Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

During a discussion of twelve-tone counterpoint, it is noted that the "Contrapunctus Secundus" from Luigi Dallapiccola's Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera is a gloss on the second movement of Webern's Piano Variations, Op. 27.

Works: Dallapiccola: "Contrapunctus Secundus," Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera (38-40).

Sources: Webern: Piano Variations, Op. 27 (33-40).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

Index Classifications: 1900s

A collection of Kyrie tenors called "Squares" existed in English sources at least by 1496 and had a strong rhythmic and melodic character. These tenors were used as cantus firmi in polyphonic Kyries, and their use called for a special technique. Three masses "upon the Square" make extensive use of a three-part texture rather than two- or four-part writing. The cantus firmus likewise does not appear in any one part but migrates and is frequently elaborated upon. Because the borrowed material is usually the lowest in register, frequent voice crossings are also prevalent. In addition to Kyrie "squares," there are other manuscript sources that provide "squares" for the rest of the mass movements. In these cases, the Kyrie movement uses a Kyrie "square," the Gloria movement uses the Gloria "square," and so on. However, Ludford's Lady Masses are an exception, since they are built on the Kyrie "square" throughout.

Works: William Mundy: Mass I Upon the Square (179, 181-82), Mass II Upon the Square (179, 181-82); William Whitbroke: Mass Upon the Square (178, 181-82); Ludford: Lady Masses (185-186), Missa feria iiij (186).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Through the simulation and essentialization of recognizable folk-musical traits, several Eastern European nations competing at the Eurovision Song Contest in the early 2000s were successfully able to represent, misrepresent, or brand the ethnic folk traditions of their home nation. The Eastern European countries that consistently won the contest between 2001 and 2007 played upon Western stereotypes of the East by incorporating stylized national music, instruments, and ethnic musical characteristics into their song entries. In doing so, they created a distinctively alternative sound to the modern musical styles (such as pop, rock, or disco) featured in the Western countries’ entries. In particular, the Ukrainian singer songwriter Ruslana exemplifies this kind of simulation and essentialization, with her winning entry Wild Dances making use of various traditional instruments, folk-inspired performance practices, and stylistic allusions to Hutsul traditional music that she collected during her ethnographic field work in the Carpathian Mountain region. Her entry is both an example of simulation, as she is presenting a commercialized and stylized version of traditional folk music, and an example of essentialization because her entry only represents a small demographic within Ukraine. Other winning entries, such as Željko Joksimovi’s Lane Moje, also incorporate ethnic folk elements and folk musical tropes.

Works: Ruslana: Wild Dances (175-77, 180, 184); Željko Joksimović: Lane Moje (178), Lejla (178), Call Me (178); Boris Novković: Vukovi umiru sami (179-80).

Sources: Damir Lipošek, Vedran Božić, and Husein Hasanefendić: Moja domovina (179-80).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

In a discussion of three of his saxophone concertos, David Baker describes Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra as "an attempt to capture the spirit and feel of Duke Ellington." In the first movement, the piece features quotations of the A sections of Ellington's Caravan,Drop Me Off in Harlem, and Minnehaha, while fragments from other songs are used as linking materials. The second movement uses Ellington's All Too Soon not only as one of the themes but also as music heard underneath the saxophone solo. Movement III introduces Ellington's It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing in the introduction. Baker describes his treatment of the theme as "Morse-code-like." He then presents six variations on the borrowed tune's ground bass, which he refers to as a passacaglia.

Works: Baker: Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra.

Sources: Ellington: Caravan (106), Drop Me Off in Harlem (106), Minnehaha (106), All Too Soon (106), It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing (107).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Index Classifications: 1700s

Quoted musical fragments are as deep in symbolic content as Freudian symbols of "dream-text" fragments. A distinction is made between quoted musical matter that involves words and quoted musical matter that does not. Quotations of untexted music, such as "Westminster Chimes" in Ives's Second String Quartet and the opening motive of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in Ives's Second Piano Sonata ("Concord"), evoke philosophical associations but not literary meaning. But quoting texted music, such as the songs Ives uses in his Fourth Symphony and his song West London, provides a deeper meaning if the listener knows the original words. Different structures of meaning exist for various listeners in a work that utilizes borrowed materials: (1) abstract, which concerns purely musical relationships; (2) programmatic, eliciting extra-musical associations; and (3) musico-philosophical, uniting all levels of perception and transcending both abstract musical relationships and programmatic images. Ives's Central Park in the Dark and Washington's Birthday illustrate the way in which these levels work. Although in some cases Ives may have borrowed material for structural and thematic reasons, he was still undoubtedly exploiting the connotations of this borrowed material to incorporate different levels of meaning into his music.

Works: Ives: String Quartet No. 2 (171-72), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (172), West London (173-74), Fourth Symphony (174-76).

Sources: "Westminster Chimes" (171-72); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (172); "There is a fountain" (173-74); Lowell Mason: "Bethany" (174-75), "Watchman" (175); Arthur Sullivan: "Proprior Deo" (175-76).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh, Fredrick Tarrant, Paula Ring Zerkle

Throughout his career, Olivier Messiaen extensively used musical borrowing as a compositional technique and described how borrowing fit in his compositional process. By analyzing Messiaen’s career-long borrowing of Debussy material—musical themes, harmonies, programs, and gestures—a more complete picture emerges of Messiaen’s relationship to Debussy’s music and of Messiaen’s borrowing practice in general. Evidence of Messiaen’s borrowing can be found in three areas: the music he composed, the music he analyzed, and his writings. Comparing evidence from these areas allows for the identification of transformed and obscured instances of borrowing. Although much of Messiaen’s borrowing is similar to Ives’s collage and patchwork techniques, his material is made to be unrecognizable in what Messiaen calls a “transforming vision” or “deforming prism.” Debussy held a special place in Messiaen’s music and analytical writings. In Technique de mon langage musical, Messiaen gives many examples of harmonic passages in his music derived from Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande and others. Messiaen’s unusual candidness in revealing his sources, combined with his penchant for writing programs for his music, invites deeper hermeneutic readings of many of his works. However, the programmatic meanings of his sources often contrast with the meanings of the works he uses them in. Alternatively, the sources may have only personal significance to Messiaen and no programmatic connection. Aside from harmonic and programmatic borrowing, Messiaen also borrows specific keyboard gestures from Debussy. Messiaen’s use of borrowing as a compositional tool often goes beyond transforming individual sources. In many works, Messiaen combines harmonic or rhythmic material from several sources. In the case of Livre du Saint Sacrement, he borrows from Debussy’s Images as well as plainchants from Paroissien romain (Liber usualis), distorting both through a technique of harmonic litany (a process of repeating a melodic fragment with different harmonization) in order to create music representing transubstantiation. Reassessing Messiaen’s compositional process in light of his prolific musical borrowing allows for an understanding of his music that better situates it in historical context. Whereas critics have questioned Messiaen’s reliance on borrowed material as well as his reliance on compositional formulas, the demonstrated combination of these techniques yields a complex compositional method. Messiaen’s borrowing of Debussy suggests a need to place greater attention on the practice of musical borrowing in modern music.

