A comparison of the motet O lux decus Hispanie to the motet on which it was based, Christus vincit, shows how musical material was re-worked to serve different texts. The text of Christus vincit is a laudatory tribute to Doge Francesco Foscari. The prima pars is built on a number of points of imitation specific to the text. The secunda pars uses an unusual mensural shift, a sesquitertia proportion but with coloration, probably inspired by the text. In O lux decus Hispanie, an antiphon from a rhymed Office for St. James the Greater, changes to the music of the prima pars help obscure the original points of imitation and thus give more continuous declamation. Changes in mensuration also affect the proportions between the lengths of the two partes. Although Christus vincit is the parent work, there is no evidence to prove that Hugo de Lantins had any direct role in the creation of O lux decus Hispanie.

Works: Hugo de Lantins: O lux decus Hispanie.

Sources: Hugo de Lantins: Christus vincit.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The clausulae of Florence, Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana, Pluteo 29.1 are not transcriptions of motets. Many of the clausulae have short melismas at the end, which would render them unrelated to existing motets. Anomalies in notation do exist, but these can be reconciled through the application of standard fractio modi and the use of some system of equipollentia, already in use in the cum littera sections of contemporary conductus.

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The English Prayer Book of 1552 made the traditional five-movement Ordinary cycle a thing of the past, but composers began expanding the possibilities of cyclic groupings by including elements from Matins and Evensong. Sheppard in particular began expanding the use of head motive and end-of-movement material, linking movements thematically and placing the motives at various places in the individual movements. William Mundy, in composing a missing Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis for Robert Parsons' First Service, utilizes motives already found in Parsons.

Works: William Mundy: Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis (427-28).

Sources: Robert Parsons: First Service (421-27).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The oldest known Agnus Dei melody, Melody 226 in Martin Schildbach's Das einstimmige Agnus Dei und seine handschriftliche überlieferung vom 10. bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, appears with additional verses in its earliest sources, raising the question of whether these are tropes or whether all the music was composed at the same time. In the ninth century the function of the Agnus Dei became dissociated from an extended rite of Fraction, and its form became that of threefold repetition. As the Agnus Dei moved into Frankish regions, geographically distinct repertoires of associated verses came to be identified. The interior verses that appear with Melody 226 are more syllabic and differ from the Agnus Dei melody itself with regard to range, tessitura, and ductus, suggesting that the interior verses are in fact tropes.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

An examination of some seventy-six pieces with conflicting attributions suggests that the question of attribution is not one of scribal error but rather a case of compositional revision of the work of one composer by another. Many conflicting attributions involve composers who were associated with one another in some special way, often by having been colleagues at a court or cathedral. In some cases these compositional revisions involve the entire polyphonic fabric, but more often only a single voice is involved, usually the contratenor. Sometimes different attributions are given for similar readings of existing variants; in that case, the variants may be a case of a scribe not knowing which reading to attribute to which composer. Conflicting attributions may help offer clues to lacunae in a composer's biography: Hayne van Ghizeghem and Johannes Japart are composers whose careers may be expanded in this way. Tables give all seventy-six pieces with conflicting attributions plus the twenty-three base sources from which they are drawn.

Works: Johannes Martini/Heinrich Isaac: Des biens (257-58, 278), La Martinella (257, 260, 261-62, 278); Malcourt/Johannes Martini/Johannes Ockeghem: Malheure me bat (257, 259-60, 279); Jacob Obrecht/Virgilius: Nec michi, nec tibi (258, 260, 263, 279); Antoine Busnois/Hayne van Ghizeghem: J'ay bien choisie (260, 264, 278); Antoine Busnois/Heinrich Isaac: Sans avoir (260, 265, 279); Josquin des Prez/Johannes Japart: J'ay bien rise tant (260-61, 265, 278); Alexander Agricola/Loyset Compère: La saison en est (261, 266, 279); Petrus Congiet/Johannes Japart: Je cuide (261, 266, 278); Loyset Compère/Pietrequin Bonnel: Mais que ce fust secretement (261, 267, 279); John Bedingham/Walter Frye: So ys emprentid (268, 281); Gilles Binchois/Walter Frye: Tout a par moy (269,278); Adrien Basin/[illegible]: Madame faites moy (269-71, 281); Barbingant/Johannes Fedé: L'homme banni (269, 271, 272, 281).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

A series of motets based on the clausula Et gaudebit no. 2 were held in unusual esteem during the thirteenth century, as evidenced by their placement in manuscripts and the treatment of their initials. The motets demonstrate virtually every motet type of the Ars Antiqua except for the two-voice French motet. All of the derived motets are listed in a table. Although the source clausula is from the Feast of the Ascension, the subsequent motets all focus on the Virgin Mary. The most frequently used motet text, O quam sancta, quam benigna, helped to confirm the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation, and its use was approved and encouraged by the clergy of Notre Dame.

Works: El mois d'avril qu'ivers va departant/O Maria, mater pia, vite via/O quam sancta, quam benigna/Et gaudebit (19, 21-23).

Sources: Clausula: Et gaudebit no. 2.

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In 1736, Gottlieb Muffat copied out, by hand, two published works by Handel: the eight Suites de pièces (1720) and the Six Fugues or Voluntarys for the Organ or Harpsichord (1735). Muffat did this to illustrate his method of fingering and to specify a precise system of ornaments. Quite likely, Muffat had received these published editions directly from London, and in return dedicated his Componimenti musicali to Handel. The latter, in turn, borrowed from Muffat's work.

Works: Handel: Twelve Grand Concertos, Op. 6 (904), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (904), Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7 no. 2 (907).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (904, 906-7), Ricercare (907).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Handel's uses of themes from Muffat's Componimenti musicali fall into three categories: (1) the themes are taken as "mere suggestions" by Handel; (2) the ideas are adopted with little or any alteration; (3) the themes are freely treated to the point that they take on an independent life of their own. Examples of each type of usage may be found in Handel's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day and elsewhere. Unlike Giovanni Bononcini, who was discredited for claiming another's music as his own, Handel's musical borrowings were accepted because the materials he appropriated were so well known that there was no pretense to originality.

Works: Handel: Ode on St. Cecilia's Day (149-51), Joshua (151), Samson (151).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (149-51).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The Kyrie trope is a Kyrie with independent text and melody inserted between phrases, in contrast with a texted Kyrie, which is a lengthy chant with a syllabic text. The most common forms of Kyrie trope contained one, three, or eight phrases. The texted Kyrie seems to be the older form and is more common in western Europe. It is possible that the Kyrie and trope were composed together, as may also be the case for the sequence, due to the presence of a more purely melismatic style. The longer Kyrie trope is more common east of the Rhine, uses shorter chant melodies, and has more formal and structural similarities to Kyrie melodies in general. Complete musical independence is the only universal characteristic of all Kyrie tropes. Tables list fourty-four Kyrie tropes and their sixty-one manuscript sources.

Works: Eia chorus clamans (12, 16, 20-22); Rex regnum domine (14, 23-26, 37); Omnipotens genitor lumenque (10, 13, 15-16, 17, 26-31); Deus solus et immensus (12, 31-36).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Critics have often noted the structural similarities between the opening of Berlioz's Harold en Italie and that of Beethoven's Ninth. At the opening of the finale, both works reprise then reject themes from earlier movements. Unlike other composers who use this device (Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler, Franck), Berlioz does not conclude with a triumphant chorale-like theme. In fact, the viola protagonist remains passive to events throughout, much in the manner of Byron's Childe Harold. Yet Berlioz is in fact confronting the legacy of the "terrifying giant" Beethoven, following Harold Blooms's notions of the "anxiety of influence." Although other of Berlioz's works (Symphonie fantastique, Lélio, Roméo et Juliette, Symphonie funèbre et triomphale) bear the influence of Beethoven, Harold en Italie shows Berlioz's strongest confrontation with Beethoven's legacy.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie.

