, because only the Introduction of the piece has been found. During his sojourn in Paris, Liszt would have certainly known Rossini?s opera Le Siège de Corinthe, which was premiered there in 1826 and was published in 1827. Liszt takes his theme in his Introduction from the March in the third act of the opera. The Introduction concludes on a dominant seventh chord, suggesting that Liszt planned to write the following variations while calling into question whether he did ever complete them. Liszt's inscription that mentions "Fuchs," probably Alois Fuchs, the Viennese autograph collector, raises several questions, including when and how Fuchs obtained the manuscript and whether Liszt wrote the title and inscribed it to Fuchs while he was writing the music on the first staff. The Fuchs entry in the Deutsche Staatsbibliothek Catalogue 317 leads to speculation that Liszt wrote the Introduction and probably variations in 1830 but kept the piece untitled until he sent it to Fuchs in 1851 with a title and inscription.

Works: Liszt: Introduction et variations sur une marche du Siège de Corinthe (103).

Sources: Rossini: Le Siège de Corinthe (103).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Characteristics of Martin Luther's quintessential chorale, Ein feste Burg, the text of which is taken from Psalm 46, suggest so strong a spirit of revolutionary heroism that several composers responded to it. In addition, many qualities of the tune suggest a folk characteristic, contributing in part to the great response the tune received. In particular, the "defiant" tones of the opening stanza evoke a "battle-song" of liberty in the face of the enemy. Many composers adapted the melody of the tune and devised new harmonies for it. A common eighteenth-century adjustment, for example, was to remove the syncopation from the tune, a tradition begun by J. S. Bach in his cantatas. Subsequent composers, including Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer, retained Bach's adaptation of the melody in their own settings.

Works: J. S. Bach: In festo Reformationis, BWV 80, Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (248); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (248); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (248).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (247-49).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Despite Brahms's reputation as a composer of "absolute" music, his music incorporates motivic borrowings and extramusical ideas. The first Piano Concerto and Requiem illustrate Brahms's use of existing material and musical symbols, which were primarily derived through his interaction with Robert and Clara Schumann. A chart suggests use of these ideas in other works by Brahms, providing a point of departure for further exploration into this subject.

Works: Brahms: Piano Quartet, Op. 60 (3), Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 15, German Requiem, Op. 45, String Quartet No. 1 (7), Symphony No. 1 (8), Variations on a Theme by Schumann (21), Ballade, Op. 10, No. 2 (21), Piano Quartet in A Major, Op. 26 (21), Die schöne Magelone, Op. 33, No. 1 (21), Ballades (duets), Op. 75, Nos. 2 and 3 (21), Violin Cncerto, Op. 77, first movement (21), Symphony No. 3, Op. 90, first movement (21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

German Romantic composers often struggled to balance the tension between originality and musical tradition in their works. Although many composers verbally or publically downplayed their indebtedness to their predecessors, they still alluded to the great composers of the past, using those allusions as points of departure for new, original musical works. Beethoven’s Fidelio represents this tension in two distinct ways. On the one hand, Fidelio features numerous allusions to Haydn and Mozart, and these borrowings take on new identities and meanings as they enhance the drama of Beethoven’s opera. On the other hand, later composers also used motives from Fidelio as musical-textual symbols in their own works, often reshaping them to serve a new musical function. While the borrowed material could occasionally retain some of its original meaning in its new context, composers often subverted or supplanted the borrowed material in order to assert their originality and genius within a longer historical tradition.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (138-40), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (137-38, 161); Schubert: Octet in F Major, D.803 (140); Beethoven: Fidelio (141-44, 147-54); Peter Cornelius: Beethoven-Lied (144-45); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (145-47); Schubert: Mass No. 2 in G Major, D.167 (154-56); Robert Schumann: Frauenliebe und Leben (156-58), Frühlingsankunft (158-60), Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (161).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (137), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”) (138-41), Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (140), Septet, Op. 20 (140), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (144-47); Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (147-48); Beethoven: Vestas Feuer (148), Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II, WoO 87 (148), Mailied, Op. 52, No. 4 (148-49); Mozart: Abendempfindung, K.523 (150); Haydn: Abendlied zu Gott (150-51); Mozart: Idomeneo (153-54); Beethoven: Fidelio (154-61).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Although composers in the Romantic era did not discuss the concept of allusions and borrowings in their works, there is evidence of borrowing in the writings of music critics and the music composers wrote. It is unknown why composers so infrequently discussed where the allusions came from, but it may be connected to differing levels of audience knowledge: from the amateur “Liebhaber,” the reminiscence-hunting “Kenner,” and an exclusive group close to the composer. These allusive traditions, however, are evidenced in the very fact that fellow composers recognized them. One of the most extensive allusive traditions is that of the “Es ist vollbracht” motive from J. S. Bach’s St. John Passion. It is unclear whether Beethoven knew the St. John Passion, since it was not published in Berlin until 1830, though it is possible that C. P. E. Bach, in quoting his father, might have been the bridge between the two composers’ similar motives. Even if Beethoven did not know the work, later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann did, engaging with both the Passion and Beethoven’s similar motives in their own works. There is a particularly strong case with Mendelssohn’s Elijah due to the formal parallels and similarities between Jesus and Elijah. There may have also been an extramusical aspect of this motive as a topic for death and suffering. Connecting Beethoven’s Third Piano Concerto to this extramusical tradition means that Beethoven was engaging with this theme for about two decades, putting his first use of the theme in the period of The Heiligenstadt Testament. Regardless of whether Beethoven did actually know the source of the motive, the end result is an allusive tradition not only of Bach but of Beethoven as well.

Works: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143-44); Robert Schumann: Lieder und Gesänge aus Goethes Wilhelm Meister (143-44), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (143-44); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 2 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 2 (144-45); Luigi Cherubini: Pater noster (145-46); Louis Spohr: Vater unser (145); Felix Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht (146); Brahms: Balladen (147); Felix Mendelssohn: Violin Sonata No. 2 in F Minor, Op. 4 (147); Ferdinand Hiller: Die Zerströrung Jerusalems (147); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (147-48); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Das Jahr (149), Beharre (149); Robert Schumann: Piano Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (149, 153-54); Felix Mendelssohn: Capriccio for Cello and Piano (150), Elijah (151-53), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13 (153); Robert Schumann: Symphony in G Minor (unfinished) (153-54); C.P.E. Bach: Dank-Hymne der Freundschaft (155-56), Passions-Cantate (155-56), Cello Concerto in A Minor (155-56); Beethoven: Sonata for Cello and Piano, Op. 69 (156), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (156-58); Mozart: Concerto for Horn No. 4 in E-flat Major, K.495 (156-58); Prince Louis Ferdinand: Grosses Trio (157-58).

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Lieder für das Pianoforte, Op. 2, No. 2 (144-45); Anonymous: Vater unser (146), Ach Vater unser, der du bist im Himmelreich (146); Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (147-53, 155); Beethoven: Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (149, 153), String Quartet No. 11 in F Minor, Op. 95 (153), String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (153), String Quartet No. 14 in C# Minor, Op. 131 (153), String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor, Op. 132 (153), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (153).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

An assimilative allusion is an allusion that endorses the musical and poetic sense of the earlier passage. The practice of using quotations from earlier pieces to evoke the same mood or meaning began in the late-eighteenth century with Haydn and Mozart, and continued to Wagner. Beethoven borrowed a motif from Reichardt’s Ino depicting family love in his “Archduke” trio, which he told the Countess Guicciardi was about him embracing her family. Some pieces, like Schubert’s Mass in A-flat and his song Der Doppelgänger were composed simultaneously using the same material, so that each work adds to the meaning of the other. Haydn used assimilative allusion in some of his works, but in others he used allusions wittily, the way Schumann did. Liszt alluded to either a Schubert song or an opera by Chelard in his Faust-Symphonie; Wagner in turn incorporated a motive from the Faust-Symphonie into Die Walküre. Wagner’s opinions on Faust also influence the plot of the opera, particularly moments such as the downfall of the gods and Wotan’s inability to recognize the truth. Although people often speak of Wagner’s borrowing in regards to the texts or stories of his works, he used musical allusions as well; Tristan’s death scene in Tristan und Isolde, for instance, uses a theme from Beethoven’s Symphony No. 3, which had been described by contemporaries as depicting death.