Works: Messiaen: Visions de l’Amen (703-7, 711-16, 731-36, 740-44, 759-63), Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus (703-7, 744-46), Cinq rechants (707-11, 746-49), Préludes (719-25, 740-44, 761-65), Poèmes pour Mi (719-25, 725-26, 761-65), Nativité du Seigneur (726-31, 755-60), Rondeau (726-31, 736-40), La Sainte Bohème (726-31), Chœurs pour une Jeanne d’Arc (731-36), Trois petites liturgies de la Prèsence Divine (736-40), L’Assension (740-44), Cantéyodjayâ (740-44), Livre du Saint Sacrement (744-46, 767-74), Harawi (750-52, 752-55), Catalogue d’oiseaux (753-55), Turangalîla-Symphonie (755-60), Messe de la Pentecôte (759-63), Saint François d’Assise (759-63), Chants de terre et de ciel (767-74)

Sources: Rameau: Suite in E (703-7); Debussy: Préludes (707-11, 744-46), Pelléas et Mélisande (718-20, 719-25, 725-26, 726-31, 731-36, 750-52, 755-60), Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (737-40), Images (740-44, 746-49, 753-55, 759-63, 761-65, 765-67), Études (744-46), Trois chansons de Bilitis (767-74); Anonymous (transcribed by Joanny Grosset): Jâti ândhri (707-11); Liszt: Après une lecture de Dante (711-16); Massenet: Manon (711-16); André Jolivet: Cinq danses rituelles (746-49); Stravinsky: Les noces (750-52); Anonymous (transcribed by Marguerite Béclard d’Harcourt): Delirio (752-55); Ravel: Daphnis et Chloé (755-60); Plainchant from Paroissien romain (Liber usualis): Quotiescumque manducabitis panem hunc (767-74)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A series of motets based on the clausula Et gaudebit no. 2 were held in unusual esteem during the thirteenth century, as evidenced by their placement in manuscripts and the treatment of their initials. The motets demonstrate virtually every motet type of the Ars Antiqua except for the two-voice French motet. All of the derived motets are listed in a table. Although the source clausula is from the Feast of the Ascension, the subsequent motets all focus on the Virgin Mary. The most frequently used motet text, O quam sancta, quam benigna, helped to confirm the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation, and its use was approved and encouraged by the clergy of Notre Dame.

Works: El mois d'avril qu'ivers va departant/O Maria, mater pia, vite via/O quam sancta, quam benigna/Et gaudebit (19, 21-23).

Sources: Clausula: Et gaudebit no. 2.

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

An analysis of Leonard Bernstein’s numerous arrangements of George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue, which he made throughout his career, illustrates Bernstein’s controversial conviction that the piece was structurally flexible. They also reflect Bernstein’s ambivalent relationship with the piece and with Gershwin, which is also evident in his interviews and essays. Bernstein’s earliest arrangement was written in 1937, when he was still a teenager, and his 1959 recording of the performance with the BBC is one of the best-known versions of the piece today. Certain omissions, stylistic aberrations, reorchestrations, and score annotations in Bernstein’s arrangements offer clues to his developing relationship with the piece and potentially to which editions of the score he knew best.

Works: Leonard Bernstein (arranger): Rhapsody in Blue [1959 version] (75-77, 90-92), Rhapsody in Blue [1937 version] (82-89), Rhapsody in Blue [1938 version] (90).

Sources: George Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (73-96).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

By the 1960s, Rhapsody in Blue was generally not considered authentic to the African American jazz tradition, as it had become a standard of the more classicized genre of “symphonic jazz.” Duke Ellington was one of the few African American composers to engage with the piece regularly over the course of his career, allowing us to trace his relationship to the music over time. On his 1963 album Will Big Bands Ever Come Back?, Ellington and co-arranger Billy Strayhorn sought to create a more authentic, less classicized version of the piece through the reorchestration and reorganization of musical themes and by recasting the piano part in a more typical jazz role, comping chord changes and taking improvised solos. This 1963 arrangement stands apart from Ellington’s earlier arrangements of the piece. The earliest, from 1925, differs little from Ferde Grofé’s popular 1924 arrangement for the Paul Whiteman Orchestra, and it was likely thought of as a crowd-pleaser in a time when the Ellington band worked primarily on tips. His 1932 arrangement was likely also composed to please audiences, but here Ellington is more harmonically and thematically experimental, while maintaining the overall structure of the original. Ellington’s 1963 version was described by David Schiff as a “brilliant act of deconstruction—and renewal.” Ellington and Strayhorn’s arrangement was meant to be a historical retrospective as much as anything, and it achieves its historicism through stylistic allusions to earlier styles of both “black” and “white” jazz. But an even more telling historical narrative of jazz at large may be traced in the stylistic progression of Ellington’s three arrangements.

Works: Duke Ellington (arranger and performer): One O’Clock Jump (97), Woodchopper’s Ball (97), Rhapsody in Blue [1925 version] (101-3), Rhapsody in Blue [1932 version] (104-10); Duke Ellington (arranger and performer) and Billy Strayhorn (arranger): Rhapsody in Blue [1963 version] (110-17); Robert Sadin (arranger) and Marcus Roberts (performer): Rhapsody in Blue (115).

Sources: George Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (97-115); Count Basie: One O’Clock Jump (97); Woody Herman: Woodchopper’s Ball (97); Ferde Grofé (arranger): Rhapsody in Blue (101, 107).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue has been used in many visual contexts such as films, television programs, and advertisements, and in the process has gained a sort of inherent meaning associating it with success, the American Dream, New York, and modernity. The visual usage of the music then capitalizes on these new meanings. It was Woody Allen’s film Manhattan in 1979 where the piece, along with other Gershwin songs, was strongly associated with New York City, later reinforced by Scorsese’s Bringing Out the Dead and Disney’s Fantasia 2000. Tied to the connection with New York, the piece is also an emblem for success. The association with success is then further reaffirmed by the usage of Rhapsody in Blue in United Airlines’s longstanding advertising campaign. At first, the piece was used to evoke class and elegance, but over the course of the ad campaign the piece began to signify the success of an American-based airline as the commercials couched the music in different styles like East Asian and western fiddle two-step. Later advertisements in the early 2000s used Rhapsody to harken back to United’s past during a period of economic downturn and bankruptcy and focus on an uplifting and rebirth of the airline. United also used the music in a physical space in the O’Hare airport terminal to emphasize the “fun” of air travel, though it was far removed from the original work.

Works: Irving Rapper (director): Rhapsody in Blue (149-50); Woody Allen (director): Manhattan (149-53); United Airlines: advertising campaign 1987-present (“Nation’s Business”, “Pacific Song”, “Playing Our Song”, “Mileage Plus”, “Rising”, “It’s Time to Fly”, “Interview”, “Dragon”, “Heart”) (149, 158-73); Eric Goldberg, et al (directors): Fantasia 2000 (149, 153); Martin Scorsese (director): Bringing Out the Dead (153); Mark Kirkland (director): The Simpsons: “Elementary School Musical” (155-56); Brad Falchuk (director): Glee: “New York” (155-56); Baz Luhrmann (director): The Great Gatsby (156-58); Gary Fry: Rhapsody Ambiance (170-72).