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Development of paraphrase technique in the fifteenth century may be traced through four stages: (1) the cantus firmus migrates successively through several voices; (2) the cantus firmus is subjected to melodic variation but remains in one voice; (3) introductory duos and trios anticipate the arrival of the cantus firmus (which remains in only one voice part); (4) points of imitation based on the cantus firmus open major sections of a piece, which continue in a non-imitative manner. Imitation as a structural device occurred first in secular works before moving to the sacred realm. The syntactic-imitative style reached its fruition in Italy, where humanism and its emphasis on the imitatio were helping to move music from the field of science to the field of humanities.

Works: Bittering: Nesciens mater (27-28); Pycard: Sanctus (28-30); Guillaume Dufay: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Vostre bruit (34-35), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40); Gilles Binchois (36): Ave regina coelorum (36-37); Johannes Regis: O admirabile commercium (40-42); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa Au travail suis (42-43); Jacob Obrecht: Missa Je ne demande (43-44); Salve regina (43-44); Anonymous: Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47); Johannes Martini: Missa ferialis (48-52), Missa dominicalis (52-57) Josquin des Prez: Missa de Beata Virgine (57-59).

Sources: Antiphon: Nesciens mater (27-28); Sanctus with Marian trope [Sarum] (28-30); Chant: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Ave regina coelorum (36-37), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40), Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47), Mass XVIII for the Ferias of Advent and Lent (48-52), Mass XI (52-56), Mass IX (57-58), Mass IV (57-58); Introit: Puer natus (41-42); Barbingant: Au travail suis (42-43); Loyset Compère: Au travail suis (42-43).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Although aria borrowing was commonplace in opera history, the distinctive feature of the "suitcase aria" was that it was re-used by the same performer. An investigation of opera performances in late seventeenth-century Italy shows that borrowed arias were not transmitted by individual singers but were exchanged between singers. Certain other singers and impresarios maintained an aria repertory and served as brokers for other cast members. A more apt metaphor for this type of collaborative sharing might be the "recycling box" rather than the "suitcase."

Works: Giovanni Legrenzi: Etecole e Polinice (6-7, 11-13), Germanico sul Reno (13-15); Domenico Freschi: L'onor vindicato (6-7); [Carlo Pallavincino?]: Bassiano (8-10); Antonio Cesti: Il Tito (10-11)

Sources: Pietro Andrea Ziani: Il talamo preservato (6-9, 11-13); Domenico Freschi: Sardanapolo (6)

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The "Indianist" composers of the period 1890-1920 took two approaches to the Native melodies that they used: music as raw material, and music as culture. Edward MacDowell used the Native melodies collected by Theodore Baker in his ‹ber die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden (1882). For MacDowell, these tunes were strictly raw musical material, with no reference or attention to tribal sources. Whatever cultural interpretation he made of the music is a generic one based on Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of "cultural evolutionary stages." Arthur Farwell's source of Native melodies came from the work of Alice Fletcher and Francis LaFlesche, whose research focused on the Omaha nation and dealt extensively with cultural context. Ultimately, the Indianist composers sacrificed cultural authenticity as a result of their attempt to make the music accessible for a consumer culture.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Second ("Indian") Suite, Op. 48 (268-71), Second Sonata (Eroica), Op. 50 (271); Arthur Farwell: American Indian Melodies: "The Old Man's Love Song" (277, 279).

Sources: Kiowa melody, collected by Theodore Baker: "Kiowa Song of a Mother to Her Absent Son" (269-71); Omaha melody, collected by Alice Fletcher: "Be-Thae Wa-An" (277-78).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Christoph Willibald Gluck used a theme borrowed from the gigue of Bach's Partita No. 1 in B-flat major in three of his own operas. Of Gluck's biographers, only Anna Amalie Abert notes that Gluck used the first part of Bach's gigue. Gluck was probably attracted by the gigue's agitated character, its leaping melodic line, and its repeated dissonant appoggiaturas. In the three arias in which this theme is used, the characters are suffering from an emotional crisis. Gluck adds an ornamented upbeat to Bach's theme, and uses a section of the theme in the bass line. The extent of Gluck's adaptation makes this a true borrowing, rather than a "paraphrase" as Klaus Hortschansky argues.

Works: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride, "Je t'implore et je tremble" (188, 192-95, 198-203), Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (195-96), Antigono, "Perchè, se tanti siete" (189).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, BWV 625 (188, 189-91, 194); Christoph Willibald Gluck: Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (189, 195-96).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Johann Mattheson, in his Vollkommener Capellmeister, suggests that a composer have at his disposal a number of what are called "moduli." These consist of "modulations, little turns, clever motives, pleasing figures" and the like, that the composer can apply to his own melodic invention. The origins of these "moduli" are not as important as their usage, because even great ideas poorly used will amount to nothing. Handel used the "moduli" often as an integral part of his compositional process. Three different melodic figures are given, with numerous examples of how Handel developed these into themes.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Although musical borrowing has been an area of study for over a century, it has never been considered as a field that extends over the whole of music history. A study of borrowing in this way may help to answer analytical, interpretative, and historical questions. Analytical tools developed to study borrowing in one musical era can give insight into music of other eras as well. A typology of the uses of existing music in new compositions would comprise several distinctions: (1) the relationship of the new work to the borrowed piece, (2) the elements of the existing work that are borrowed, (3) the structural relationship of borrowed material to the new work, (4) the alteration of the borrowed material, (5) the musical function of the borrowed material, and (6) the associative or extramusical meaning of the borrowed material.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Felix Cox

A benefit performance for Handel on March 28, 1738, contained a composition advertised solely as An Oratorio. The mixture of English and Italian texts in this work continues Handel's practice in the preceding years of using texts in the native language of whatever singers happened to be available. Although Handel routinely assembled self-pasticcio operas in the 1730s, the 1738 Oratorio seems to be the only occasion in which he did this in oratorio form. Handel's pasticcio operas are listed in the appendix to HWV as A1 to A14, and A15 is used for instrumental minuets derived from opera arias; the 1738 Oratorio is worthy of inclusion as A16.

Works: Handel: An Oratorio (1738) (passim), Israel in Egypt (18, 33-24, 36), Esther (23, 37), Athalia, HWV 52 (27).

Sources: Handel: Chapel Royal Anthem, HWV 251c (17, 33), Athalia, HWV 52 (17-18, 21, 33, 35), Deborah, HWV 51 (22, 29, 34-37), My heart is inditing (22-24), Esther, HWV 50 (23-24, 33-34, 36-37), Silete Venti, HWV 242/3 (33-34), Cecilia volgi un sguardo, HWV 89 (37), Carco sempre di Gloria, HWV 87 (37), Coronation Anthem, HWV 258 (37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Before the Elizabethan Act of Uniformity of 1559, there was an active school of liturgical organ polyphony in England. These compositions were intended to replace the singing of a choir or soloist for the portion of the chant that was set. After the Reformation, composers continued to employ plainsong from the Sarum rite, but not with any liturgical intent. The practice of setting plainsong in this way is uniquely English. The many settings of In nomine and Gloria tibi Trinitas are examples of this practice. Two tables list all known keyboard plainsong settings, both before and after 1559 (i.e., both for liturgical and non-liturgical use).

Works: Anonymous: Kyrie (137-38); William Byrd: Three polyphonic keyboard settings of Clarifica me Pater (142-44), Polyphonic keyboard setting of Miserere mihi, Domine (148-49).

Sources: Guillaume Dufay [attrib.]: Portugaler (137-38); Basse danse: La portingaloise (138); Chant: Clarifica me Pater (142-44), Miserere mihi, Domine (148-49).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Provides new sources, entries, and annotations.