Works: Piano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97 (46-48); Mozart: Piano Concerto in A Major, K.488 (48); Carl Maria von Weber: Mass in E-flat, Op. 75 (51); Schubert: Mass in A-flat Major, D.678 (51-52); Haydn: Mass in B-flat Major, Hob. XXII/13 (52-53); Beethoven: Fidelio (54-57); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57); Wagner: Die Walküre (57-63), Tristan und Isolde (63-66).

Sources: Friedrich Reichardt: Ino (46-48); Carl Maria von Weber: Der Freischütz (51); Schubert: “Der Doppelgänger” from Schwanengesang, D.957 (51-52); Haydn: The Creation (52-53); Mozart: The Magic Flute (54); Beethoven: Vestas Feuer (54); Haydn: Abendlied zu Gott, Hob. XXVc:9 (54-55); Mozart: Abendempfindung, K.523 (56-57); Schubert: Szene aus Goethes Faust, D.126 (57-58); Andre-Hippolite Chelard: Macbeth (57-58); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57-61); Marschner: Hans Heiling (62); Robert Schumann: Abschied vom Walde, Op. 89, No. 4 (63); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (63-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Robert Schumann’s musical work had a penchant for contrastive illusion, in which the borrowed materials in a musical work allude to another in a manner that contrast with the meaning and function of the original source. Schumann uses contrastive allusion in two ways: one method in which both text and music is contrasted, and a second type where the music is stylistically different from the source but retains its original meaning. This first type is exhibited in the song cycle Dichterliebe, and the song Schlußlied des Narren. Schumann based the first song of Dichterliebe, “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai,” on the aria “Euch werde Lohn in Bessren” from Beethoven’s Fidelio, and the poetry of Mendelssohn’s Faustian cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht. While the aria is not overtly present in the final version of the song, noteworthy are the phrases borrowed from Mendelssohn’s Die erste Walpurgisnacht. Both Schumann’s and Mendelssohn’s works share musical material, particularly harmonic and phrase structure, but Schumann’s work is contrastive because it reflects opposites for text, tempi, dynamics, and articulation compared to the source. Similarly, in the song Schlußlied des Narren, Schumann alludes to the symbolic interaction between a father and child in Schubert’s Erlkönig. However, Schumann’s allusions to Schubert’s work are more aligned textually than musically.

The second type of contrastive allusion can allude to multiple works, including short motives, as observed in Schumann’s Vogel als Prophet. In this song, Schumann uses the common diatonic motive 1-7-2-1-4-3, as found in the chanson Mon fils est là by Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann, and in Snart er Natten svunden by J. P. E. Hartmann, to depict a mood closely related to the original meaning. In the middle section of the song, Schumann self-quotes, particularly from his Szenen aus Goethes Faust, to represent the bird in the song. Vogel als Prophet also alludes to Mendessohn’s Im Walde, which represents the prophet in the song. This use suggests a more assimilative allusion because of the way Schumann imitates the character of the song. Multiple allusions allowed Schumann to communicate a specific message to those who would recognize his references in the future.

Works: Robert Schumann: “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” from Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (70-72), 5 Lieder und Gesänge, Op. 127 (72-75), Waldszenen, Op. 82 (77-81); Max Bruch: Normannenzug, Op. 32 (81).

Sources: Beethoven: Fidelio (70); Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht, Op. 60 (70); Schubert: Die Erlkönig, D. 328 (74-75); Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann: Mon fils est là (76); J. P. E. Hartmann: Snart er Natten svunden (76); Robert Schumann: Szenen aus Goethes Faust, WoO 3 (78-79); Mendelssohn: “Im Walde” from 6 Lieder, Op. 41 (79-80).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Allusion in music is an intentional reference to a preexisting work via a resemblance that influences the interpretation of meaning among those who recognize it. Any instance of allusion involves the interaction of four factors: the composer, the new composition, the old composition, and the audience. Allusions create musical order while simultaneously expressing non-musical meaning, and act within one of two categories. Assimilative allusions rely upon the creator’s acceptance of the referenced material, while contrastive allusions frame the earlier material in a way that creates new, possibly contradictory meaning. Thus, the interpretation of an allusion requires consideration of its musical-rhetorical significance, that is, the composer’s intention and the contextual framework of their audience, not just the intervallic and rhythmic similarities between the allusion and its model. This more nuanced approach to borrowed material allows for a more flexible understanding of the pieces in question, leading listeners to form interpretations may at times partially or completely contradict composers’ intentions.

Such allusions in the early nineteenth century are often achieved through symbolism, and often relied on composers’ invocation of conventional topics, such as dance types, fanfares, regional styles, and pastoral sounds. As Romanticism pervaded artistic circles, however, composers developed more personal systems of symbolism, and their allusions to other works and styles became less overt. It may be difficult to ascertain, however, the motivations behind allusions in the works of certain nineteenth century composers who, unlike Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner, were not forthcoming about their allusions or “reminiscences.” Intertextual relationships nevertheless exist in the works of Liszt and his followers that were not identified outright by the composer, and these same relationships may be said to exist in the works of less forthcoming allusory composers like Schumann and Brahms. Huizinga’s theory of metaphor as play helps to conceptualize allusion as a form of play; if rhetorical allusion is play upon words in a text, musical allusion can be play upon motives in a composition. The works of Mikhail Bakhtin, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Harold Bloom offer further context for discussion of how artists interact with other artists’ ideas.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major Op. 110 (1), Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (1), Fidelio (11); Schubert: Mass No. 2 in G Major, D. 167 (10); Haydn: The Creation (11); Mendelssohn: Festgesang zum Gutenbergfest, WoO 9, Lobgesang, Op. 52 (12); Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra (12); Robert Schumann: Frühlings Ankunft (17–19), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (21); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (21).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (1); Anonymous: Crux fidelis (7-8); Beethoven: Fidelio (10, 17–19), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (21); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (11); Handel: Samson (12); Franz Anton Rösler: Der sterbende Jesus (12); Haydn: The Creation (12), Symphony No. 104 in D Major, H. 1/104 (21); Niels Gade: Frühlings-Phantasie (14).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Chelsey Belt, Elizabeth Stoner

A close study of Brahms’s Die Mainacht illustrates the nuanced relationship between conscious and unconscious creative states, and their impact on intentional and unconscious borrowing. Creativity in this period could be interpreted as a two-way exchange between the composer’s conscious process and unconscious inspiration. Brahms’s song Die Mainacht presents an interesting case study due to its allusion to Chopin’s Impromptu in F-sharp Major, Op. 36, No. 2. The opening motives of Brahms’s work shares a close resemblance with Chopin’s melody, and the song in its entirety features a similar tonal plan. Brahms’s process of allusion could be related to Hartmann’s theory expounded in his Philosophy of the Unconscious (1868). Brahms could be seen to consciously recognize or be initially unaware of his melody’s affinity to its predecessor, but he made the work characteristically his own by aligning it further with Chopin’s Impromptu, through extending the allusion into the following phrases.

Works: Brahms: Die Mainacht, Op. 43, No. 2 (109–117), Missa Canonica (113–14); Wagner: Das Rheingold (108).

Sources: Chopin: Impromptu in F-sharp Major, Op. 36, No. 2 (109–117); Felix Mendelssohn: Lord Have Mercy Upon Us (113); Robert Schumann: Piano Trio No. 1, Op. 63 (113–15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Nineteenth-century composers’ use of allusions serves as a source of musical creativity and can be associated with the concept of Romantic irony, whereby composers engage in a form of intellectual play with listeners. Harold Bloom’s theory of the “anxiety of influence,” which is concerned mainly with personal struggle, does not account for instances of appropriation of lesser sources such as folk tunes. Allusions can be seen as a rhetorical technique composers employ to create symbolism and irony; listeners are turned away from the obvious and are constantly challenged to search for hidden musical relationships in order to arrive at a personal interpretation. An allusive relationship can be subjected to ahistorical reading; new symbols constantly reinterpret old ones, contributing to a two-way transfer of meaning. Just as a composer’s criticism of his predecessor reveals his own artistic ideals, motivic allusions, whether assimilative or contrastive, reveals the composer’s personal compositional aspirations. Non-programmatic composers who employ musical allusions have the freedom to transform motives beyond recognition, requiring listeners to come up with their own personal programs, while programmatic composers impose their programs on listeners. A fundamental criterion in the assessment of a successful allusion is whether its presence in a new work is musically successful by itself. If one misses the allusion, it merely means that one loses a dimension in the appreciation of the work.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (167), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (167), Warum ist das Licht gegeben dem Mühseligen, Op. 74, No. 1 (167), Über die See, Op. 69, No. 7 (168), Wehe, so willst du mich wieder, Op. 32, No. 5 (168); Robert Schumann: Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (170); Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (174); Robert Schumann: Vogel als Prophet, Op. 82 (180), Fantasie in C Major, Op. 17 (181).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (“Hammerklavier”) (167), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”) (167), Fidelio, Op. 72 (167); Robert Schumann: Trio in D Minor, Op. 63 (167); Mendelssohn: Vocal-Chor zum Abendsegen, WoO 12 (168); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (168); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor (168); Mendelssohn: Andante cantabile e presto agitato, WoO 6 (168), Elijah, Op. 70 (168); Gluck: Armide, Wq. 45 (174); Mendelssohn: Im Walde, Op. 41, No. 1 (180); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (181).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