Sources: Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (148-73).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Jazz, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

See especially "Folk Music in Iglau," in which Mahler's allusions to folk tunes and folk types are discussed.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Both Percy Grainger and Frederick Delius set folksinger Joseph Taylor's rendition of the English folksong Brigg Fair.Brigg Fair is related to two other English folksongs, Maria Marten and Dives and Lazarus.Dives and Lazarus sometimes bears the title Come all you Faithful Christian Men, or in the Irish tradition, The Star in the Country.The Jolly Miller is a variant of the same melody. Grainger originally collected the folksong from Taylor in 1905 and made his setting, Brigg Fair, for tenor and mixed chorus in 1906. Delius's setting, in his Brigg Fair: An English Rhapsody, was inspired by Grainger's earlier setting and dates from 1907. Delius's setting borrows ideas from Grainger's but does not copy it stylistically.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: John Andrew Johnson

In a study of George Gershwin's historical relationship with jazz, it is suggested that the composer's songs continue to be attractive to jazz musicians because of their rhythmic, melodic, harmonic, and formal characteristics. For instance, Gershwin tended to repeat notes in his melodies, allowing for the performer to embellish harmonically and rhythmically, as was exemplified by Billy Holiday's recording of Oh, Lady Be Good! In other instances, Gershwin songs are favored because their harmonies can be separated from their melodies, as in Nice Work If You Can Get It. Songs like Somebody Loves Me and The Man I Love contain repeated four-measure phrases, a characteristic musical succinctness that improvisers have long found inviting.

Works: George Gershwin: How Long Has This Been Going On? (188, 200), I Got Rhythm (188, 190, 201), They Can't Take That Away From Me (188-90, 200), A Foggy Day (188-90, 198, 201), Fascinating Rhythm (188,199), Oh, Lady Be Good! (189-90, 193-94, 196-97, 200), Nice Work If You Can Get It (190, 195-96, 198, 201), Bess, You Is My Woman Now (193, 200), The Main I Love (193-94, 197, 200-201), But Not For Me (193), Summertime (195,197, 201), Embraceable You (197, 199, 200-201), Somebody Loves Me (197-98, 200-201), Liza (198), Someone To Watch Over Me (198), Soon (198), Our Love is Here To Stay (198), 'S Wonderful (200).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Index Classifications: 1500s

A pentatonic archetypal theme is found in Mahler's music. The archetype may be considered as a private symbol, the "musical expression of some recurrent pattern of exprience." Ninety-two examples of the archetype, often in varied form, are presented. Buddhism and Hegel's concept of das unglückliche Bewusstsein may account for the ubiquity of the idea.

Works: Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer (310), Das Lied von der Erde (311-12, 314-15), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (313).

Sources: Anonymous: La bergère que je sers (310), Frère Jacques (313).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Analyzing the music of Billy Strayhorn introduces many issues related to historicizing race, sexuality, and gender identity in the context of mid-century jazz. Two works in particular—Strayhorn’s songs for Federico García Lorca’s The Love of Don Perlimplin for Belisa in Their Garden and Strayhorn and Duke Ellington’s adaptation of Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite—involve a fictive collaboration with gay figures from the past and address issues of black queer identity and desire. In fall 1953, Strayhorn composed four pieces for a production of Perlimplin by the Artist’s Theatre collective in Greenwich Village. Strayhorn’s music effectively sets the queer topics of Lorca’s text and the Artist’s Theatre production. Strayhorn’s collaboration with Ellington on an arrangement of The Nutcracker Suite to be released as an LP in 1960 also deals with issues of queer aesthetics. For one, working with a removed (dead) collaborator points to the asynchronicity or queer temporality that shaped Strayhorn’s work. Although some critics panned the LP as a crude parody, Strayhorn’s reworking of Tchaikovsky’s music is sophisticated in its relocation and translation of the original text. For instance, in the Arabian Dance movement, Arabesque Cookie, Strayhorn transforms Tchaikovsky’s sonic signifiers of exotica into modern jazz signifiers, akin to tunes like Caravan. Arabesque Cookie can also be likened to the blend of primitivism and stylized modernity of the queer black dandy as well as Afro-Orientalist imagery in Hollywood films. Overall, Strayhorn’s work on Perlimplin and his arrangement of The Nutcracker Suite provide a new queer historical framework for understanding his position in the Ellington Orchestra and the way his personal relationship with Ellington is portrayed in literature.

Works: Billy Strayhorn (with Duke Ellington): The Nutcracker Suite (793-813)

Sources: Tchaikovsky: The Nutcracker Suite (793-813)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In 2011, the Berlin Philharmonic held an open competition inviting contributors to create remixes of Mahler’s First Symphony using the orchestra’s recording of the work. Such remixes of structurally extended works can be understood through the “Wiki” philosophy of technologically-driven, open communication of ideas. The over 150 remixes submitted fall into four categories: dubstep-style remixes, remixes that only sampled Mahler, Ambient-style remixes, and unclassifiable, idiosyncratic remixes. The tension between the fragmentary nature of the remix material and Mahler’s larger musical structures is a core issue in understanding them. Most of the remixes played with the cuckoo call motif in some form, further fragmenting an already fragmented element of the musical material. The disregard for hegemonic structure found in the remixes reflects Mahler’s own disregard for stylistic convention.

Works: Weiss Schnur: Gustav Mahler First Symphony (131); Pivotal Movement: Symphony No. 1—Mahler—Berliner Philharmoniker (131); Komponists: Mahler Remix 2 (132); jeff_harrington: Mahler vs. Mahler (132, 143); Silvio Palmieri: Mahler-Palmieri (132, 143); TUNEDIN 52: Eternal (132); BpOlar: Bp Mahler rmx (132); Audhentik: Gustav Mahler—Symphony Nr. 1 (132, 143); Maja Bay: Berliner Philly Remix (132); Geck0ne: Jimi’s Version (132); Clangworks: Victim of the Times (143); giuseppe costa: Mix per Mahler (143); NuttyChunks: First Symphony by Gustav Mahler (chopped and changed by Nutty Chunks) (143); ben.harper: Herr Mahler Died Last Night at 150 (143); Marcus Leadley: Mahler–12 Tone remix (143); NOYJ: Meditation on the First Movement of Mahler’s First Symphony (143).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 1 (131-32, 142-43).

Index Classifications: 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Although the authorship of the "Handel" Gloria has been disputed in past studies, an analysis of an overlooked borrowing shared between the Gloria and one of Handel's earliest-known compositions, Laudate pueri in F, supports the Handel attribution. Both are scored for solo soprano, two violins, and continuo, which is uncommon in other German and Italian mass and psalm settings of the period. The material shared between the works, a sixteenth-note melismatic progression through the circle of fifths, appears in the sixth movement of Laudate pueri in F on the text "Ut collocet eum" and in the Gloria in the "Cum Sancto Spirito" section. In the Gloria, the melisma occurs on "Amen," linking it with two of Handel's later works, Laudate pueri in D and Zadok the Priest, which both contain similar Amen flourishes. Accepting that the Laudate pueri in F was composed first, it is quite plausible and chronologically fits within the young composer's oeuvre that Handel composed the Gloria, expanded the melismatic embellishment from his earlier Laudate pueri, and used it as an Amen motif, a practice which he continued in his later Laudate pueri and Zadok the Priest. It is right to be circumspect about accepting a new work into Handel's output, but the attribution of the Gloria to Handel finds support in the earlier and later usages Handel made of material found within this piece.