Works: Thomas Tallis: Fantasy (216); Guillaume Dufay [attrib.]: Portugaler (216-17).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Borrowing and adapting were cornerstones of Bach's compositional process. He not only borrowed music and ideas from other composers but also revisited his own works, using them in different contexts. Borrowings from different media and simple revisions or re-workings, especially in the keyboard works, are two distinct practices. An intentional re-use of an existing phrase, theme, section, movement, or work constitutes a borrowing; unintentional quotations or accidental allusions should be considered mere resemblances. Extensive tables with commentary consider borrowings arranged by media: keyboard to keyboard, keyboard to cantata, chamber music to cantata, and the like. Part I of the book covers self-borrowings, while Part II consists of borrowings from others. The datings used are those of Schmieder and Besseler. Dürr and Dadelsen's work on chronology is noted when it is significantly different from Schmieder, thus affecting the source-borrowing relationship.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The exclusive right of the artist to the benefits that accrue from his or her intellectual property is a characteristic of modern culture. Borrowing is a common phenomenon, and exists in three types: (1) self-borrowing, or use of themes from one piece in another; (2) borrowing which is done as an obvious tribute or burlesque of the original, and (3) unacknowledged borrowing. Modern sensitivities consider this latter type of borrowing to be outright theft. The eighteenth century acknowledged but did not condemn this type of borrowing.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

This is the companion volume to Copland: 1900 Through 1942. References to musical borrowings occur throughout the text. Much of the borrowing now focuses on associative connections for film scores. Apart from outright arrangements or music intended for student performers, there are few pieces that incorporate American folksongs past The Tender Land (1954). Much of Copland's borrowing in this period is of stylistic traits rather than direct quotation. Self-borrowing is most common in the later works.

Works: Aaron Copland: The North Star (film score) (15-16), Appalachian Spring (32-33), Variations on a Theme by Goosens (61), The Cummington Story (film score) (62-63), Third Symphony (68-69), Tragic Ground (unfinished) (76, 166-67), The Red Pony (film score) (88-91), The Heiress (film score) (98-107), Old American Songs (166-67), The Tender Land (220-21), Three Latin-American Sketches (273), Dance Panels (275-76), Music for a Great City (333-34), Emblems (343-44), Happy Anniversary (261)

Sources: Song of the Fatherland (16); Internationale (16); Simple Gifts (32-33, 166); Aaron Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (68), Tragic Ground (88) Something Wild (film score) (333-34); I Got Me a Cat (76); So Long, Old Paint (90); Giovanni Martini: Plaisirs d'Amour (100, 106); Daniel Decatur Emmett: The Boatmans's Dance (166); The Dodger (166); Long Time Ago (166); The Little Horses (167); John G. McCurry (attrib.): Zion's Walls (167, 220-21); The Golden Willow Tree (167); Robert Lowry: At the River (167); Ching-a-Ring Chaw (167, 220); Amazing Grace (343); Happy Birthday (361, 375).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman, Felix Cox

Within the context of a comprehensive autobiography, numerous musical borrowings are considered. The majority of pieces quote or paraphrase American folksongs; these are named when known. Other types of borrowing include arrangement, variations, settings, and self-borrowing. Copland also mentions instances of borrowing in the music of his colleagues.

Works: Aaron Copland: Dance Symphony (86, 163), Vitebsk (160-63), Statements for Orchestra (236), El Salón México (245ff), Second Hurricane (261), Billy the Kid (279-80), Billy the Kid (suite) (284-85), John Henry (291), Lincoln Portrait (342ff), Las Agachadas (355), Rodeo (357), Four Dance Episodes from Rodeo (363); Virgil Thomson: The Plow That Broke the Plains (357, 388n19).

Sources: Aaron Copland: Grohg (86, 163); James W. Blake and Charles B. Lawlor: The Sidewalks of New York (236); El Mosca (246); El Palo Verde (246); La Jesusita (246); La Malacate (246); The Capture of Burgoyne (261); Great Grand-Dad (280, 284-85); The Chisholm Trail (280, 284); Git Along Little Dogies (280, 284); Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie (284, 354); John Henry (291); Stephen Foster: Camptown Races (342-43); Springfield Mountain (The Pesky Sarpent) (342-43); Ground Hog (357); Old Paint (363, 388n19); If He Be a Buckaroo by Trade (363); Sis Joe (363, 354); Bonyparte (363); McLeod's Reel (363); The Man on the Flying Trapeze (367).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman, Felix Cox

Modern ideas of the trope are an ill-informed effort to provide a single definition to the variety of musical forms introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. What are today called "tropes" actually served different functions and may be grouped into different types. Fourteen early troper manuscripts are listed. Introit tropes (as well as those for Offertory and Communion) are new compositions, both in text and melody, added to the official chant. Often these are of considerably greater size and complexity than the original chant. Gloria and Sanctus tropes involve new compositions, but the official melodies may be roughly the same age as the tropes. The Agnus Dei is such a new liturgical form that it is difficult to separate the "official" text, much less the melody. So-called Kyrie tropes may well be integral parts of the composition of the Kyrie itself. Texting of pre-existing melismas did occur, especially in the Alleluia, but these instances are infrequent and usually of later origin. It is particularly erroneous to describe the sequence as a trope of its Alleluia.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

While Johann Joseph Fux's treatise Gradus ad Parnassum recommends Palestrina as a model of the contrapuntal style, it does not include any music by Palestrina. Fux's own Missa di San Carlo (also known as the Missa Canonica) was long considered a masterpiece of the old style. Palestrina's Missa ad Fugam, which was known to Fux, most likely served as a model for this work. Scarlatti and Albrechtsberger also wrote canonic masses. These eighteenth-century compositions reflect the composers' knowledge of the Palestrina style as observed from his Missa ad Fugam.

Works: Johann Joseph Fux: Missa di San Carlo (463-65); Alessandro Scarlatti: Messe e Credo a 4 ad Canones (465, 467); Johann Georg Albrechtsberger: Missa Canonica (465, 468-69).

Sources: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa ad Fugam (passim).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Three one-voice German songs from the Glogauer Liederbuch--In feuers hitz (No. 39), Bruder Konrad (No. 46), and Ich sachs eins mals (No. 46)--may be combined to create a quodlibet.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Although Lassus was familiar with the chansons of his immediate predecessors, he was not much influenced by their musical settings. Lassus' earlier pieces made a large impact on certain composers of the younger generation, but his later works, while showing greater literary sensitivity, were not generally adopted as models. An annotated listing of all of Lassus' 147 surviving chanson settings is provided, with commentary on each.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In Petrushka (1911), Renard (1915-16), and The Soldier's Tale (1917-18), Stravinsky uses abstraction and parody to create new dramaturgical forms and musical meanings. The use of abstraction and the view of musical forms (such as ragtime) as archetypes not only affected Stravinsky's style in the 1914-17 period but also paved the way toward his neoclassical style, where it was transformed from mere irony to stylization of the musical material.

Works: Stravinsky: Petrushka,Renard,The Soldier's Tale.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The St. Victor repertory of polyphonic conductus, while peripheral to the Notre Dame manuscripts, may in fact predate them. Instances of alternate texts to the same music, voice exchange in the three-part pieces, and treatment of melismas point to interrelationships between the two schools. Clausulae are borrowed from liturgical texts for use in para-liturgical compositions based on assonance. Using this evidence, the St. Victor manuscript can be assumed to have been compiled from sometime before 1209 to around 1244.

Works: Stella serena (313-17); Veri solis presentia (316); Deduc syon (317, 321); O felix bituria (321, 324-25); Naturas deus regulis (323).

Sources: Ave Maria (313-17); Mater patris (316); Benedicamus domino (317-26).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The term "parody" has a venerable history, going back to Quintilian's Institutio oratoria where it is defined, in Book VI, as an alteration of the text with the intent to alter its meaning. Beginning in Germany in the late seventeenth century, "parody" was generally applied to the alteration or substitution of a song text, usually from a secular to a sacred sense. French usage of the term, beginning with Henri Estienne (1531-1588), began to carry with it musical implications. This broader French definition was also used to draw attention to the original musical models. Generally speaking, the prepositions "post" and "super" were more commonly applied to the use of a musical, as opposed to a textual, model.

The term "contrafactum" originates in post-Classical Latin and has as its nearest English cognate the word "counterfeit." The word is found as a rubric in the Reformation-era Pfullinger Liederhandschrift. Kurt Hennig, in his 1909 book on these songs, uses the term "contrafactum" to describe the recasting of a secular poem as a sacred one. Friedrich Gennrich, writing a decade later, expanded the word to mean "conscious use of any model," and from this point the meaning has broadened to a general category, of which parody, travesty, and the like are sub-categories.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Felix Cox

J. S. Bach's arrangement of Palestrina's Missa sine nomine reflects many of the practices of the eighteenth century. Instruments were added, playing colla parte, and a basso continuo realized for the lowest part. Sometimes a new basso continuo part was created, independent of the voice parts. The use of the breve as tactus was not understood. The original notation was not halved to retain the tactus; rather, the measures themselves were cut in half. Text underlay was altered to keep melismas to a minimum and to make declamation conform to the meter, especially in the bass. The use of accidentals and leading tones emphasized tonality but destroyed the cross-relations and major-minor shifts characteristic of 16th-century music. Bach, however, did not always alter the older model, but tried as much as he could to internalize the old Palestrina style.