“Naming” is a technique of musical allusion that can represent several things: a specific person through musical symbols (for example, note names); works composed by that individual; or works associated with that individual. There are a few examples of this as early as the fifteenth century, but it became very popular among nineteenth century composers. In particular, a musical motive based on J. S. Bach’s name was frequently imitated. Between 1820 and 1865, 35 compositions are identified as containing a similar name motive (half of which are the B–A–C–H motive itself). Composers also represented themselves, loved ones, or patrons by less obvious musical names, such as Fanny Mendelssohn’s C-sharp–E-sharp–F-sharp motive.

One important reason for naming among nineteenth-century composers is to memorialize deceased composers. These come both in public memorials with explicit dedication and allusion to another work, and in private memorials with personal associations. Beethoven is musically memorialized more than any other composer, with Schubert’s last three piano sonatas, Mendelssohn’s String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13, and Spohr’s Symphony No. 3 as examples of this tradition. Mendelssohn’s tribute to Fanny Hensel after her death in 1847 is a multi-layered naming memorial. In his String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 80, a transposed B–A–C–H motive appears, referencing a nearly identical passage in an unpublished early work of hers, the Sonata in C Minor, dedicated “for Felix in his absence [traveling to Scotland].” This memorial of Fanny is not for the public, but is instead deeply personal. Whatever the reason for naming in music, it fits with Romantic ideals, mixing biography and art outwardly and inwardly.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto in A Major, K. 414 (124-25); Anselm Hüttenbrenner: Nachruf an Schubert in Trauertönen am Pianoforte (123-24); Schubert: Auf dem Strom, D.943 (125-26); Schumann: Requiem, Op. 148 (127-28); Felix Mendelssohn: String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 80 (131-32); Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 (135-36).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: The Art of Fugue, BWV 1080 (119), St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (127-28); Johann Christian Bach: Overture to La calamita de’ cuori, W.G27 (124-25); Schubert: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D. 960 (123-24); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (125-26); Fanny Mendelssohn: Sonata in C Minor (131-32).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Texting is the process by which existing instrumental music is used to compose a new, texted work. The extent to which the original music is modified can vary, as can the degree of allusion intended by the composer. As a form of textual interpretation, texting is both a compositional tool and a kind of musical criticism. As such, it is a method of borrowing that sees a rich expression in nineteenth-century music, when the roles of composer and critic often overlapped and styles of texted and untexted musical genres commonly borrowed from one another. A variety of motivations for texting are evident in the Romantic repertoire, from a desire to engage the borrowed work symbolically or thematically (as in Franz Liszt’s use of themes from Beethoven’s Third Symphony in his Zur Säkularfeier Beethovens), to less sincere forms of musical play (as in Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel’s texting of themes from Felix Mendelssohn’s Sonata écossaise, Op. 28). Cases of texting can be complex and obscure, at times involving multiple layers of borrowed material. Once a texting is identified, an analysis of the new work’s interaction with its source material can yield a better formal, harmonic, and thematic understanding of the music.

Works: Franz Liszt: Zur Säkularfeier Beethovens (90); Berlioz: L’Enfance du Christ (91-93); P. E. Lange-Müller: Se, Natten er svanger med Vellugt fin (93-94); Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel: Nachtreigen (94-95); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (95-97); Clara Schumann: Sie liebten sich beide, Op. 13, No. 2 (95-97); Brahms: Über die See, Op. 69, No. 7 (95-97), Der Tod, das ist die kühle Nacht, Op. 96, No. 1 (97), Wehe, so willst du mich wieder, Op. 32, No. 5 (97-98).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (90), String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 (91-93); Saint-Saëns: Piano Concerto No. 2 in G Minor, Op. 22 (93-94); Felix Mendelssohn: String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 12 (94-95), Andante cantabile e Presto agitato, WoO 6 (97-98), Elijah, Op. 70 (97-98); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor (95-97); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (95-97), Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (97).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Motivic allusions are often dependent on motivic transformations, the most common of which are alterations in rhythm, meter, and intervallic relationships. But a more nuanced exploration of musical allusion requires additional forms of transformation, namely motivic combination, octave displacement, and transformation by genre. Such transformations can occur at different levels—from large-scale formal structures to local phrases and motives—and vary in the obviousness of their presentation, which relies heavily on genre. Musical ideas taken from one genre and recontextualized in another do not have to be as disguised as allusions among pieces in the same genre. In fact, allusions across disparate genres are most effective when they are clear and an exact quotation. Genre was shaped by nineteenth-century audiences’ social and musical expectations, which composers could manipulate through allusions. Transformations through motivic combination, octave displacement, and genre play critical roles in Brahms’s and Schumann’s allusions to Beethoven and to each other, illustrating how nineteenth-century composers were in dialogue with themselves and tradition as they sought to distance their own ideas from preexisting ones. Source material and the allusive motive should share, as a general rule, at least three features for it to be an actual borrowing and not a coincidence. Allusions and formal modeling can be both assimilative and contrastive, and both characteristics are exemplified in Brahms’s Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1, which he models on Beethoven’s “Waldstein” Sonata, only to depart from it. It was important for nineteenth-century composers to establish distance from their models, as Brahms does with his Op. 1, because of the emphasis on originality.

Works: Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (24, 26, 28), Horn Trio, Op. 40 (24), Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (25-26, 34, 43), Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann, Op. 9 (28), Vier ernste Gesange, Op. 121 (30), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (33); Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K.551 (“Jupiter”) (26-27); Robert Schumann: Carnaval, Op. 9 (29-30), Piano Quintet No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (31-32), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 97 (33, 40), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (37, 41), Konzert-Allegro mit Introduktion, Op. 134 (38), Scenen aus Goethes Faust (38), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (42); Niels Gade: Drei kleine Clavierstucke (27-28, 30); Felix Mendelssohn: Elijah, Op. 70 (30), Symphony No. 5 in D Major / D Minor, Op. 107 (“Reformation”) (37); Joseph Eybler: Requiem (34-35); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (38).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 21 in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”), (24-26, 43), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (24), Piano Sonata No. 3 in D Major, Op. 10 (24), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (“Hammerklavier”) (24, 34), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (27, 39-40), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (33), Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (40); Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K.551 (“Jupiter”) (26-27), Piano Quartet No. 2 in E-flat Major, K.493 (31-32), Requiem, K.626 (34-35); Carl Maria von Weber: Der Freischütz (29-30), Koncertstucke in F Minor, Op. 79, J.282 (37-38, 40); Haydn: The Seasons (35), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (36-37); Schubert: Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D.944 (36-37); Bach: A Musical Offering, BWV 1079 (41): Johann Wenzel Kalliwoda: Symphony No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 7 (42); Ignaz Moscheles: Grande Sonate in E-flat Major, Op. 47 (42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

[See individual chapters.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Brahms’s 1869 Alto Rhapsody adopts several traits of the German rhapsody tradition, including its use in wedding celebrations and fragmentary quotation of other works. Analyzing the Alto Rhapsody with its expressive double, Brahms’s Schicksalslied, Op.54, suggests that Brahms likely conceived it at least a year earlier than previously thought. The Alto Rhapsody draws heavily on Johann Friedrich Reichard’s 1792 Rhapsodie (Aus der Harzreise) . Brahms sets the same passage of Goethe’s “Harzreise im Winter” as Reichard and borrows several musical ideas from Reichard’s rhapsody. Brahms uses musical citations of the third movement of his own Ein deutsches Requiem and Robert Schumann’s Das Paradies und die Peri to reinforce the meaning of the text. He also draws on several other musical models related to Goethe’s Faust, in particular Berlioz’s La Damnation of Faust, Gounod’s Faust, and Liszt’s Eine Faust-Symphonie. By alluding to these works, Brahms associates the Harzreise text with the brooding “Faust allein in seinem Studierzimmer” scene (as set by Berlioz and Gounod) and “Das Ewig-weibliche” (as set by Liszt). Conceptually, the Alto Rhapsody shares a strong relationship with the choral-orchestral work Schicksalslied. The texts of each piece thematically mirror each other, and their principal musical motives are similar in contour but opposite in character. Both pieces also include a Faust motive drawn from Liszt’s Faust-Symphonie. These similarities can be understood through the Romantic phenomenon of “expressive doubling,” in which two works present opposing expressions of the same subject. The relationship between these pieces, the intertextual complexity of the Alto Rhapsody, and Brahms’s typical compositional process suggest that Brahms began composing it in June 1868 alongside the Schicksalslied, not in July 1869 as he claims.