Works: Handel(?): Gloria (75-90); Handel: Laudate pueri in D, HWV 237 (76-83, 86), Zadok the Priest, HWV 258 (77-83, 86).

Sources: Handel: Laudate pueri in F, HWV 236 (75-90); Handel(?): Gloria (76-78).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Varèse's composition Density 21.5 is in the truest sense musical parody, as it uses another work as its structural basis: Debussy's Syrinx. Structural similarities exist between the two pieces, such as the use of the two whole-tone scales as basic pitch collections. Though Varèse himself never explicitly confirmed this connection, Density may be read as a commentary upon Debussy's piece.

Works: Varèse: Density 21.5.

Sources: Debussy: Syrinx.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

A dynamic or cyclical notion of influence allows for a more sophisticated approach to understanding the relationship between twentieth-century classical music and Miles Davis’s Kind of Blue. While numerous scholars have generated a long list of influences to Davis’s album, multiple techniques and sources invite further consideration. There are three categories of art music that serve as sources to Kind of Blue: late-romantic and impressionist music, American classical modernism, and Stravinsky ballets. In the first category, Rachmaninoff’s and Ravel’s works include general harmonic, intervallic (specifically concerning vamp patterns), and tonal elements that can be found in the songs So What and Flamenco Sketches, while Khachaturian’s use of non-diatonic melodies over tonal harmonies can be found across Davis’s entire album. In the second category, widely spaced leaps and upper-register sonorities from Copland’s music of the 1940s can be found in So What. In the final category, Stravinsky's ballets provide a procedure of fragmentary melodic variation that relates to Davis’s own “melodic variation” in his solos on every song. That these particular classical styles influence Kind of Blue on different levels indicates that “modal” jazz is a meaningful term to describe the album's musical language.

Works: Miles Davis: Kind of Blue.

Sources: Ravel: Piano Concerto for the Left Hand (53-56), String Quartet in F Major (56-57); Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 40 (53-57); Khachaturian: Gayane Suites (57-58); Debussy: Images No. 1 (“Reflets dans l'eau”) (58); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (58), Appalachian Spring; Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (59-60), Petrushka (59-60).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Mozart includes more revisions than usual in the autograph of his "Haydn" quartets, and this may indicate that he was trying to work out compositional problems that proved more difficult than he expected. To build upon Haydn's ideas of texture, extension, development, and innovation in his Op. 33, Mozart uses two specific types of modeling. First, he replicates certain elements of Haydn's Op. 33. In the finale of his String Quartet in C Major, K. 465, he includes the characteristic Haydn gestures of unexpected silence and a false reprise in the wrong key. Second, Mozart makes selective applications of Haydn's compositional practice. For example, in his String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2, Haydn grapples with how to introduce and continue thematic material. By transforming the function of the closing motive into that of an opening motive, Haydn provides a novel solution to his problem. Similarly, in his String Quartet in E-flat Major, K. 428, Mozart changes the function of the closing material to opening material; however, he also goes a step further than Haydn. When Mozart reaches the dominant key, he unexpectedly delays the second theme. Instead, he transforms another cadential figure into an opening figure, obscuring the usual pairing of the dominant with the secondary theme. Mozart also borrows more general features of Haydn's Op. 33, such as the placement of the scherzo before the slow movement and patterns of dialogues between instruments. Though modeling does exist between quartets of different keys, it is most easily seen when the Mozart and Haydn quartets are in the same key.

Works: Mozart: String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 (76, 83), String Quartet in E-flat Major, K. 428 (78, 80-3), String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (84-85), String Quintet in C Major, K. 515 (85), String Quartet in D Minor, K. 421 (87); Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major (Razumovsky) Op. 59, No. 1 (85).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 4 (76), String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2 (78, 80-81), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (83, 87) String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (83-84); Mozart: String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (85), String Quintet in C Major, K. 515 (85).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Following his health and conducting crises in 1900, Mahler turned to Beethoven's Fifth Symphony as a model for his own Symphony No. 5. The opening motive of the Beethoven symphony serves to unify the entire symphony, and the opening trumpet motto of Mahler's symphony serves a similar function. That motto is itself based on Beethoven's opening motive, and the key regions Mahler uses are the same as Beethoven (the second movement of both is in the submediant). The Trauermarsch of the second movement is a varied form of the first movement's, which is similar to the way the Scherzo in the Beethoven is based on an altered form of the symphony's opening motive. The moments in Mahler's work when earlier material returns are based on Beethoven's practice.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in C sharp Minor (51-66), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (52-53), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (58).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (51-55, 57, 61-2); Mahler: Kindertotenlieder (58, 60), Des Knaben Wunderhorn (59), Rückertlieder (59-60); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (60); Mahler: Symphony No. 4 in G Major (65).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Toward the end of the 1770s, partially as a consequence of the controversy between the Ramistes and Gluckistes (the supporters of Rameau and Gluck respectively), the Académie Royale de Musique was in a state of crisis, which led to the appointment of a new director, Anne Pierre Jacques Devismes du Valgay. To mediate between the two parties, he not only scheduled pieces that would appeal to all tastes, but, to promote this program, also commissioned a new opera from André Ernest Modeste Grétry, a composer not directly involved in the controversy. The result was Les trois âges de l'opéra (libretto by Saint-Alphonse Devismes), a prologue opéra including extensive borrowings from Lully, Rameau and Gluck. In this opera, each of these composers is praised for his operatic contributions, Lully's "mastery of lyric declamation," Rameau's dances, and Gluck's recitative style and wide range of passions, and Grétry carefully underlines their strengths with appropriate quotations. The borrowed passages are basically unchanged; Grétry only changed the instrumentation in some places or interpolated a few extra measures to meet the requirements of the text. To correct the ahistorical view of the Ramistes and Gluckistes, Grétry related the borrowings to each other, showing the indebtedness of Rameau and Gluck to their predecessor, for example by quoting a "dramatically static chorus" from Gluck's Ifigénie, a chorus that according to some critics owed much to the French model. The libretto does much to give the impression that Gluck continued the Lully-Rameau lyric tradition.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Rap music, and in particular the practice of sampling in rap music, can be grounded within a larger context of African-American interest in imitation. Early examples of imitation in slave culture suggest interests similar to sampling, namely the desire to reconfigure aspects of dominant culture into strictly African-American forms. Sampling can be seen as a way to archive interactive historical material. Rap artists use new language to describe their use of samples, and acknowledge their sources to avoid legal trouble. EMPD, for example, thanks their sources and introduces their raps by indicating which pre-existing compositions the new rap embodies.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contrary to popular belief, composing new works with existing folk music is a rather difficult task. Borrowing a folk melody requires not only to stay true to the original peculiarity of the music, but the unique character of the music also complicates its use in a new composition. Some have suggested that folk tunes can simply exist as musical themes in compositions if the composer has a lack of inspiration. However, the need to have musical themes in music is a nineteenth century ideal. Bach and Handel modeled their compositions after predecessors, and their new compositions were so different from their models that the originals are easily forgotten. A contemporary composer can borrow from folk music in the same way. Folk music can be used to develop musical styles without the need to force the music in conventional forms. It requires great skill and knowledge to use folk music in compositions.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

The definition of folk music is music of the population that is least affected by city culture, and music of great temporal and spatial extent. It is generally believed that Chopin and Liszt were the first composers who were inspired by folk music, but the term folk music does not accurately describe the influence on their music. Although these composers were certainly influenced by aspects of folk music, a truer characterization of this music is popular folk music. Pure folk music did not influence art music until the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, and particularly in the music of Debussy and Ravel. These composers used idioms from Eastern European and Eastern Asian folk music, which paved the way for composers such as Stravinsky and Kodály. True folk musical influences are characterized not by the use of folk melodies, but rather by an understanding of the inherent spirit of folk music.