Works: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, arr. Johann Sebastian Bach: Missa sine nomine.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Ottavio Durante's Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare are unique examples of what may be called a "parody cantata." These pieces use Alessandro Scarlatti's solo cantatas as models, but use only the recitatives, not the arias. Durante composed extended introductions, and added a number of devices (including imitation, echo, transpositions, modulations, sequences, variations, and original interpolations) to the original. The version of Durante's Duetti da Camera preserved in Rome, Academy of Santa Cecilia, G. Mss. 302, contains written-out vocal embellishments and figured bass realizations that give a good picture of the performance practices of the day.

Works: Ottavio Durante: Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

As the sixteenth century progressed, imitation technique moved away from the restructuring of motivic complexes toward a manipulation of texture and sonority built increasingly on the bass part. Borrowed voices are freely manipulated, and may appear in different registers and order. Borrowing of multiple voices may be taken from well within, rather than at the beginning of, points of imitation, thus de-emphasizing the polyphonic origins of the borrowing. An increasing polarization is seen toward the outer voices. The concern of the composer shifts from the horizontal line to the vertical intervallic structure, with added emphasis on vocal orchestration and tonal contrast. This suggests an additional category of mass settings derived from polyphonic sources: "imitation masses emphasizing vertical structures, governed by a structural bass."

Works: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa Tu es Petrus (12-16), Missa Laudate Dominum (16-18), Missa Ascendo ad Patrem (19-21); Phillipp de Monte: Missa La dolce vista (22-26); Orlando de Lassus: Missa Osculetur me osculo (26-30); Costanzo Porta: Missa Descendit angelus (30-31).

Sources: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Tu es Petrus (12-16), Laudate Dominum (16-18), Ascendo ad Patrem (19-21); Phillipp de Monte: La dolce vista (22-26); Orlando de Lassus: Osculetur me osculo (26-30); Hilaire Penet: Descendit angelus (30-31).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Evidence suggests that the six anonymous L'Homme armé masses of Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40, were composed by Firminus Caron. Certain head motifs and closing formulae that appear frequently in the Naples masses may be found more often in Caron's work than that of any other composer. Tables and numerous musical examples support Caron as the stylistic origin of these masses. Sources for these features are found in several of Caron's masses and chansons. The masses of the Naples manuscript are of Burgundian origin. Charles the Bold (then Count of Charolais) spent two weeks in Amiens during in 1466, during Firminus Caron's tenure there, giving him the opportunity to become familiar with these masses and subsequently transmit them to Naples.

Works: Anonymous?/Caron?: Six Masses on L'Homme armé (passim); Johannes Ockeghem: D'un aultre la (8): Anonymous: Tart ara quaresme (8).

Sources: Anonymous: Cent mille escus (8); Firminus Caron: Le despourveu (13, 23), Missa Jesus autem transiens (14, 15-17, 20-23), Missa L'Homme armé (17-23).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Numerical analysis is a useful tool in determining the relationship between paraphrase and model. This tool is used by numbering the notes of the model. Since the notes of the derived composition use the notes of the model in order, a more detailed map of the relationship between the two is possible. Melodic repetition may be included within structural elongations of pitches. Additionally, the model may undergo transposition. Interpretation of certain passages as transpositions of the model may also help solve certain problems in the application of musica ficta.

Works: Josquin des Prez: Missa Pange lingua (111-17).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Techniques of unification in early fifteenth century cyclic masses and mass pairs run far deeper than simply the use of a common motto or tenor. Other musical relationships such as clef combinations, signatures, finalis, number of voices, and mensurations also provided unity. Examples from the MS Bologna, Museo Civico, Bibliografia musicale, Q15, olim Liceo Musiciale 37 (BL) show several techniques of unification. Two Gloria-Credo pairs and one mass cycle by Johannes de Lymburgia show strong use of motto technique. A Gloria-Credo pair by Hugo de Lantins is related by the working out of tenor repetitions more than by motto pairing. An anonymous Gloria-Credo pair (BL 105-107) features what might be called an extended motto technique, in which borrowed canonic material is developed differently between the two movements.

Works: Johannes de Lymburgia: two Gloria-Credo pairs (BL 121-24 and 165b-167) (210-13), Mass fragment (BL 193-96) 213-15), Mass (BL 161-65) (215-18); Hugo de Lantins: Gloria-Credo pair (BL 86-87) (218-222); Anonymous: Gloria-Credo pair (BL 105-107) (222-31).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The rondeau Fors seulement seems to have inspired imitation by composers of numerous secular chansons in much the way that L'Homme armé inspired Mass settings. Thirty-five surviving works are based on Fors seulement. Although the rondeau itself was written before 1470, twenty-six of the Fors seulement parodies are based on Ockeghem's three-part setting, which appeared five years later. Ockeghem's superius is the part most often borrowed by other composers, but it is often placed in a different voice using a transposed mode. Two later sources seem to point toward the creation of a new cantus firmus, which served as the model for the setting (probably by Matthaeus Pipelare) published by Petrucci in Canti B in 1502. Pipelare's setting, in turn, served as a model for Antoine de Févin's setting using Fors seulement la mort rather than the original Fors seulement l'attente. Willaert's five-part setting is drawn in turn from Févin. Appendices list all thirty-five settings with their sources, and trace the lineage of borrowing from Ockeghem to Willaert.

Works: Antoine de Févin: Fors seulement (100, 116, 123, 124, 126); Adrian Willaert: Fors seulement (101-02, 117, 126).

Sources: Johannes Ockeghem: Fors seulement (94-96, 108-09, 122); Anonymous: Fors seulement (97-98, 115, 123-4); Mattheus Pipelare: Fors seulement (98-100, 115-16, 125, 126).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Because of the speed with which it was written and the collaborative nature of the project, the true origins of The Threepenny Opera are difficult to trace with precision. Nominally the work is a parody of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, which had enjoyed a successful revival in London from 1920 to 1923. In fact the publisher Schott had contacted the young Paul Hindemith with the idea of providing new music for this play. Weill retained only one of the 69 melodies from the original Beggar's Opera, but several other tunes may have been patterned after specific models.

Works: Kurt Weill, The Threepenny Opera (13, 36-40).

Sources: Johann Christoph Pepusch: The Beggar's Opera (13, 36); Eduard Künneke: Der Vetter aus Dingsda (36); Puccini: Madame Butterfly (40); Engelbert Humperdinck: Hänsel und Gretel (40-41).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

A comparison of the great responsories for Matins in various western European codices from the tenth to thirteenth centuries suggests that the melismatic closes were conceived as musical tropes. Such melismas were also transferred in whole or part from one responsory to another. Evidence for the conception of these melismas as tropes includes their appearance in a fixed point of the respond, a melodic repeat structure foreign to the style of the neumatic and syllabic parts of the responsories, and stylistic differences to the respond even when repeat structure is not present.

Works: Responsory: O pastor apostolice (36-38), Sanctissimi martyris Stephani (36-37, 39), Electus est dilectus (39), Filie ierusalem (39), Christe miles preciosus (45). Related works: Respond: Ego pro te rogavi (44), Hic est discipulus (44-45), Sine lumbi vestry (44-45), Symon bariona tu vocaberis (45-46).

Sources: Responsory: Descendit de celis (36-37), Cuthbertus puer bone indolis (39), Hec est ierusalem (39).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Ives quoted many diatonic melodies in his songs, which were then transformed chromatically. A process of intervallic alteration created contrasting diatonic links, offered more intervallic material for exploitation, and used a process called "refracted diatonicism." Ives exploits the connections between the various diatonic areas through the use of the tritone.