Works: Brahms: Alto Rhapsody, Op. 53 (191-228), Schicksalslied, Op. 54 (219-21)

Sources: Johann Friedrich Reichard: Rhapsodie (Aus der Harzreise) (191-97, 214); Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (197-200, 214), Schicksalslied, Op. 54 (216-28); Robert Schumann: Das Paradies und die Peri, Op. 50 (197-200, 214); Berlioz: La Damnation de Faust (200-7, 214); Liszt: Eine Faust-Symphonie (200, 205-11, 214, 219-21); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (200, 211-14); Gounod: Faust (201-7, 214); Joseph Joachim: Hamlet (203-8, 214)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

In his Fantasy on themes from Mozart's Don Giovanni, Liszt goes far beyond the potpourri. By careful selection of the melodic material, including scenes with the Commendatore ("Di rider finirai," "Ribaldo, audace," and "Tu m'invitasti a cena"), the duet "Là ci darem la mano," and Don Giovanni's aria "Fin ch'han dal vino," Liszt concentrates on only a few figures. In the transition from the duet to the final aria, he combines thematic material from music associated with the three characters, thus creating a "free symphonic development" that reinterprets the story: after the confrontation with the Commendatore, Don Giovanni triumphs over his opponent. Ten measures before the end, however, Liszt evokes once more the sphere of the Commendatore (Andante), which can be understood as an attempt to lead back cyclically to the beginning, skepticism about the positive interpretation of the ending, or both.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s

[See p. 151.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Manuscripts of the first movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 indicate the presence of an earlier version of the principal theme. In this earlier form, the principal theme is clearly derived from Mozart's "Notte e giorno faticar" from Don Giovanni. Schubert held Don Giovanni in highest esteem and was probably reminded of the work by a performance of this opera at the time he was composing Symphony No. 9.

Works: Schubert: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The theme of Beethoven's Contredanse in Eb Major, upon which the finale of the symphony is based and which is also present in Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus and the Piano Variations, Op. 35, has its ultimate source in the opening phrase of Clementi's Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 7, No. 3 (a work Beethoven probably knew in his Bonn days). Ringer also discerns the presence of the idea in the Septet, Op. 20 and in Christus am Ölberg. Clementi himself used the theme again in the finale of his Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14, No. 3. The influence of other sonatas by Clementi upon Beethoven is also noted. Elements of Clementi's G Minor Sonata (not just the opening phrase) are evident throughout the Eroica as a result of Beethoven's use of his own contredanse as a "reference theme." (The use of a reference theme, here a Russian theme, is also evident throughout the String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1.) The Prometheus music, the Variations, Op. 35, and the Eroica are viewed as "three successive responses to the same 'underlying idea,' each conceived in terms of a different 'poetic idea.'"

Works: Beethoven: Eroica (454), The Creatures of Prometheus (454), Piano Variations, Op. 35 (454), Septet, Op. 20 (460), Christus am Olberg (460), String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1 (464).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Beethoven composed two separate sketches (Paris and Vienna) on Goethe's Erlkönig. Some aspects of these settings, such as repeated notes in the treble part, the drone in the bass, and the harmonic movement to mediant-related major keys for the middle section are remarkably similar to Schubert's Wanderer and Erlkönig. Near the end of the nineteenth century, Reinhold Becker took the transcription done by Gustav Nottebohm of the Vienna sketch as the basis for a "complete version," in an attempt at what Paul H. Lang calls "the art of the second guess." Bartók then orchestrated this arrangement in a work which was unknown to Bartók scholars until the discovery of the score at the University of Illinois Music Library. Bartók made no attempt to correct any of Becker's mistakes or changes from Beethoven's setting, except for a few harmonic changes, but his orchestration provided new sophisticated treatments of rhythm, color, and dynamics not found in the arrangement or the original.

Works: Bartók: Erlkönig (308-11); Becker: Erlkönig (307-08); Beethoven: Erlkönig.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Hector Berlioz’s second symphony, Harold en Italie, exemplifies a thread of detached, self-mocking comic irony that is common in French Romantic literature, which deals with the impossibility of artistic freedom in bourgeois society. The references to Byron and Beethoven, two of Berlioz’s Romantic heroes, are key to this ironic reading of the symphony. Mark Evan Bonds’s earlier reading of Harold casts Berlioz’s references to Beethoven as a case of anxiety of influence, ignoring the (admittedly subjective) comedy of the symphony. Berlioz started composing Harold after Paganini commissioned a virtuosic viola piece, but Paganini quickly rescinded his offer after seeing the first movement. The title and program of Harold references Byron’s poem Childe Harold, tracing a semi-autobiographical trip through Italy. In Harold, Byron (and later Beethoven) become stand-ins for the archetypical alienated Romantic Hero, characterized by the solo viola. Throughout the symphony, the orchestra undermines the heroic character of the viola, and the supposedly heroic viola is often hesitant and uncertain. The most dramatic heroic deflation comes in the finale, the most direct reference to Beethoven in the symphony. In the finale to Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, the themes from each of the previous movements are heard and a new, transcendent theme closes out the symphony. In Harold, Berlioz mimics the same reminiscences of previous movements, but the themes remain disparate and interrupt each other. The jangling Brigands theme eventually drives the viola out of the orchestra in Harold’s conclusion. Using typical Romantic hero narratives, this conclusion is ambiguous at best. However, using French ironic narrative models (such as Gautier’s fictional painter Omunphrius, whose work is recognized only after his death but is credited to someone else instead), the deflated finale becomes ironic meta-commentary on the Romantic artist. The irony of Berlioz’s hero (Harold, Beethoven, Byron, himself) is the futility of declaring your own genius to a world that does not understand.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie (73-89)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (73, 76, 80, 85-86)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The early nineteenth-century “Ancient Music” hymnody reform movement sought to return American hymnody to a pre-revolutionary European ideal. This movement was grounded in the lived experiences of New England elites, notably Joseph Stevens Buckminster, who visited Europe during this period. One overlooked source for the early “Ancient Music” movement is Buckminster’s Brattle Street Collection, a hymnal compiled for the illustrious Brattle Street Church of Boston. The history of the hymn tune Pleyel’s Second in the United States demonstrates Buckminster’s influence on American hymnody. The hymn is a contrafact of Ignace Pleyel’s 1786 Symphonie Concertante in E-flat, B. 111 and was written and published by Thomas Costellow in Britain in 1801. During an 1806 trip to Paris, Buckminster met British poet and Costellow collaborator Helen Maria Williams, who likely gave him a copy of Costellow’s hymnal. When Buckminster compiled the Brattle Street Collection, Pleyel’s Second was included as “Hymn 2” (it is later transmitted as “Pleyel’s Ps. 2” and “Brattle Street”). Although a version of the hymn was included in the Columbian Sacred Harmonist in 1808, the Brattle Street harmonization has a much wider distribution. Tracing the personal voyages and connections made by non-musicians like Buckminster give a more complete picture of hymnody reform as part of broader cultural reform movements in New England.