Works: Stravinsky: Pribaoutki (318-19).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Folk music has been used as source material for composers of many eras. Composers of the Viennese classic period were influence by and used folk music in their compositions; for example, Beethoven's Symphony No. 6 uses a Yugoslavian dance melody for the primary theme. Other composers who used folk material include Chopin, Smetana, Dvořák, and Mussorgsky. In the twentieth century, composers began to collect or study folk music in an attempt to integrate that music into their style. Three possibilities exist for the use of folk materials in Western art music. A composer can simply compose an accompaniment for an existing folk melody, a newly composed melody can take on folk characteristics, or folk music can be integrated into the style of a composer to such an extent that neither folk melodies or imitations of folk melodies are used, but the composer's works are imbued with the style of peasant music.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Pastoral (340); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsodies (340); Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps (343); Kodály: Psalmus Hungaricus (344).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

It is commonly known that Hungarian art music is heavily influenced by folk music. There are a few distinctions in how this occurs. Contrary to popular belief, the simple insertion of folk tunes in art music does not constitute influence. Rather, composers acquire the Hungarian folk idiom like a native language, and the use of folk aspects occurs naturally and subconsciously. In Bartók’s music, there are three categories of musical transcription. The first includes a piece of music in which the original folk tune is more dominant than the newly composed material. The second category includes music in which both folk music and newly composed art music are equal. The final category is the transcription of folk music that takes on the form of an original work.

Works: Bartók: Suite, Op. 14 (350), Rumanian Folk Dances (352), Improvisation on Hungarian Peasant Songs, Op. 20 (352).

Sources: Kodály: Háry János (352); Bartók: For Children (352).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

There is a distinct difference between popular art music and real folk music. Authentic folk music (better identified as peasant music) comprises melodies that are representative and uniform among the peasant class in a nation. It is a natural phenomenon that is instinctive, and requires artistic perfection. Conversely, popular art music is derived from primarily Western art music and a hint of peasant music, giving the music an exotic flavor. Nationalism in the nineteenth century increased the demand for a national sound, but rather than looking at peasant music, the focus was on popular art music. Composers of art music rarely encountered authentic peasant music, and, as such, the vague allusion to peasant music is essentially an obscured view of the original.

There are some composers whose music originates in peasant music, most notably Mussorgsky, Stravinsky, and even Beethoven. While Stravinsky’s Le sacre du printemps is likely one of the best examples of works to include authentic peasant music, Stravinsky still attempts to put peasant music in a structure it was not meant to be in, thereby ignoring musical characteristics inherent to the music he borrows. In numerous symphonies by Haydn, Beethoven, and Mozart, Slavonic peasant music is suggested, primarily the final movements. Croatian melodies are found in Haydn’s Symphony No. 104 in D Major, as well as in two movements of Beethoven’s “Pastoral” Symphony.

Works: Stravinsky: Le sacre du printemps (325); Haydn: Symphony No. 104 in D Major (328); Beethoven: Symphony No. 6 in F Major (“Pastoral”), Op. 68 (328).

Sources: Franjo Ksaver Kuhač: Južno-slovjenske narvodne popievke (327).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

In 1736, Gottlieb Muffat copied out, by hand, two published works by Handel: the eight Suites de pièces (1720) and the Six Fugues or Voluntarys for the Organ or Harpsichord (1735). Muffat did this to illustrate his method of fingering and to specify a precise system of ornaments. Quite likely, Muffat had received these published editions directly from London, and in return dedicated his Componimenti musicali to Handel. The latter, in turn, borrowed from Muffat's work.

Works: Handel: Twelve Grand Concertos, Op. 6 (904), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (904), Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7 no. 2 (907).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (904, 906-7), Ricercare (907).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Benjamin Britten's 1963 Nocturnal after John Dowland for solo guitar is a set of variations on Elizabethan composer John Dowland's 1597 lute song Come Heavy Sleep. Unlike most theme and variation forms, however, the theme appears at the end, rather than the beginning of the composition. The eight variations, based on melodic fragments of Dowland's song, depict various stages of insomnia, and have the character of fleeting, nightmarish episodes. The interaction of notes, chords, and keys a semitone apart is a salient feature of the variations. The tension generated by this dissonant harmonic relationship dissipates when Dowland's song is quoted at the end of the composition.

Works: Britten: Nocturnal after John Dowland (35-40, 46-48).

Sources: Dowland: Come Heavy Sleep (46-48).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

The enthusiasm the young Bartók displayed for the music of Richard Strauss is attested by the extent to which Bartók emulated the orchestral decorativeness as well as the déjà vu effect of Strauss. A deeper relationship also exists, demonstrated by Bartók's incorporation of harmonic and structural elements of Strauss's Also Sprach Zarathustra into his early operatic works, not so much for the surface effect as to underscore the philosophical kinship both composers shared with Nietzsche.

Works: Bartók: 14 Bagatelles (203), Suite No. 1 (204-5), Bluebeard's Castle (206), The Wooden Prince (207).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Film score composers are often required to compose forty minutes worth of music in several weeks time, necessitating the use of previously invented music or the liberal borrowing of others' previously written music. The fragmented form of film music often discourages developed themes on large compositional canvases, but calls for the use of "mere snatches of music." Using the widely understood extramusical associations of previously written music, the first film score composers often borrowed easily recognizable music, conveying meaning quickly to early moviegoers. The "Bridal Chorus" from Wagner's Lohengrin was used to seal holy matrimony, Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata for moonlit nights and calm waters, and Rossini's William Tell Overture to underscore Western cowboy heroics, creating a language of musical cliché for generations of film score composers to come. With all art, both serious and popular, becoming an amusement commodity for leisure-time activity, the film industry has absorbed the materials of traditional art in order to imbue its product with all the outer trappings of genuine culture.