Works: Ives: The Innate (239-43, 257), The Camp-Meeting (244-45, 256), At the River (245-47, 256, 257), Nov. 2, 1920 (249-51, 256), Hymn (250-53, 255, 258), Old Home Day (256-60).

Sources: Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth (attr.): Nettleton (240-43); William Bradbury: Woodworth (244-45); Robert Lowry: The Beautiful River (245-47); John Stafford Smith: The Star-Spangled Banner (249-51); William Howard Doane: More Love to Thee (250-53); William Steffe (attrib.): The Battle Hymn of the Republic (257-60).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The ostinato subject that concludes Brahm's Fourth Symphony has connections to the Baroque tradition of the ostinato bass. However, the subject also refers to the structural coherence of the symphony as a whole, especially in the use of chains of thirds. Brahms thus had other models including Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, and Rubenstein. As a theme in and of itself, the ostinato more closely resembles Buxtehude; as evidence of compositional process, it shows strong links to Beethoven, not only his variation works but also his Fifth Symphony.

Works: Brahms: Fourth Symphony (3-17); Beethoven: Third Symphony (9).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 (3-6), Chaconne for solo violin (6-8); Buxtehude: E-Minor Ciacona (6, 12), D-Minor Passacaglia (6-8); François Couperin: B-Minor Passacaille (8); Beethoven: Variations for Piano, Op. 35 (9), C-Minor Variations (9), Third Symphony (9-10), Fifth Symphony (10), Hammerklavier Sonata (10); Mozart: G-Minor Symphony (10-11, 15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Writers addressing the question of Bach's self-parodies have stressed practical concerns, such as the validity of the music to a new text, time pressure, or work economy. Bach's re-use of three movements from the cantata Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208, involves a considerable amount of recomposition. In most cases, the metrical and rhyme scheme of the new texts are completely different, and in the case of Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149, the affect of the text changes from one of pastoral sweetness to a joyful celebration of victory in battle. Although Bach found creative solutions for the problems posed by these self-borrowings, he did not use borrowing as a matter of convenience. Rather, the urge to elaborate all possibilities within a given musical idea was central to Bach's compositional process.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (39-52), Trio, BWV 1040 (48-49), Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (52, 56-57).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208 (38-57), Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (48).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The concept of centonization (recurrence of melodic formulae) may be expanded to suggest that certain textual elements (including word sounds, placement, and meaning) also may have suggested musical setting. Clues to the sources of these borrowings are sometimes found in verses other than the first one. Whether or not it was conscious, musical borrowing of this type serves to reinforce the authority of the pre-existent material and may be an aid to memory.

Works: Pax in caelo permanet (26-27); Laudabilis domine (29-31); Alme mundi (31-35); O alma virgo (35-36); Hic laudando (35-43); Cives superni/Christus surrexit (43-45).

Sources: Laudat in excelsis (25-26); Laus tua deus (28-29, 31-35); Laus tibi domine (28-29); Alme mundi (35-36); Quem patris (35-43); Pax sempiterna (43-45).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Despite the recognition of the importance of "L'Homme armé," two questions still remain outstanding: (1) what are the origins of the melody and its text, and (2) how may the earliest polyphonic elaborations of the tune be identified, grouped, and ordered? Details of the tune's structure and modality suggest that it was composed rather than arising spontaneously from folk tradition. Its traditional use as a tenor part supports the idea that the tune was once the tenor of a three-part chanson. The text can be read in light of several social and military innovations in 1440s France. Dufay appears to be the first to elaborate the melody in a mass cycle; the tradition spread to other regions of France and returned to Burgundy before spreading into Italy. There are marked stylistic differences in the oldest masses using the tune. Dufay, Josquin, Palestrina, and others used a countermelody resembling Kyrie VIII ("Kyrie de angelis") in "L'Homme armé" masses. This same countermelody appears in the "In nomine" section of John Taverner's Mass "Gloria tibi trinitas," thus suggesting a link between the "L'Homme armé" and "In nomine" traditions.

Works: Guillaume Dufay: Missa L'Homme armé (112-15, 116); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa L'Homme armé (113-15); Josquin des Prez: Missa L'Homme armé super voces musicales (116-17), Missa L'Homme armé sexti toni (117); Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa L'Homme armé (117); Johannes Prioris: Missa de Angelis (118-19); John Taverner: Missa Gloria tibi trinitas (120-21).

Sources: L'Homme armé; O rosa bella (101-02); Kyrie VIII ("Kyrie de Angelis") (116-21).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The combinative chansons of the Dijon Chansonnier (Dijon, Bibliothèque Municipale, MS 517) demonstrate characteristics of a well-defined genre. All of the combinative chansons of the Dijon Chansonnier feature a forme fixe in the Superius, with inner voices employing a popular melody, usually a chanson à refrain. In many cases, the popular melody is presented in canon. The aim of these chansons was to combine popular and courtly styles in a humorous and ironic way. Courtly and popular texts were presented in succession. True stylistic integration was undesirable because it would have hidden the antithetical construction of the combinative elements. Appendices provide an annotated list of combinative compositions and a catalogue and transcriptions of popular melodies quoted in the combinative chansons.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Combinative music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries uses different methods to unite heterogeneous texts and melodies: simultaneous, successive, and a combination of the two. Franco-Flemish practice focused on the first two of these categories. Serious motets and melancholy songs combined texts and tunes with symbolic relationships. Double and triple chansons and compositions with mixed sacred and secular texts used satire to produce humor on an ironic level. The type of combinative writing most often found in German regions featured a combination of successive fragments within a loose form, producing a broader, nonsensical type of humor. Thus the term "quodlibet" should be understood to refer to this specific sixteenth-century German type.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The term "self borrowing" is not only grammatically contradictory (what one owns, one needs not borrow), it also tends to obscure the compositional process. Composers such as Bach and Handel did not stop thinking about musical material once it was committed to paper; rather, they continued to revise and expand on it. In Handel's case, expansion and elaboration of a theme can be seen in manuscript sketches.

Works: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Trio in E-flat, K. 498 (147-48), Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Act II, "Welche Wonne, welche lust" (147, 149); Anonymous, attributed to Handel: St. John Passion (150); George Frideric Handel: Organ Concerto, Op. 7, No. 4 (150-52), Nel dolce dell' oblio (150, 153), composition studies for Princess Anne (157-59), Sixth Chandos Anthem (159-63); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232, "Patrem omnipotentem" (155-56).

Sources: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Quartet in G minor, K. 478 (147-48), Flute Concerto, K. 314 (147, 149); Georg Philipp Telemann: Musique de table, second set (150, 153); Johann Sebastian Bach: Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (155-56); George Frideric Handel: Utrecht Te Deum (159).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

From the mid-fifteenth century until about 1520, there was a strong tradition of reworking polyphonic art songs (i.e., secular compositions not derived from popular melodies and drawn from Flemish and Italian sources in addition to chansons). A relatively small number of models were used repeatedly, generating a large repertory of derived compostions. It is possible that composers consciously decided to use these limited models as a type of "contest" to demonstrate their craft, possibly beginning with Fors seulement. Cantus-firmus settings were written early in the tradition but became predominant later. There is no pattern of "progression" in the types of reworkings employed. Italy seems to be an important center for the art-song reworking, perhaps due to the influx of northern composers, an impatience with the forme-fixe chanson, and the development of instrumental virtuosity.

Sources: Hayne van Ghizeghem: Allez regretz (4, 5, 24, 26), De tous biens plaine (4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 17, 27-28); Gilles Binchois (?): Comme femme (4, 7, 11-12, 26); Johannes Ockeghem: D'ung aultre amer (4, 7, 11, 28-29), Fors seulement (4, 5, 14-15, 17, 20-21, 23-24, 30-31), Ma bouche rit (4, 35); Jacques Barbireau: Een vrolic wesen (4, 5, 15, 18, 29-30); Anonymous: Fors seulement, two subsidiary settings (4, 5, 10, 31), O waerde mont (4, 15, 36); Antoine Busnois (?): Fortuna desperata (4, 5, 7-8, 11-12, 13, 15, 17, 31-33); Caron (?): J'ay pris amours (4, 7, 9-10, 15, 18-19, 20, 24, 33-34); Guillaume Dufay (?): Le serviteur (4, 8-9, 19-20, 34); John Bedyngham or John Dunstable: O rosa bella (4, 12-14, 15, 24, 35-36).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The word "descantava" in a Provençal vida of the troubador Gui d'Uisel refers not to the addition of a descant, or upper melodic line, but rather to the practice of writing a satirical response to an existing poem. Such responses usually employed the same melodies, stanza structures, and rhyme schemes.