Works: Thomas Costellow: Pleyel’s Hymn (Second) (267-74)

Sources: Ignace Pleyel: Symphonie Concertante in E-flat, B. 111 (267-74)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In Mahler's First Symphony, third movement, section A is based on the tune Frère Jacques, and section B is based on "Die zwei blauen Augen von meinem Schatz," from Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen. Aristotles's eironeia is a means of interpreting the ironic treatment of the borrowed material; it is characterized by distortion, understatement, and self-depreciation.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, third movement (211); Symphony No. 2, third movement (218).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Chapter V of Roman's dissertation presents an examination of Mahler's songs in symphonies from the point of view of their constituent poetical as well as musical-echnical elements. As in the genre of the song itself, Mahler also sought for new means of expression in the symphony. Still in the tradition of Beethoven, he expands "the grand design of symphonic music" by the incorporation of a hitherto unexplored resource: the song. The result of his search for an ultimate "symbiosis of symphonic and vocal music" can be described as follows: (1) Mahler's music--even in his apparently purely instrumental symphonies--has to be viewed in connection with his interest in literature. (2) The new possibilities created by Mahler's expansion of the genre are reflected in the works of the following generation.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Das Lied von der Erde.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Mahler's songs to texts from Des Knaben Wunderhorn are influenced by folk music. Those most clearly related to folk or popular songs may be divided into two groups: (1) songs that show a direct resemblance to existing songs, and (2) songs with general characteristics of a popular genre such as dance songs and soldier songs. The melodies are classified by style (diatonic, chromatic, mixed); intervallic motion (triadic, conjunct, disjunct, mixed); and rhythm (predominantly dotted, primarily smooth, mixed). Mahler follows the stylistic traditions of the nineteenth-century Lied: the simplicity and "volkstümliche character" of many of the Wunderhorn songs is similar to Schubert; the harmonic language is much like Schumann; and the nature of the accompaniment is related to Brahms. While these songs clearly reflect the influences of his predecessors and of Romantic historicism, they also show Mahler's "absorption" and "adaptation" of material which foreshadows the "total stylistic assimilation of folk music" by twentieth-century composers.

Works: Mahler: "Revelge," "Wo die schönen Trompeten blasen," "Es sungen drei Engel einen süssen Gesang," "Wir geniessen die himmlischen Freuden," "Ich ging mit Lust durch einen grünen Wald," "Rheinlegendchen," "Lied des Verfolgten im Turm" ("Die Gedanken sind frei"), "Der Tamboursg'sell," "Zu Strassburg auf der Schanz," "Verlorene Müh'," "Hans und Grethe," "Nicht wiedersehen!," "Scheiden und Meiden," "Der Schildwache Nachtlied," and "Trost im Unglück" from Des Knaben Wunderhorn.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Influences on one composer by another's work are demonstrated between Haydn and Mozart. In the first of two examples, the rhythmic shape of Mozart's fugal Gigue for Piano, K. 574 parallels the gigue finale of Haydn's C Major Quartet, Op. 20, No. 2. Mozart was familiar with Haydn's quartets Op. 20 and imitated them closely for years. Similarities are also drawn between Haydn's Symphony No. 81 and Mozart's Prague Symphony, including the use of ostinati, a flatted seventh degree within the introductions, similar rhythmic patterns, and the use of new motifs. Influence through structural modeling is then illustrated by a comparison of the finales from Brahms's D Minor Piano Concerto and Beethoven's Piano Concerto in C Minor.

Works: Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 959 (93); Brahms: Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 1 (93); Scherzo, Op. 4 (93); Piano Concerto No. 2 (94).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1800s

English ballad operas and burlesques regularly used borrowed melodies, drawn from popular tunes. The use of these tunes often had a nationalistic motivation, attempting to imbue the music with an English identity, while simultaneously establishing a locale within the opera. The songs for burlesque and ballad operas were adapted from a wide variety of sources, including ballad airs, folk songs, arias from Italian and French opera, and minstrel tunes. The burlesque orchestra also played familiar tunes to signal associations in the minds of the audience, often with humorous intent. Humor played a large role in burlesques, taking form in parody through song, puns in dialogue, and through women playing men’s roles.

Works: Kane O’Hara: Midas (553); James Planche: The Golden Branch (554); Edward Stirling: The Buffalo Girls (555); Albert Smith: Hop-o’-my-Thumb (555); William Leman: Douglas Travestie (556); Francis Talfourd: Macbeth Trovestie (555), Atalanta (557), Electra in a New Electric Light (557); Henry Byron: Ali Baba (557); Joseph Coyne and Francis Talfourd: Leo the Terrible (557); William Rhodes: Bombastes Furioso (557); Maurice Dowling: Othello Travestie (558); Robert Brough: Masaniello (559); Leicester Buckingham: William Tell (559); Joseph Coyne: Willikind and hys Dynah (559); James Planche: Puss in Boots; An Original, Comical, Magical, Mew-sical, Fairy Burletta (561); William Hale and Francis Talfourd, The Mandarin’s Daughter (561).

Sources: Anonymous: Shaan Bwee (553), Sheelagh na guig (553), Larry Grogan (553), Kiss me fast my mother’s coming (553), Bobbing Joan (553); Handel: Overture to Ottone (553); Anonymous: Cherry Ripe (554), If you’re waking, call me early (555); Rossini: Il Barbiere di Siviglia (555); Anonymous: Sich a gittin’ up stairs (555), Come haste to the wedding (556), Paddy’s Wedding (557), My Lodging is on the Cold Ground (557), Drink to me only with thine eyes (557), Weippert’s Fancy (557), Lord Cathcart’s Favourite (557), Oh ‘tis love (558), The Ratcatcher’s Daughter (559), We won’t go home till morning (559), My poor dog Tray (559), To all you Ladies now on Land (560); John Christopher Pepusch: The Beggar’s Opera (561); Anonymous: There’s nae luck about the house (561).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Gabriel Fauré’s mélodies exemplify the fluid boundary between French salon and theatrical song and invite listeners to listen hermeneutically. They also demonstrate the importance of critical reflection in Vladimir Jankélévitch’s musical aisthesis as informed by Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotic theory. One example of Fauré slipping between lyrical and theatrical poetic modes is his setting of Théophile Gautier’s La chanson du pêcheur, in which the poetic refrain is transformed into diegetic song. Fauré’s setting of Tristesse also plays with poetic modes with its detached waltz topic and allusion to J. S. Bach’s melancholic Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582. The song cycle La chanson d’Ève also uses the idea of performance and musical diegesis to represent Eve’s fall. For this effect, Fauré borrows from The King’s Three Blind Daughters, a ballad he composed as part of the incidental music for an 1898 production of Maurice Maeterlinck’s Pelléas et Mélisande. The borrowed ballad is marked as diegetic music by its rigid ostinato form. Fauré additionally distinguishes different modes of diegesis through diatonic, octatonic, and chromatic harmony. Musical gestures toward performance (as seen in Fauré’s mélodies or in dance topics in Mozart’s operas) can be understood through the model of Peircian semiosis, constructed from a triadic structure of sign influencing interpretant influencing object influencing sign again. This structure allows for a chain of interpretants to be formed and for music to be understood with mixed forms of attention.

Works: Gabriel Fauré: Tristesse (525-26), La chanson d’Ève (526-43)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582 (525-26); Gabriel Fauré: The King’s Three Blind Daughters, incidental music to Pelléas et Mélisande (526-531)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Schubert’s Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 is often cited as an homage to Beethoven’s Thirty-Two Variations in C Minor, WoO 80. There are, however, several ordinary musical events in common between these two pieces. The use of a passacaglia bass, found in an inner voice of the Schubert, can be traced back to the Baroque era. Both works also set up but subvert a sentential phrase structure (2+2+4 measures) at the beginning of the work, hardly a compositional device unique to either composer. With Derrida’s concept of grafting, meant metaphorically as the “insertion of one text into another by means of a scission,” the concept of a piece as homage or critique can be challenged. Though the Sonata in C Minor appears to be influenced by Beethoven’s Thirty-Two Variations, Schubert’s work is in dialogue with compositional techniques used before the Beethoven. As a result, historical narratives, such as Beethoven’s overwhelming influence on Schubert, need to be reinvestigated. Such reconsideration may write new historical narratives or confirm old ones.

Works: Schubert: Sonata in C Minor, D. 958.

Sources: Beethoven: Thirty-Two Variations in C Minor, WoO 80.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Siegfried Ochs claimed that Brahms had made it clear to him that the second movement of his Ein deutsches Requiem had been based on a chorale tune, “Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten,” yet analysis reveals that the rhythm and pitches of the melodies are quite different. Christopher Reynolds has recently argued that it is in fact based on a different chorale tune. If one compares the movement with a piano piece by M. Jessen that explicitly takes its melody from the chorale, Brahms’s use of it in the Requiem becomes more doubtful. In fact, treatises of the time suggested that composers wishing to write a successful funeral march should make it sound chorale-like. Therefore, it is highly possible that Brahms wrote the melody himself, merely emulating the general style of a chorale and not a specific chorale tune.