Works: Stanley Kubrick: compilation score to 2001: A Space Odyssey; Wendy (Walter) Carlos: score to A Clockwork Orange (35); Leonard Rosenman: score to Fantastic Voyage (39); Ezra Laderman: score to The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (38); Elmer Bernstein: score to The Magnificent Seven (75); Lalo Schifrin: score to Cool Hand Luke (75); Toru Takemitsu: score to Woman in the Dunes (78); Hanns Eisler: score to Hangmen Also Die (84).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Before composing Carmen, Bizet had already shown strong interest in Spanish music. His adaptation of Spanish music in his opera Don Quichotte and symphonic ode Vasco de Gama is evident. The experience of a school-day friendship with Pablo Sarasate provided him an easy channel to Spanish sources. In Carmen, Bizet borrowed genuine Spanish folksongs, local rhythms, and tunes composed by Spanish composers Sebastián Yradier and Manuel Garcia. The pieces of Spanish origin in Carmen include the famous "Habañera"; Carmen's aria "Séguidille, séguidille, séguidilla," and "Choeur des gamins" in Act I; Carmen's aria "Chanson bohème," and "Toreador Song" in Act II; and both of the preludes to Act III and IV. The most interesting borrowing is Carmen's leitmotif, the Fate theme, which is used repeatedly throughout the opera in two patterns, one for Carmen, and the other for Don José. This theme is derived from an Andalusian Saeta (flamenco music). Bizet's familiarity with authentic Spanish music is underestimated, and the extent of Spanish influence on the score of Carmen is more complex than usually recognized.

Works: Bizet: Carmen.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Stanley Cavell’s style of philosophical writing, which incorporates numerous borrowings of other philosophical texts, can be likened to musical borrowings by Ignaz Friedman, Luciano Berio, and Richard Beaudoin. Borrowing strategies in both music and philosophical texts exist along a continuum of borrowing procedures, with points such as “works without explicit borrowing,” “local borrowing,” and “critical borrowing.” Within this continuum, Cavell mostly employs “local,” “structural,” and “critical” borrowing procedures. There is a long tradition of philosophers who have engaged with “writing about the writings of other writers,” though Cavell takes this stylistic trait to an extreme; in fact, his writings involve using the words of others to such a high degree that some might consider there to be little of his own “self” remaining. The borrowing procedures of Cavell’s Philosophy the Day After Tomorrow can be likened to Ignaz Friedman’s Gavotte from the Sixth Sonata for Violin by J. S. Bach Arranged for Piano. Both of these works employ lengthy quotations to play a sophisticated game of meaning with their sources, with the composer serving as a sort of “intellectual guide” along the way. Cavell’s procedures of borrowings in Philosophical Passages are similar to those of Berio’s Sinfonia. Both borrow from one main literary document, ignoring major parts of the original source, and include material of their own making alongside the borrowed material. Finally, borrowing procedures in Cavell’s Philosophical Passages can also be likened to the author’s own Etude d’un prelude IV—Black Wires. Both approaches to borrowing involve nested histories and commentaries, which act like a dialog between authors who never coexisted. Borrowings—both musical and literary—are important because they reveal essential aspects of their transcribers.

Works: Ignaz Friedman: Gavotte from the Sixth Sonata for Violin by J. S. Bach Arranged for Piano (95-97); Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (98-99); Richard Beaudoin: Etude d’un prelude IV—Black Wires (99-102).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Partita in E, BWV 1006 (95-97); Chopin (composer) and Martha Argerich (performer): Prelude in E Minor, Op. 28, No. 4 (100-102).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Riethmüller aims to outline Busoni thought patterns by analyzing two works, the Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, completed in 1898, and the Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir,' composed in 1916. The Improvisation reworks material from the Second Violin Sonata. The structure of the variations in the third movement of the violin sonata is modeled on Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op.109. Riethmüller misses the fact that the opening notes of the Bach chorale are identical to the bass line of Beethoven's variation theme, and hence serve in Busoni's sonata as a good example of Busoni's idea of "the Oneness of Music." Riethmüller points out the "latent characteristic of quotation in Busoni's music," and discovers the borrowing of sketches for an unfinished piano work in the chorale variations and the borrowing from Bach's Trauerode, BWV 198 in the opening of Busoni's third movement. Riethmüller analyzes the Improvisation in terms of borrowing from the violin sonata, calling it obscurer, more aggressive, and more enigmatic. But the relationship of the two works is more like "that of a healthy mother to a very sickly child," since the average listener does not know its antecedent in detail and since some passages are incoherent and illogical.

Works: Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, (571-73), Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir' (573).

Sources: J.S. Bach: "Wie wohl ist mir" from Notenbuch für Anna Magdalena Bach (571), Trauerode, BWV 198 (572), Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 109 (571), Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a (573).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

In the current “post-sampling” era of digitalized popular music production, the practice of sampling exists withing a spectrum of musical practice, and the intermingling of practices has implications for the legal, moral, and aesthetic aspects of sampling. The basic legality of sampling—is a copyrighted recording cleared to use or not—is a technical question, but often the similarity between a musical work and the source of a sample is marginal at best (unlike in examples of plagiarism). Sampling law also favors copyright holders over the musicians whose contribution is sampled. The morality of sampling is discussed by musicians across genres, with significant overlap in how originality and copying are treated in other forms of musical borrowing. Distinctions between legitimate and illegitimate practices are made through generic codes, but there are grey areas to consider. The wide availability of digital sampling has made the sampling aesthetic a significant part of popular music production. The resulting cultural shift in attitudes toward sampling—post-sampling—is widespread but unevenly realized in moral and legal discourse.

Works: The Verve: Bittersweet Symphony (225-26).

Sources: Rolling Stones: The Last Time (225-26).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Michael Finnissy’s wide-ranging borrowing of various traditional musics in his Folklore cycle and Unsere Afrikareise from The History of Photography in Sound invite multiple hermeneutical readings revolving around two dichotomies: art versus folk music and Western versus non-Western music. In Unsere Afrikareise, Finnissy juxtaposes fragments of Moroccan, Ethiopian, and Venda traditional music with fragments of Mozart and Schubert dances. Finnissy’s work emphasizes the historical, colonialist link between the African and European traditions, complicating notions of musical otherness. Folklore extends this engagement with the politics of colonialism. A running theme in Folklore is the implication that folk music is often seen as inferior to art music. Finnissy borrows from a wide variety of musical cultures, transforming borrowed material through transcription and arranging it in multi-layered montages. This approach challenges the boundaries between familiar and “foreign” music and invites a personal and subjective approach to different cultures.

Works: Maarten Beirens: The History of Photography in Sound (304-7, 312), Folklore (307-12).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

British composer Michael Nyman’s style could be characterized as a combination of musical quotations fused with minimalist compositional characteristics. Often his music establishes a dialogue with the past, engaging the listener with an active reevaluation of the original quoted work. In the soundtrack to Peter Greenaway’s film Draughtsman’s Contract (1982), Nyman based the entire score on elements of the music of Purcell, especially on ground basses and archetypes of functional harmony, gradually reducing out elements of Purcell’s stylistic language until just common harmonic patterns remained. This creates a sense of tension between the present and the past. In Drowning by Numbers, Nyman borrows from Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante, K. 364. Nyman employs two different techniques of borrowing: variation and montage. Variation technique describes a process by which Nyman systematically varies every musical element associated with a borrowing (such as rhythm and pitch); this technique creates a sense of alienation between the two different musical eras (Classical and modern). Montage technique describes a process by which Nyman cuts up source material and brings it together again in a new framework; the individual compositional cells remain very close to the original, but their combination is quite different and introduces a new kind of formal coherence. These techniques of musical borrowing can also be seen in Nyman’s String Quartet No. 1 (1985), which borrows from works by Schoenberg and John Bull, creating a commentary on the music in which it is based. Nyman creates a dialectic between the two, with Bull representing traditional musical practices and Schoenberg representing more radical or modern practices, fully asserting himself as a European composer of the classical tradition in the process. Two charts (28, 33) summarize the borrowings in Drowing by Numbers and the String Quartet No. 1.