Works: Peire d'Uisel: Fraire en Gui, be'm platz vostra cansos (317-18); Peire Cardenal, Ar mi posc eu lauzar d'amor (319, 320), Rics hom que greu ditz vertat e leu men (319); Monk of Montadon: Be'm enoia s'o auzes dire (319-22).

Sources: Giu d'Uisel: Si be'm partetz, mala dompna, de vos (317-18); Guiraut de Bornelh: No posc sofrir qu'a la dolor (319, 320-21); Raimon Jordan: Vas vos soplei, domna, premieramen (319); Bertran de Born: Rassa tan cries e mont'e poja (319-22).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The motet Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare illustrates how composers of the late thirteenth century used and combined borrowed texts and tunes. The motetus is the rondeau Robin m'aime; the tenor uses a Portare chant fragment that contains a dual focus between the pitches c and g; and the triplum contains four fragments borrowed from an earlier motet. In Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare, the tonal plan of the motet is informed by the motetus, causing changes to be made in the tenor and triplum. Although the chant is often thought to be the "immutable foundation" upon which a motet is constructed, evidence shows that composers thought of it as merely one strand in the polyphonic web. The texts of this motet interact in such a way as to suggest linkages between Mary and the Cross, joy and sorrow, and the Song of Songs tradition of human love as a metaphor for divine love.

Works: Anonymous: Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare (30-40).

Sources: Alleluia Dulce lignum (29-34, 38-40); Adam de la Halle: Robin m'aime (28, 30-31, 37-38); Four passages from Montpellier, Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire, Section Médecine, MS H.196 3, 37 (36-37).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Sixteenth-century Seville was a learned, cosmopolitan city in which education focused on the subjects of the trivium, including rhetoric. Imitation of a model and transfer by analogy were important elements of rhetoric, the goal of which was to teach, persuade, and move. Juan Bermudo's five-volume treatise Declaración de instrumentos (1555) presents its theoretical remarks in the language of rhetoric, offering examples from Morales as models to be followed. Morales, in turn, praised Bermudo's treatise for showing theory and practice "coming together in consonance and proportion." Morales's own Missarum liber secundus of 1544 includes a full range of stylistic traits, with the individual masses arranged in a proper rhetorical scheme.

Works: Cristóbal de Morales: Missarum liber secundus (240-43).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Spanish composers for the Baroque guitar took borrowed material as a point of departure for unique and personal creative expression. In the simplest cases, phrases were added or omitted from existing works, or changes were made in ornamentation. Another technique was the use of a musical "module" that could be altered, expanded into two separate phrases, or serve as a sort of musical parenthesis. This type of recomposition is frequently found in passacaglias, variations, batallas, and obras de clarines. In other cases, a borrowed phrase may serve as a point of departure for an entirely new composition. At other times, motifs may be borrowed to serve as unifying elements in a new composition, especially a suite.

Works: Libro de diferentes cifras de guitarra escojidas de los mejores autores (1-10, 14-15); Santiago de Murcia: Passacalles y obras de guitarra por todos los tonos naturals y acidentales (12-17), Obra por la O (18-22); Ruiz de Ribayaz: Luz y norte musical para caminar por las cifras de la guitarra española y arpa (16-17).

Sources: Gaspar Sanz: Instrucción de música sobre la guitarra española (2-10, 14-15); Antonio Martín y Coll: Flores de música (11-13); Antoine Carré: Prelude (14-15); Henry Grenerin: Gigue Aymable (14-15); Arcangelo Corelli: Sonatas from Opus 5 (15-16); François Campion: Nouvelles découvertes sur la guitarre (17); François Le Cocq: Recueil des pièces de guitarre (18-22).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Within an overall discussion of Handel's 1720 publication Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1, similarities in style and notation are noted with Muffat's Componimenti musicali.

Works: Handel: Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1.

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (140).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Charles Burney, in his 1789 History of Music, appears to have been the first person to make note of Handel's borrowings. This, in turn, inspired William Crotch, in Substance of Several Courses of Lectures on Music (1831), to identify some twenty-nine composers from whom Handel borrowed. After reviewing the literature to date on the subject, examples are cited for all but six of the composers listed by Crotch. In several cases, the borrowings were not from specific composers but rather from a common repertory of familiar figures used by many composers. For the most part, Crotch feels that Handel's borrowings constitute "improvements" over the originals.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Agrippina, "L'alma mia frà le tempeste ritrover spera il suo porto" (596), Solomon, "Music spread thy voice around" (597), Solomon, "From the censer" (598), Chaconne in G (597), Susanna, "Virtue shall never long be oppressed" (598), Triumph of Time and Truth, "Comfort them, O Lord" (598), Suite in F (598).

Sources: Antonio Cesti: "Cara dolce libertà" (596); Agostino Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (597); Henry Purcell: "Saul and the Witch of Endor" (597); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (597); Johann Kuhnau: Frische Clavier Früchte, Sonata I (598), Neue Clavier-‹bung (598); Antonio Lotti: Mass (Latrobe, No. 16), "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Antonio Caldara: Mass a 5, "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer: Fugue (598); William Croft: Musicus Apparatus Academicus, "Laurus cruentas" (598).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

It is well known that Handel in his Grand Concertos Op. 6 borrowed musical material from the Componimenti musicali of Gottlieb Muffat. In eight examples Handel may also have incorporated music from the Essercizi per cembalo of Domenico Scarlatti. There is no firm evidence that Handel actually saw these particular works of Scarlatti, since he and the Italian composer had no direct contact after Handel left Italy. However, the Scarlatti pieces were published in London between April 1738 and January 1739, and it seems likely that Handel would have maintained an interest in the newest works by his former colleague. Handel wrote his Concertos during September-October 1739. The similarities in themes, key, meter, phrase structure, and register together prove that Handel did see the Essercizi before the composition of several portions of his Grand Concertos.

Works: Handel: Grand Concertos Op. 6: Nos. 1, 5 (93), No. 3 (93-94).

Sources: D. Scarlatti: Essercizi per cembalo: Sonatas nos. 2, 26 (93), Sonata no. 30 (93-94), Sonata no. 15 (94); Muffat: Componimenti musicali (93-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle, Felix Cox

The practice of tenor repetition in Notre Dame organa marks the first time in which the existing chant is manipulated for the purpose of an artistic goal. The practice probably began with the simple addition of a new clausula to an existing one; sometimes these new clausulae may also exist independently. In this practice, the break between the repetitions was simultaneous and obvious. Later, composers began to manipulate the length, mode, and starting point of the tenor, in a way that resembles isorhythm. The duplum was written to be continuous across tenor repetitions.

Works: Organum (numbering from Friedrich Ludwig, Repertorium organorum recentioris et motatorum vetusissimi stili): M12: Alleluia: Adorabo ad templum, (329-31), M 37: Propter veritatem (332-33, 336), M 33: Alleluia: Assumpta est Maria (333, 336), O 16: Styrps Yesse (333), M 40: Timeta dominum (339), M 5: Exiit sermon (343), M 1: Viderunt omnes (343), M 25: Alleluia: Spiritus sanctus procedens (344), M 34: Alleluia: Hodie Maria virgo (345), M 49: Alleluia: Letabitur Justus in domino (347); Clausulae: Adorabo nos. 1-3(329-30), Sanctum tuum nos. 1-3 (340-41), Et confitebor nos. 1-10 (330-31, 344-45), Aurem tuam nos. 1-3 (332-33, 336), Angeli (336), Potentem nos. 1-3 (336-37), Non deficient nos. 1-2 (339-41), Nobis no. 2 (342), Donec veniam (343), Omnes no. 10 (343-44), Hodie perlustravit no.1 (344), Regnat (345-46), Et sperabit nos. 1-2 (347-51).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In the discussion of the relationship between the clausula and the motet, a systematic study of notational practice, particularly with regard to fractio modi, has often been lacking. Using clausula-motet pairs in Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Pluteus 29.1, motets in first rhythmic mode that have a corresponding clausula are considered. The Latin motets show exceptional musical fidelity to the melismatic originals, but the motets gain flexibility in syllabification by use of fractio modi in the source clausula. Tables compare the motet and clausula sources, and list all instances of fractio modi within the study group. Rhythmic alterations were sometimes made to the source clausula, usually by the introduction of semibreve pairs or by shifting groups of three breves forward by one perfection.