Works: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem (8-9); M. Jessen: Wer seinen Gott allein läßt walten, Op. 6, No. 1 (9).

Sources: Georg Neumark: Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

[from AG's dissertation: According to Sala, "a chorus from Alphonse Varney's music for Dumas and Auguste Marquet's Le chevalier de maison-rouge (1847) bears a strong resemblance to the opening chorus of La battaglia di Legnano (1849). Also another mélodrame/drame, Emile Souvestre and Eugène Bourgeois's Le Pasteur ou l'évangile et le foyer (1849) with music of uncertain authorship, may have provided musico-dramatic ideas for Stiffelio."]

Index Classifications: 1800s

During the years he was writing to Clara Schumann (1854-56), Johannes Brahms seems to have used musical ciphers and allusions in two of his pieces in much the same way that Robert Schumann used them, as meaningful references to Clara. Brahms compared the character of his Piano Quintet in C Minor, Op. 60, to Goethe's Werther, a man with unrequited love for a married woman, a possible allusion to the scenario between Brahms and Clara. A passage in this quintet also has musical allusions to Beethoven's An Die Ferne Geliebte, a work which Schumann quoted in his own Piano Fantasie, Op. 17, and to Schubert's Am Meer from Schwanengesang. Both songs contain themes of unattainable beauty and hopeless love. Likewise, Brahms's Piano Trio in B Major, Op. 8, contains an allusion to Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto, a work Clara was rehearsing during the time of their correspondence. In this same trio, Brahms also borrowed the C-L-A-R-A cipher from Robert Schumann's Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120, a theme with obvious references to Clara. The work also contains allusions to Schumann's Manfred Overture and Schumann's opera Genoveva, an opera about a man who falls in love with his master's wife.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio in B Major, Op. 8 (432-34), Piano Quintet in C Minor, Op. 60 (432-33); Robert Schumann, Fantasie, Op. 17 (433).

Sources: Beethoven: An Die Ferne Geliebte (432-33), Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58 (433); Schubert: Am Meer (432-33); Robert Schumann: Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (433), Genoveva (433-34), Manfred Overture (434).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Liszt's youthful work Etude en 12 exercices demonstrates his achievement in the history of the etude, the use of particular idiomatic figurations as markers of genre, and the assembly of these figurations into a unified structure. Within this focus, parallels between Liszt's Etudes and those of his predecessors and contemporaries are discussed. For example, the figurations used in Liszt's Etude No. 2 have a parallel with those in Czerny's No. 28 from his Die Schule der Gelaüfigkeit, Book 3. The parallels between Liszt's etudes and Czerny's are reinforced by their relationship as teacher and pupil. The head motives of Liszt's several etudes in the same collection are modeled on those of Cramer's 84 Etudes. The head motives of Liszt's etudes Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10 correspond to those of Cramer's Nos. 7, 60, 5, 57, and 50, respectively. The several pianistic figurations of particular types associated with "topics" or genres shared between Liszt's etudes and those of other piano composers suggest intertextual connections, as exemplified in the use of operatic sighing thirds, common to Liszt's No. 5, Steibelt?s No. 3 in his Etude en 50 exercices, Cramer?s No. 1 in his Dulce et utile, and others.

Works: Liszt: Etude en 12 exercices (32-34, 42-44).

Sources: Carl Czerny: Die Schule der Gelaüfigkeit (32-33); Johann Baptist Cramer: 84 Etudes (32-34), Dulce et utile (42-44); Daniel Steibelt: Etude en 50 exercices (42-44); Cipriani Potter: Etudes (42-44); Henri Bertini: 25 Etudes Characteristiques (42-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Many composers have tried to create art music from folk music. These two types of music should not be combined. In his String Quartet Op. 59, No. 2, Beethoven only treated the borrowed Russian folk melody in a fugato-like manner. A melody that is used in a large-scale formal structure must lend itself to developmental processes. A folk melody is complete in itself. This is beautiful music, unlike artificial "folk" melodies which try to represent the spirit of the people, yet result in trivial condescension. A motive, unlike a folk melody, is incomplete; for example, the opening motive of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 must be elaborated and developed to achieve its true character and to exhaust its expression. When folk song is used in a symphony, because the song is already complete, all composers can do is apply techniques of development, such as repetition, transposition, changes of instrumentation, and sequence.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (162).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Despite the bitter press rivalries between the devotees of Brahms and Wagner, the two composers had a complicated artistic and personal relationship to one another, and they held each other’s music in high regard. Wagner’s 1863 visit to Vienna almost certainly triggered the creation of Brahms’s most “operatic” composition, the cantata Rinaldo, for tenor, men’s chorus, and orchestra. The plot, characters, and musical language of Brahms’s cantata share close similarities with works like Tannhäuser and Tristan und Isolde, and some sections heavily borrow techniques associated with the “New German School.” Nevertheless, Brahms’s engagement with Wagnerian devices in Rinaldo is limited. Much of the cantata maintains close ties to the styles of Beethoven and Schumann, and the “Wagnerian” music is mainly associated with the witch Armida and Rinaldo’s enslavement, rather than his heroism. Furthermore, while the male heroes of Wagner’s operas are often redeemed through a woman’s love, the titular hero of Rinaldo is saved through self-reflection and male comradery, as represented through the robust and forceful music of Brahms’s style. This latter point may reflect the anxieties Brahms felt over perceived “feminine” qualities in Wagner’s music and Wagner himself, which challenged his own sense of masculinity. Just as Rinaldo escapes Armida’s clutches through male companionship and Brahms’s virile music, Brahms himself uses Rinaldo to confront the influence of Wagner’s music, only to overcome it with a reassertion of his own individual style and masculinity in the cantata’s final chorus.

Works: Brahms: Rinaldo, Op. 50.

Sources: Wagner: Tannhäuser (67-70, 72-73, 78-79), Lohengrin (74-76), Tristan und Isolde (76-79); Beethoven: Fidelio, Op. 72 (67, 72).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

The rise of musical publishing and the lack of copyright laws in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century strongly encouraged the practice of arranging. Beethoven was an active arranger of his own works, especially those of his early period. He would make unsolicited offers of his adaptations to publishers but would also assume the right to refuse a request for one if so desired. His personal reluctance to arrange works of others did not deter him from seeking the help of others in arranging his own works when time or interest was wanting, but he demanded control over the arranger and the manner of arranging. The criteria for acceptance or rejection of the arrangement were based on the abilities of the arranger. His most satisfactory relationship with a freelance arranger was that with Czerny.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

The fourth movement of Schubert's Piano Sonata in A major, D. 959 (1828), is closely related to the third movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in G major, Op. 31, No. 1 (1802), which Schubert knew. Similarities between the two Allegretto finales are visible in the formal structure of the opening theme, the partial chromaticism of the thematic material, some rhythmic patterns, harmonic progressions, and overall form. Another conscious borrowing occurs in Schubert's Grand Rondeau in A major for piano four hands, D. 951, which is based on the second movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor, Op. 90; in this case, unlike the previous one, Schubert composed a work that differed considerably in emotional expression from Beethoven's, despite similarities in form. There is also a less obvious parallel between the second movements of Schubert's Piano Trio in E flat major, D. 929, and Beethoven's Piano Trio in D major, Op. 70, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Amid the general discussion of the various forms that indebtedness can take (Handel is most specifically discussed), the article questions composers' frequent use of "familiar phrases": Was Wagner aware that the opening notes or intervals from the prelude to Tristan had already been used by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann, and Liszt? The main interest focuses on various and sundry quotations, merely citing examples by well-known composers, while no real connection between the quotations is apparent.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2 (504-06), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (503); Wagner: "Anvil" motive from the Ring (504-05); Brahms: Symphony in C Minor (505), Piano Quartet in G Minor (505); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique) (506); Liszt: Dante Symphony (507); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (502, 507); Mozart: Don Giovanni (508); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (508); Brahms: Unüberwindlich (509); Elgar: "The Music Makers," from Enigma Variations (509); Mackenzie: London Day by Day Suite (509), Dream of Jubal (509); Puccini: Madame Butterfly (509); Richard Strauss: Elektra (498); Bach: Wachet, betet (504), Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss (504), Uns ist ein Kind geboren (504), St. John Passion (504), St. Matthew Passion (504).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1800s