Works: Peter Greenaway (director) and Michael Nyman (composer): score to The Draughtsman’s Contract (26); Michael Nyman: Drowning by Numbers (27-32), In Re Don Giovanni (30), String Quartet No. 1 (33-37).

Sources: Purcell: Chasing Sheep is Best Left for Shepherds (26); Mozart: Sinfonia Concertante, K. 364 (27-32), Don Giovanni (30); John Bull: Walsingham (33-37); Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 2 (33-35).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Many of Chopin’s contemporaries, who heard him play, documented the uniqueness of his pianism. Soon after his death, admirers and students debated “the true style” of Chopin. Although we do not have an actual aural record of Chopin’s performance, we can catch a glimpse of it through a few contemporaries who imitated his style in their written compositions, which provide a fascinating document of Chopin’s unwritten improvisation. Aspects of Chopin’s phrasing, melodic inflection, articulation, and treatment of fiorature are imitated in these works. Louis Moreau Gottschalk’s Ricordati of 1855-1856, designated a nocturne, incorporates Chopin’s rhetorical phrasing and indicates such appropriate places with written instructions such as piangendo, con lagrime, parlando, con amore, and others. In his Nocturne from Op. 21, Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann imitates Chopin's bel canto style. Moreover, in a version of the Nocturne included in his 1840 piano treatise Encyclopédie du pianiste compositeur, Zimmermann added a third staff of a Chopinesque fioriture as an example of realizing ornamentation on original melody. Edouard Wolff captures elements Chopin’s improvisatory technique in the arpeggiated passages in his Hommage à Chopin of 1852, also designated a “Reverie-Nocturne.” Chopin’s imitators also notated Chopinesque articulations, especially the gradations between staccato and full legato. In their eyes, Chopin’s written compositions are reflections and echoes of his improvisation.

Works: Gottschalk: Ricordati (153-54); Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmerman: Nocturne from 24 Etudees, Op. 21 (155-56), L’Encyclopèdie du pianist compositeur (157-58); Edouard Wolff: Romance, Op. 11, No. 1 (155-57), Hommage à Chopin, Op. 169 (157-59).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

If we look beyond the influence of our accepted musical canon, we can see connections between Chopin’s Ballade No. 2 in F Major, Op. 35, and the literary, cultural, and musical contexts of Poland. It has long been speculated that Chopin’s ballades had some poetic connection, ever since Schumann remarked that “certain poems of Mickiewicz,” a Polish romantic poet, inspired the first two ballades. The second ballade’s seemingly problematic double key center of F major and A minor is a result of the story it tells.

Although we typically focus on the German and French precursors and contemporaries to Chopin when looking for musical influence, growing up in Poland he was familiar with the musical culture there, particularly the amateur program music that evoked Polish national topics and sentiments through musical topics and allusions to patriotic tunes and other songs. It is these pieces that provided the model for Chopin’s ballade structures.

Chopin’s Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23, is somewhat radical for its time. It did not follow the rational symmetry of sonata form and was much longer than a “Song Without Words,” yet had a singing quality and strong forward momentum. The final, climactic section uses a “krakowiak,” a syncopated dance in duple meter from Poland. These qualities exist because the piece is meant to describe the poem Konrad Wallenrod by Mickiewicz. They both begin with a bardic introduction, with Chopin’s opening based on a song introduction by Bellini. The rest of the piece follows the actions and interactions of the main characters in the poem.

Contemporaneous ballades, such as Clara Weick’s emotionally lyrical Ballade in D Minor, Op. 6, No. 4, and Schumann’s heroically-tinged “Balladenmässig” from the Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6, began to create an idea of the storytelling genre of the piano ballade. Chopin was also interested in many operas with ballade numbers, especially Meyerbeer’s Robert le Diable, from which he derived some ideas in the second ballade including the major-minor alternations and the siciliano theme at the beginning. Combined with a storm topic derived from Rossini’s Guillaume Tell, Chopin’s ballade depicts the story of national exile and martyrdom.

Works: Chopin: Ballade No. 2 in F Major, Op. 38, Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (55-85); Giacomo Meyerbeer: “Raimbaut’s ballade” from Robert le Diable (104-10).

Sources: Daniel Steibelt: La journee d’Ulm (43-44); Wilhelm Würfel: Grande fantaisie lugubre au souvenir des trois héros Prince Joseph Poniatowski, Kościuszko, et Dąbrowski, composé et dediée à la nation polonaise (45-48); Bellini: L’Abbandono; Clara Wieck: Ballade in D Minor, Op. 6, No. 4 (94-95); Robert Schumann: “Balladenmässig” from Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6 (95); François-Adrien Boieldieu: “Ballade of the White Lady” from La Dame Blanche (99-101); Louis Herold: “Camilla’s ballade” from Zampa (101-3); Meyerbeer: “Raimbaut’s ballade” from Robert le Diable (104-10, 147-50); Chopin: Étude in A Minor, Op. 25, No. 11 (152-53); Rossini: Guillaume Tell (154-60).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Although in his formal procedures Taverner is considered to follow in the footsteps of his English predecessors to a large degree, certain features are original, including parody technique. All the passages in Taverner's Mass Mater Christi are derived from "vitalis cibus," a phrase from the parent antiphon. The bulk of Taverner's setting is in exact parody, entailing only minimal changes such as melodic decoration and minor rhythmic variants; his approach almost nears contrafactum. Yet Mater Christi also provides some examples of less strict modeling and imitation of the antiphon phrase, exhibiting Taverner's awareness of the possibilities of parody technique.

Works: Taverner: Western Wynde (191-93), Mater Christi (201-8), Small Devotion (208).

Sources: "Western Wynde" (191-92), Mater Christi, antiphon (201-8), Christe Jesu, antiphon (208-9).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Handel's uses of themes from Muffat's Componimenti musicali fall into three categories: (1) the themes are taken as "mere suggestions" by Handel; (2) the ideas are adopted with little or any alteration; (3) the themes are freely treated to the point that they take on an independent life of their own. Examples of each type of usage may be found in Handel's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day and elsewhere. Unlike Giovanni Bononcini, who was discredited for claiming another's music as his own, Handel's musical borrowings were accepted because the materials he appropriated were so well known that there was no pretense to originality.

Works: Handel: Ode on St. Cecilia's Day (149-51), Joshua (151), Samson (151).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (149-51).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Determining the purpose and chronology of the three Marigny motets in relation to the Roman de Fauvel is difficult at best. Examination of the historical role in connection with these motets can make both the chronology and music clearer. Most important historically is their connection with and references to the downfall of Enguerran de Marigny. The evidence suggests that these motets existed before the Roman de Fauvel and were modernized with Fauvel material in order to create specifically tailored political messages.