Works: Christe via veritas (151-54); Gaude Syon filia (155-6); Stirps Iesse--Virga cultus (155, 158); Doceas hac die (158-59); Radix venie (158, 160); Immolata paschali victima (160-63).

Sources: Adiutorium no. 2 (147-54); Et Iherusalem no. 2 (155-56); Flos filius eius (a3) no. 3 (155, 158); Docebit no. 1 (158-59); Immolatus est (a3) no. 1 (158-63).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The inclusion of chorales in nineteenth-century oratorios provided a religious aura to these works even when performed in a concert setting. Furthermore, the chorale was seen as the epitome of Protestant music, and by extension German culture, thus taking on a nationalistic character as well. Composers drew from various chorale collections published in the eighteenth century for their source material. Because these collections included new chorales as well as old ones, the source materials represented a variety of musical styles. Mendelssohn's St. Paul consciously drew on Bach's St. Matthew Passion as a pattern for the use of chorales, but Mendelssohn uses fewer of them, and they differ in style and function from Bach. Mendelssohn also realized that his oratorios were concert music, not liturgical music. By contrast, Friedrich Schneider intended his Gethsemane und Golgotha to be a true liturgical work, including congregational participation in the chorales. Even works without chorales, such as Spohr's Des Heilands letzte Stunden, often included movements designed textually and musically to evoke the chorale.

Works: Carl Loewe: Das Sühnopfer des neuen Bundes (124, 134-35, 139-40); Heinrich Elkamp: Paulus (124-25); Carl Heinrich Graun: Der Tod Jesu (126-27); Felix Mendelssohn: St. Paul (127-31); Friedrich Schneider: Gethsemane und Golgotha (132-33); Carl Loewe: Die sieben Schläfer (137), Die Zerstörung von Jerusalem (137-38), Johann Huss (140-41).

Sources: Chorales: Schmucke dich O liebe Seele (124), Herzliebster Jesu (127, 132), Dir Herr will ich mich ergeben (128-29), Allein Gott in der Höh sei Her (128), Wachet auf (128-31, 132-22), O Jesu Christe, wahres Licht (128-29), Wir glauben all an einem Gott (128), O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden (132, 136), O Lamm Gottes (132), Aus tiefer Noth (132), Herr Jesu Christ mein Lebens Licht (132), Wie lieblich ist O Herr die Stätte (132), Erscheinen ist der herrlich Tag (137), Jesus meine Zuversicht (138), Grosser ist, o grosser Gott (139) Was mein Gott will, das gesheh allzeit (140-41); Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Geistliche Oden und Leider mit Melodien (124-25).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In the second half of the fifteenth century, many composers from both France and Italy were experimenting with polyphonic quotation. An examination of the masses of three composers shows the different ways in which polyphonic borrowing was accomplished. Johannes Martini tended to quote both cantus firmus and other polyphonic voices literally. Heinrich Isaac paraphrased cantus firmus and other voices of the models, often using entire phrases but freely changing the vertical alignment as well as the melodic content. Josquin des Prez mixed literal and paraphrased borrowings, usually using less than an entire phrase worth of material. In terms of borrowing techniques, it is very unlikely that the anonymous Missa O rosa bella III was composed by Martini, as Reinhard Strohm has suggested.

Works: Johannes Martini: Missa Ma bouche rit (6-7, 10-11), Missa La martinella (6-10); Heinrich Isaac: Missa Comme femme desconfortée (11-18); Josquin des Prez: Missa Fortuna desperata (18-22); Anonymous: Missa O rose bella III (23-24).

Sources: Johannes Ockeghem: Ma bouche rit (7, 10-11); Johannes Martini: La martinella (9-10); Gilles Binchois: Comme femme desconfortée (13-18); Antoine Busnois: Fortuna desperata (18-22); John Bedyngham: O rose bella (23-24).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Bach's choice of the opening chorus from Cantata 12 as the basis for the Crucifixus of the B-minor Mass is based on Aristotelian rhetorical principles. In both instances, there are identical topoi, predicament, and species. The same musical-rhetorical gestures of Cantata 12 are thus appropriate to the Crucifixus as well. Thus Bach's choice of model for parody goes well beyond strictly musical or textual considerations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232: Crucifixus.

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12/1.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The use of prolation signatures in the L'Homme armé Mass by Busnoys (Busnois) suggests that he was the first to base a Mass on this tune. His use of a major-prolation signature in the tenor part is a device that looks backward to English composers of the Old Hall generation and to the isorhythmic motet. The transmission of mensuration signatures in various sources also establishes the Chigi Codex (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Chigiana C.VIII.234) as the most authentic reading. Busnois's mass is unified by an elaborate Pythagorean structure of durational ratios, figured by counting the total number of tempora. Throughout the Mass, it is the tactus rather than the tempus that is consistent, explaining certain notational eccentricities in the Tu Solus and Confiteor sections. At the Et incarnatus, the central point of the Mass, there are 31 tempora. There were 31 chevaliers in the Order of the Golden Fleece at its founding by Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1430. This detail, along with proportional structuring and the use of multiples of 31 found in the six anonymous masses of Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40 suggest that they were composed by Busnois. The association of Busnois with augmentational notation in tenor parts, as well as certain problems with attributions in manuscript sources, do not exclude him as the composer of "Il sera pour vous" (attributed to Robert Morton), a chanson from which the L'Homme armé tradition is thought to have sprung.

Works: Antoine Busnoys (Busnois): Missa L'Homme armé (passim); Guillaume Faugues: Missa L'Homme armé (262-63, 274); Guillaume Dufay: Missa L'Homme armé (263, 265, 267); Philippe Basiron: Missa L'Homme armé (263-64); Anonymous: Six Masses on L'Homme armé (Naples) (275-83). Related Works: Johannes Pullois: Victimae paschali (287-89).

Sources: Antoine Busnois (Busnois): Missa L'Homme armé (262-64); Robert Morton [attrib.]: Il sera pour vous conbatu (265, 273, 288-92).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Anonymous IV's statement that Perotin shortened the Magnus Liber and made "many better clausulae or puncta" testifies to two different types of revision. In the first case, existing discantus passages were replaced by more newly-composed ones; sometimes, this serves to actually lengthen the passage in question. In the other case, existing organum passages were replaced by discantus. This hypothesis is supported by the way in which the substitute clausulae are arranged within the fascicles by the scribe of Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, pluteus 29.1.

Works: Regnum mundi (148); Alleluya: Nativitas (152-56).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Parody in sixteenth-century instrumental music is a variation device making use of a pre-existing, fully realized composition. Two types exist: one in which quotation and paraphrase are mixed but are presented in the same sequence as the model, and another in which thematic material is freely elaborated without regard to the structure of the model.

Works: Giuolio Severino: Fantasia . . . sopre Susane un jour (209-12); Vincenzo Galilei: Fantasia sopra Anchor che col partire (212-14); Melchior Neusidler: Fantasia super Anchor che col partire (212-14); Nicolas de la Grotte: Fantasia sopra Anchor che col partire (212-14); Antonio de Cabezón: Tiento sobre Malheur me bat (215-16); Enriquez de Valderróbano: Fantasía remediando en algunos pasos al Aspice de Gombert (216-17); Giovanni Paolo Paladino: Fantasie sur la ditte chanson (216, 218); Francesco Spinacino: Recercare a Juli amours (219-21); Luys de Narváez: Fantasía del primer tono por ge sol re ut (222, 224-25); Albert de Rippe: Fantasie (222, 224-25).