Louis Moreau Gottschalk’s Symphonie romantique: la nuit des tropiques (1859) and À Montevideo: 2me symphonie-romantique pour grand orchestre (1868) reflect his politics of pan-American republicanism. In his writing, Gottschalk expressed a desire to see republicanism flourish in South America, a position informed in part by contemporary US cultural expansionism into Latin America. With his many concert tours to Latin American countries, Gottschalk saw himself as a musical diplomat, contributing to the moral uplift of the region. Gottschalk composed Symphonie romantique in Matouba, French Antilles in 1859, and the work premiered later that year in Cuba. With its blending of Cuban music (the cinquillo rhythm pervades the symphony), European art music, and American vernacular music (including a quotation of Foster’s Camptown Races), Symphonie romantique offers a musical ideal for an Americanized Cuba. À Montevideo, composed for a music festival in Montevideo, Uruguay, expresses a similar subtle imperialism. In its finale, Gottschalk quotes the Uruguayan national anthem alongside Hail, Columbia, and Yankee Doodle, presenting the pan-American ideal of Uruguay and the United States side by side. In many ways, Gottschalk’s pan-Americanism in Latin America was similar to nineteenth-century German universalism in the United States. Both presented an ideology of supranationalism and moral edification through music, and both emerged as a product of distinctly nationalist ideologies.

Works: Louis Moreau Gottschalk: The Battle of Bunker Hill (445), Symphonie romantique (455-62), À Montevideo: 2me symphonie-romantique pour grand orchestra (462-65)

Sources: Francis Smith (lyricist): America (My Country ’Tis of Thee) (445); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (445, 463-65); Philip Phile (composer) and Joseph Hopkins (lyricist): Hail, Columbia (445, 463-65); Felix Mendelssohn: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Op. 21 (458); Stephen Foster: Camptown Races (461); Francisco José Debali (composer) and Francisco Acuña de Figueroa (lyricist): ¡Orientales, la patria o la tumba! (Himno Nacional de Uruguay) (463-65)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The standard biographies of Schubert are silent about the events that occurred between March and July of 1824. Two works for piano four hands from this period, the Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 and the Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat major, D. 813, respectively quote from Beethoven's Second and Seventh Symphonies. Schubert is shown to have been present at the Kärntnertor Theatre on the evening of May 7, 1824 when Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was premiered, and Schubert was moved enough to pay tribute to Beethoven in his next two pieces for piano duet mention above. Although transformed into Schubertian sentiments, the borrowed ideas show unmistakably his allegiance to Beethoven's symphonic model. Schubert's quotation of the "Freude" theme from the Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in his "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (1825), provides further evidence that Schubert was present at the Ninth's first performance since the score was only published in 1826.

Works: Schubert: Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 (421-25, 31), Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat Major, D.813 (421-22, 26-29, 31-32), "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (432-434).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Bizet's Symphony in C was composed in 1855 but was not performed until 1935. The symphony has often been cited as being reminiscent of earlier composers' music. Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Rossini, Schubert, Mozart, and even Brahms (!) have been mentioned. Bizet in fact wrote his symphony with a specific model in mind, the Symphony in D by his teacher and friend Gounod. Almost all of the conspicuous features of the Bizet can be traced back to Gounod. Gounod's symphony had been a great hit in Paris, and this may indicate that Bizet chose not to have his symphony performed upon completing it for fear of being charged with imitation. Bizet did quote a fragment of his symphony in his opera Don Procopio. (He also quoted this opera in two later operas, Les Pêcheurs de perles and La jolie fille de Perth.)

Works: Bizet: Symphony in C Major (462), Don Procopio (474), Les Pêcheurs de perles (474), La jolie fille de Perth (474).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The 1854 version of Brahms’s Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8, is recognized as containing allusions to Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte and Schubert’s Schwanengesang, but a third, thus far unacknowledged allusion to Domenico Scarlatti’s Sonata in C Major, K. 159, is also present in the trio. This allusion supports the program proposed in existing scholarship, but it also suggests a new reading of Brahms mourning the loss of the musical past. Throughout the trio, but most clearly at the climax of the first movement, Brahms references Scarlatti’s sonata and develops the borrowed themes. Brahms’s own composed themes in the trio are also constructed to develop into the near-quotation of Scarlatti’s sonata. Contextual evidence for this Scarlatti allusion comes from Brahms’s longstanding championing of Scarlatti’s music in his writings and performances. The allusions to Beethoven and Schubert both refer to songs on the theme of distant or lost love. Although Scarlatti’s sonata is not based on a text, the particular way Brahms uses the borrowed material suggests distance by distorting Scarlatti’s theme to the edge of unrecognizability. The theme of distant love in the trio is often interpreted as a secret program referring to Brahms’s romantic longing for Clara Schumann. The presence of the Scarlatti reference suggests an alternate program of Brahms paying homage to music of the past. In 1889, Brahms extensively revised the trio, eliminating the allusions to Beethoven, Schubert, and Scarlatti. Scholars have interpreted this removal as Brahms attempting to hide his past feelings toward Schumann. Acknowledging the Scarlatti allusions as well, this removal can be interpreted as Brahms coming to terms with his place in music history and the evolution of his complicated relationship to music of the past.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8 (1854 version) (63-78)

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte (63-65); Schubert: Schwanengesang (64-65); Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata in C Major, K. 159 (65-78)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Ives’s eighteen German songs form an important link between his earlier and later works. The songs demonstrate his wish to conform to prevailing art music trends in Europe while also exhibiting his determination to be original and push inherited musical idioms to the limit. Ives’s German language songs were likely a personal project, influenced by his previous composition of sentimental ballads. His rich harmonic language in these sentimental ballads deviated from the norms of the genre, an approach Ives continued in his German songs by using unorthodox harmonies, forms, and melodies. His German songs may be classified in three categories based on approximate composition date: 1894-1897, 1897-1898, and 1898-1902. Songs from the first group are the most conservative and are most similar to sentimental ballads. Those from the second group use poems that were associated with earlier settings by European composers and thus invite direct comparison with the European masters. Songs from the third group continue the ideas Ives initiated in the second group and use increased dissonance and chromaticism in the service of text expression. A table of all of Ives’s German songs lists reworked and alternate titles, text incipits, authors, and sources.

Works: Ives: Leise zieht (144-47), An Old Flame (149, 155), At Parting (150-55, 158), My Lou Jennine (153-56), Feldeinsamkeit (157-62), Zum Drama “Rosamunde” (159, 163), Du bist wie eine Blume (159-60), Wiegenlied (160), Wie Melodien zieht es mir (160-62), Ich grolle nicht (157-63), Die Lotosblume (160), Mir klingt ein Ton (160-61), Weil’ auf mir (163-64).

Sources: Grieg: Gruß (144-47); Mendelssohn: Gruß (144-47); Robert Franz: Leise zieht durch mein Gemüth (144-46); James Rogers: At Parting (150-53); Schumann: Ich grolle nicht (161); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit, Op. 86, No. 2 (162-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein, Amanda Jensen, Christine Wisch

In most of Brahms’s writings about variations, he privileged the older styles of Bach and Beethoven and techniques such as keeping the theme pure and using the bass line as the theme. In practice, however, he wrote variations that explored both these older styles and the newer fantasia styles of Schumann and others. In his variations, Brahms sought to reconcile old and new models by writing variation sets in pairs, each with a complementary theme from a different era or style. Brahms’s Op. 23 and Op. 24 Variations on Handel and Schumann themes form one such complementary pair. The two sets from Op. 21 differ in that the first has a newly-composed theme and the second a borrowed theme. The first also borrows the constant-harmony techniques with only occasional melodic references that characterized Beethoven’s “Eroica” Variations, Op. 35, while the second recalls Beethoven’s WoO 80 in its eight-bar theme and group of opposite mode variations (where the theme goes into the bass). Brahms’s Op. 9 Variations do not have a pair of individual variations pieces, but contain a synthesis of traditions and an internal pairing or dual persona, marked by the labelling of slower, more introspective movements as “Brahms” and more energetic movements as “Kreisler.”

Works: Heinrich von Herzogenberg: Variations on a Theme of Brahms, Op. 23 (136-38); Brahms: Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel, Op. 24 (141-43), Variations on a Theme of Schumann, Op. 23 (141-43), Variations, Op. 21, Nos. 1 and 2 (144-45), Variations on a Theme of Schumann, Op. 9 (145), String Sextet in G Major, Op. 36 (149-51), String Quintet in G Major, Op. 111 (152-53).

Sources: Beethoven: Variations in C Minor, WoO 80 (144-45), Variations and Fugue in E-flat Major (“Eroica” Variations), Op. 35 (144-45).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Busoni's character was full of dualities, including those of musical tastes, careers (composing vs. pianistic), centuries, and hybrid vs. original works. He edited and transcribed copious works by Bach, Liszt, Mozart, and other composers, including Beethoven, Chopin, and Mendelssohn (pp. 177-294). He was attracted to Bach's art of counterpoint and structure, Liszt's piano writing, and Mozart's clarity and conciseness of form. Busoni's transcriptions manifest a synthesis of his past and future as he believed it to be (pp. 295-313). His attitudes toward transcription are tied to his ideas on notation and the "Unity of Music." He regarded transcribing as an independent art; he created totally new sounds on the piano and gave the art of transcribing a new freedom and dignity.

Works: Busoni: arrangement of Bach's Four Duets for Piano (185-86), "interpretation" of Bach's Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue (188-89), collection and completion of Bach's Fantasia, Adagio, and Fugue (189-90), Fantasia after J.S. Bach for Piano (201-204), Prelude, Fugue, and Figured Fugue after J.S. Bach's WTC (204); Liszt-Busoni: Andantino Capriccioso, Etude No. 2 after Paganini's Caprice (216), free arrangement of the Theme and Variations on Paganini's Etude No. 6 (220-224), arrangement of the Spanish Rhapsody for piano and orchestra (228-230); Mozart-Liszt-Busoni: completion of the Figaro Fantasy (235), Don Juan Fantasie (227-28); Busoni: two-piano arrangement of Mozart's Fantasy for mechanical organ (253-55), two-piano transcription of the overture to Mozart's Magic Flute (255-56), piano solo arrangement of the Andantino from Mozart's Piano Concerto, K. 271 (256-57), piano arrangement of the fugue from String Quartet K. 546 (265).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

The principal theme which never appears in the Enigma Variations is identified as being drawn from Brahms's Vier ernste Gesänge. The opening motive of the variations can be combined with a passage in the second song while the Nimrod tune can be combined (once a change of key is made) with a passage in tbe fourth. Other allusions which appear on the surface of the music in the variations are to Bach's Pedalexercitium (eleventh variation) and to B-A-C-H (in the Enigma theme itself) as well as to the slow movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op. 13 (ninth variation). The Enigma theme may also refer to the first of the Vier ernste Gesänge such that the Brahms was Elgar's point of departure.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Vincenzo Bellini was once thought by the scholarly community to be immune from practices of self-borrowing, but evidence shows that he reworked material as much as Handel and Rossini. In Bellini's time, self-borrowing was deemed dishonest and unprofessional, and the critics and audiences were very aware of his self-borrowings. He reworked many passages from his earlier operas (before 1828) into his later operas, totaling twenty-five recycled melodies. Most of these melodic reworkings reduce the motivic material to make it more economical and declamatory. The reworkings also share with the original a formal function, poetic meter and content, and dramatic situation, although in one instance (the 1829 Zaira and the 1830 I Capuleti e i Montecchi) Bellini set a once happy cavatina into a much darker expressive context. Even unconscious borrowings, like between Il pirata and I puritani, have dramatic similarities, although they do not share formal function. All of this evidence shows that even though nineteenth-century opera is by its very nature conventional and thus often dismissed as musically uninteresting, these conventions are often instances of self-borrowing, which can be of more analytical interest.

Works: Bellini: Il pirata (25-27, 37-43), La sonnambula (28-29, 31), Norma (31, 37), I Capuleti e i Montecchi (32, 47-52), Zaira (37), La straniera (43-47), I puritani (53-66).

Sources: Bellini: Ernani (28, 31), Adelson e Salvini (32, 37-47), Bianca e Fernando (32, 37), Zaira (32, 47-52), Beatrice di Tenda (32-36), Norma (32-36), Il pirata (53-66).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Composers of ballet scores for the Paris Opéra from the early nineteenth century evince dramatically and aesthetically sensitive approaches to borrowing, even during the 1830s and 1840s as critical opinion turned against the use of borrowed material. Composers sometimes borrowed because they held particular works in high esteem. Moreover, composers often used borrowed material because it served the dramatic needs of ballet scenes, which were often confusing and benefited from the use of well-known music to aid the audience in interpreting the action. For example, borrowing from an air parlant (a familiar song) could bring to mind the song's text, which would in turn clarify the action at hand even without the words being sung. When critical opinion turned against borrowed material, some ballet composers satisfied audiences' need for familiarity through the use of recurring themes, as seen in Adolphe Adam's Giselle, Ferdinand Hérold's La Somnambule, and Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer's La Sylphide. Includes an extensive table of ballet-pantomime scores using borrowed material.

Works: Ferdinand Hérold: La Fille mal gardée (4), La Somnambule (9); Alexandre Montfort: La Chatte metamorphosée en femme (5); Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer: La Sylphide (5-6, 10), La Tempête (11); Frédéric Venua: Flore et Zéphire (9); Rodolphe Kreutzer: Clari (9); Adolphe Adam: Le Diable à quatre (12).

Sources: Rossini: La Cenerentola (4, 18), Il Barbiere di Siviglia (4-5), Moïse (5); J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (6); Paganini: Variations on "Le Streghe" (6); Anonymous, Réveillez-vous, belle endormie (9), Dormez chères amours (9-10), Mon mari n'est pas là (12); Salieri: Les Danaïdes (9); Gluck: Iphigénie en Aulide (9), Orphée et Euridice (10-11); Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (11-12); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (12).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Not only the symphonies with actual voice parts but also many others borrow from Mahler's song cycles. Smith identifies the borrowings and emphasizes not only their importance for the interpretation, but also the key position of their musical material. The song elements appear as the pillars of the whole work.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, Symphony No. 7.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Most of the songs which Mahler incorporated into his symphonies were originally written with orchestral accompaniment (rather than piano). Unlike Schubert, who used vocal themes as bases for variations in some movements of his instrumental works, Mahler never quoted a song for the specific purpose of writing variations. Instead, the material directly influences the melodic structure and content of the symphonies, particularly the first five, through the literal quotation of entire themes and motives.

Works: Schubert: Wanderer Fantasy; Trout Quintet; Death and the Maiden; String Quartet in D Minor; Octet in F Major (based on the air "Gelagert unter'm hellen Dach der Bäume," from the operette Die Freunde von Salamanka); Fantasy in C Major for violin and piano (based on Sei mir Gegrüsst); Introduction and Variations for piano and flute, Op. 160 (based on Trock'ne Blumen); Mahler: "Ging heut' morgen über's Feld" and "Die zwei blauen Augen von meinem Schatz" from Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen; "Das Himmlische Leben," "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt," "Ablösung in Sommer," "Es sungen drei Engel," "Lob des hohen Verstandes," "Um schlimme Kinder artig zu machen," and "Nicht Wiedersehen" from Lieder aus des Knaben Wunderhorn; "Nun will die Sonn' so hell aufgeh'n" and "Nun seh' ich wohl, warum so dunkle Flammen" from Kindertotenlieder; Symphonies 1-7. [??]

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

[Need annotation for discussions of borrowings within African-American tradition.] Within the context of her comprehensive volume on the musical tradition of black Americans, Southern briefly discusses the use by white Europeans and Americans of specific music and of musical styles of black Americans. She focuses on ragtime (pp. 331-32), jazz (pp. 395-97), and rhythm-and-blues (pp. 498-500).

Works: Debussy: Children's Corner (331-32); Stravinsky: Piano-Rag Music (331-32), Ragtime (331-32), L'Histoire du Soldat (331-32); Satie: Parade (331-32); Hindemith: Piano Suite (1922) (331-32); Carpenter: Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1916) (331-32), Krazy Kat (395-97), Skyscrapers (395-97); Krenek: Johnny spielt auf (395-97); Milhaud: La Création du Monde (395-97); Ravel: Piano Concerto in D (1931) (395-97); Walton: Façade (395-97); Stravinsky: Ebony Concerto for Dance Orchestra (395-97); Copland: Music for the Theater (395-97), Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1927) (395-97); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (395-97), Concerto in F (1925) (395-97), An American in Paris (395-97).