Sources: Orlando di Lasso: Susanne un jour (209-12); Cipriano de Rore: Anchor che col partire (212-14); Johannes Ockeghem: Malor me bat (215-16); Nicolas Gombert: Aspice Domine (216-17), Tu pers ton temps (222, 224-25); Jacob Arcadelt: Quand' io pens' al martire (216, 218); Hayne van Ghizeghem: Joli amours (219-21).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The history of tropes can be compared to the history of the sequence, using evidence drawn from the manuscript Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, 1609. The notation of this manuscript places it among the group of existing tenth-century St. Gall tropers. A comparative list of tropes found in V. 1609 and St. Gall MS 484 is provided. Three distinct groups of tropes can be identified. Group I consists of purely musical inserts found after each phrase of the liturgical composition. This type was already in decline and disappeared by the eleventh century. Group II includes a metrical introduction to the liturgical composition, while troping within the piece remains melismatic. Group III is similar to this type, but both both textual and purely melodic troping are found. The melodic inserts are sung twice, first with text and next without it. The interpolated texts were added to existing melismas. Later, the text and music for the interpolations were composed together.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Harold Bloom's theory of "anxiety of influence" sees an Oedipal struggle between the poet and his forebears, in which the poet is forced to misread his predecessors, assert priority over them, and clear creative space for himself. Some musicians, including Benjamin Britten and Robert Schumann, have cited the past as a supportive rather than threatening presence. Rather than a metaphor of male aggression, these composers and others like them see artistic creation as a form of "gift," using a metaphor suggested by Lewis Hyde. In this view the individual becomes "vulnerable" and thus feminized under Bloom's model. In Bloom's mythology, the artist is confronted with two obstacles, sexual anxiety (the Sphinx) and creative anxiety (the Cherub). Because Bloom's model has eliminated the female element of the classical Freudian interpretation of the Oedipal triangle, the model that emerges is one in which homosexual desire becomes a strong element. Social homophobia represents a reaction against traditional structures of gender and power; thus, the homoerotic impulse must be channeled into more acceptable avenues of rivalry and violence. At the end of the nineteenth century, changes in the Victorian definition of "femininity" forced men to "remythologize their claims to authority." It is not a coincidence that Bloom formulated his theory in the 1970s, when feminist, gay, and lesbian voices were challenging the cultural definition of masculinity. Bloom's model remains in "mythical space" by failing to take into account other arenas of cultural conflict, such as nationalism, artistic attitude, and personal psychology. In the final analysis, Bloom's theory perpetuates old ideologies and prevents a thorough consideration of the work of art.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In the early eighteenth century, the concepts of "intellectual property" and "proprietary authorship" were just emerging and entering English, German, and French law. English jurist William Blackstone, in the second volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-69), argues forcefully for the author's product as intellectual property. Jonathan Swift's Battel of the Books (1704) sets out the argument that borrowing material was acceptable so long as the borrower transformed it substantially. This view is also held by Johann Mattheson in Der volkommene Cappellmeister (1739). Handel's Acis and Galatea shows how transformative borrowing was employed. The librettist, probably John Gay, used numerous sources to create the text of the masque; these included Pope, Hughes, Dryden, and others. Handel's musical borrowings sometimes changed the nature of the original material altogether. Most often, however, Handel borrowed certain motives, transforming and absorbing them into the musical texture.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Acis and Galatea, "O ruddier than the cherry" (454-61), "Must I my Acis still bemoan" (458, 463-68), Teseo,"Quanto che è me sian care" (461-66).

Sources: Reinhard Keiser: Janus, "Wann ich dich noch einst erblicke" (456-58), La forza della virtù, "Mit einem schönen Ende" (461-68).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The fugue subject in the second movement of Handel's Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, No. 2, is taken from a Ricercar by Gottlieb Muffat. Handel extends Muffat's subject by continuing the sequential progression one step further. He also uses Muffat's voice order and countersubject pattern. The Muffat ricercar used by Handel is found in only one source, a manuscript collection of keyboard music copied by Padre Alexander Giessel; like Muffat, Giessel was a pupil of Fux at the Minoritenkonvent in Vienna.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, no. 2.

Sources: Muffat: Ricercar.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Two types of musical Americanism can be identified: conceptual Americanism, or the active commitment to American musical culture; and compositional Americanism, which is the borrowing of native musical materials for concert music. The history of compositional Americanism begins with Anthony Philip Heinrich (1781-1861), reaching its peak during the Depression era with Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, and William Schuman, among others. Aesthetic issues and historical contexts motivating the use of American folksong in art music include the influence of Gebrauchsmusik (Chap. 4), Marxism and leftist politics among American artists (Chap. 5), the growing scholarly interest in American folksong (Chap. 6), the support of the Works Progress Administration (Chap. 7), and the rise of patriotism associated with World War II (Chap. 8). References to pieces that borrow and their specific tunes can be found throughout the book. Musical borrowings are discussed in more detail for Marc Blitzstein's The Cradle Will Rock (1937), Roy Harris's Third Symphony (1939), and Aaron Copland's Appalachian Spring (1943-44).

Works: Anthony Philip Heinrich: Pushmatka: A Venerable Chief of a Western Tribe of Indians (28-29), The Hickory, or Last Ideas in America (29); George Frederick Bristow: The Pioneer ("Arcadian"), Op. 49 (32): Louis Moreau Gottschalk: The Union (39), Le Banjo (39), The Last Hope (39), La Bamboula (39); Edward MacDowell: Second (Indian) Suite (59-60); Daniel Gregory Mason: String Quartet on Negro Themes (70); Henry Gilbert: Comedy Overture on Negro Themes (75, 77), Negro Rhapsody 'Shout' (77), The Dance in Place Congo (77-78); William Grant Still: La Guiblesse (97); Virgil Thomson: The Plow That Broke the Plains (100, 149, 263), The River (100, 147-48, 263), Symphony on a Hymn Tune (148, 263); Red Marching Song (125); Soup Song (125); Join the C.I.O. (141); Elie Siegmeister: Western Suite (145, 150), Eight American Folk Songs (150); Henry Cowell: Tales of Our Countryside (146); Sing Out Sweet Land! (musical) (147); Roy Harris: Folksong Symphony (147, 150), When Johnny Comes Marching Home (150), Kentucky Spring (150), March in Time of War (195), American Portrait (224); Douglas Moore: Pageant of P. T. Barnum (148), Overture on an American Tune (148); John Powell: Natchez on the Hill (148), A Set of Three (148); Aaron Copland: John Henry (149), Billy the Kid (149), Rodeo (149), Old American Songs, Sets I and II (150, 271), Lincoln Portrait (150, 191-92), Second Hurricane (264-65), El Salón México (265), Dance Symphony (265), Hear Ye! Hear Ye! (265-66), Appalachian Spring (268-70), The Tender Land (271); Jerome Moross: A Ramble on a Hobo Tune (149); Ruth Crawford Seeger: Rissolty, Rossolty (149); Morton Gould: Cowboy Rhapsody (150), American Salute (150, 188), Yankee Doodle (150), Foster Gallery (150); Ross Lee Finney: Oh Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie (150), Trail to Mexico (150); Paul Bowles: 12 American Folk Songs (150); Bernard Hermann: The Devil and Daniel Webster (film score) (150); Robert Russell Bennett: Early American Ballade (150); William Schuman: William Billings Overture (151), New England Triptych (151), Chester (151); Marc Blitzstein: The Cradle Will Rock (211-12).

Sources: God Save the King (America) (29); Yankee Doodle (29, 150); Ludwig van Beethoven: Ninth Symphony (Finale) (125) Egmont Overture (211); My Bonnie Lies Over the Ocean (125); Lay the Lily Low; Home on the Range (150); I Ride an Old Paint (150); Springfield Mountain (The Pesky Sarpent) (150, 192); Patrick Gilmore: When Johnny Comes Marching Home (150, 224); Stephen Foster: Camptown Races (150, 192), My Old Kentucky Home (150); True Love, Don't Weep (195); The Capture of General Burgoyne (264-65); Aaron Copland: Grohg (265); Felix Mendelssohn: Wedding March from Midsummer Night's Dream (266); John Stafford Smith: Star-Spangled Banner (266); Simple Gifts (258-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman, Felix Cox