Works: Vitry: Garrit gallus/In nova/Neuma (35-37), Aman novi/Heu Fortuna/Heu me (36, 38), Tribum que non abborruit/Quoniam secta latronum/Merito (36).

Sources: Floret/Florens (39); Heu Fortuna from Roman de Fauvel (43).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Aaron Copland alters material borrowed from American folksong to make it individual and to evoke folksong as a genre. In adapting the source tunes, Copland changes their character (Lincoln Portrait), shifts rhythmic emphasis (Billy the Kid, Rodeo), and fragments motives (El salón México). The compositional technique is comparable to that in the more abstract works; for example, Danzon Cubano and the Violin Sonata employ similar rhythmic patterns. Works by Copland that draw upon folksong portray not only the open space of the prairies, but also the isolation of New York City, Copland's own environment.

Works: Copland: Piano Sonata (2), Danzon Cubano (2-3), Violin Sonata (2-3), Lincoln Portrait (3), Billy the Kid (3), El salón México (4), Rodeo (4).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Within a life and works study, musical borrowings from American folk music are considered. A number of works after 1934 borrow from folk sources, including El salón México,Billy the Kid,Rodeo, and Lincoln Portrait. Copland transformed and developed his borrowings through melodic and rhythmic displacement, character changes, and motivic fragmentation. As a result of folk influence, Copland composed more melodic music that relies upon diatonic harmonies. The use of folksong assisted Copland in his search for a simpler style accessible to a wider audience. Copland's borrowings were also the result of his Americanism and his desire to bring the American popular-music heritage into the concert hall.

Works: Copland: Vitebsk (52), Lincoln Portrait (60-61), Rodeo (63-64), El Salón México (63-65), Billy the Kid (65n, 91), Appalachian Spring (65n), Third Symphony (72-80), The Heiress (film score) (89), Las Agachadas (91); Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter Overture (73); Stravinsky: Petrouchka (73, 91), Pulcinella (91).

Sources: Springfield Mountain (60-61); El Mosca (63); If He'd Be a Buckaroo (63-64); Sis Joe (64); El Palo Verde (65); The Gift to Be Simple (Simple Gifts) (65n); Goodbye Old Paint (65n, 91); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (75); Giovanni Martini: Plaisirs d'amour (89).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

John Corigliano’s Symphony No. 1 and its derivative choral chaconne, Of Rage and Remembrance, form a supplementary pair dealing with private and public mourning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. The symphony is a work of mourning, dedicated to Corigliano’s lifelong friend Sheldon Shkolnik, who died of AIDS just weeks after attending the premiere in March 1990. Mourning and remembrance are musically invoked throughout the symphony. For example, in the first movement (titled “Apologue”), Corigliano quotes Leopold Godowsky’s arrangement of Isaac Albéniz’s Tango in D, a piece frequently performed by Shkolnik. The tango is performed by an offstage piano, emphasizing Shkolnik’s absence. The third movement presents a different approach to memory and mourning by blending a cello improvisation by Giulio Sorrentino with J. S. Bach’s lamenting chorale Es ist genug (Corigliano also alludes to Alban Berg’s use of this chorale in his Violin Concerto). The third movement reaches its climax with a “quilt” of nine interwoven melodies labeled in the score with the names of nine friends of Corigliano’s who were victims of AIDS—a reference to the NAMES Project’s AIDS Quilt memorial begun in 1987. Of Rage and Remembrance, a choral chaconne setting of the third movement of the symphony, makes the mourning explicit by reciting the names of Corigliano’s deceased friends.

Works: John Corigliano: Symphony No. 1 (345-53); Of Rage and Remembrance (353-58)

Sources: Isaac Albéniz (composer), Leopold Godowsky (arranger): Tango in D Major, Op. 165, No. 2 (345-47); Giulio Sorrentino: Giulio’s Song (Improvisation) (348-53); J. S. Bach: Es ist genug from O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 60 (348-50); Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (349-50); John Corigliano: Symphony No. 1 (353-58)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Within a study of Scott Joplin and his compositions, several cases of borrowing or modeling are explored. The most imitated Joplin piece was Maple Leaf Rag, his biggest hit. Also imitated to some extent were Elite Syncopations,Palm Leaf Rag, and Original Rags. Many imitations were little more than plagiarisms. Joplin's imitations of himself, however, were brilliant. Gladiolous Rag,Rose Leaf Rag, and Cascades preserve what Joplin apparently felt were attractive structural elements of the Maple Leaf Rag. Also noteworthy is the possibility of Irving Berlin's Alexander's Ragtime Band borrowing from Joplin's Treemonisha.

Works: Settle: X.L. Rag (51, 68); Etter: Whoa! Maud (52, 69); Butler: The Tantalizer (67); Donaldson: Latonia Rag (68); Nonnahs: That's Goin' Some (68); Tournade: Easy Money (113); Scott: A Summer Breeze (113); Morton: Fuzzy Wuzzy Rag (113-14); Verge: Who You Heiffer (131); Joplin: Cascades (136-38), Gladiolous Rag (169-72), Rose Leaf Rag (169-72); Berlin: Alexander's Ragtime Band (210-12).

Sources: Joplin: Original Rags (50-51), Maple Leaf Rag (67-69, 136, 152, 169-70, 179, 182-83), The Entertainer (108-10), A Breeze From Alabama (110-12), Elite Syncopations (113-14), Palm Leaf Rag (130-32), Treemonisha (210-12).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Within a biographical account of Paganini and a discussion of his compositional techniques, Paganini's Prière de Moïse, an arrangement of "Dal tuo stellato soglio" from Rossini's opera Moïse, serves as an example of orchestration. Paganini improved on Rossini's use of the drum, changing its placement to reflect the accentuation of the melody rather than to merely follow metrical conventions.

Works: Paganini: Prière de Moïse (149).

Sources: Rossini: Moïse (149).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

The plots of both works are similar so that Debussy's method of translating poetry into music can be compared. The retrospective character of the prelude is apparent in the evocation of (1) Tristan, (2) Chopin's Nocturne No. 8 in Db major, (3) Saint-Saëns's Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix, and (4) the love music of Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet.

Works: Debussy: Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (227-32), Jeux (232-38).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (232), Chopin: Nocturne No. 8 in D flat (232), Saint-Saëns: Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix (232), Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet (232).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

A group of composers, known as "Converts," began as "post-tonalists" and experimentalists and then moved toward more tonal idioms in the 1960s and 1970s. One of the first composers to leave the "post-tonal" world was George Rochberg, who began using collage and other borrowing techniques in his compositions of the mid-1960s. He began quoting his contemporaries and slowly moved to allusion of past composers and eras with his Third String Quartet. Another composer to use collage and allusion was David Del Tredici, who used various traditional and popular tunes to support the texts of Lewis Carroll. William Bolcom, John Harbison, Chick Corea, Keith Jarrett, and Anthony Davis began mixing art music and popular music through quotation, allusion, and homage to create a tonal idiom unlike those found in the music of Rochberg and Del Tredici. In the 1980s and 1990s, young composers also looked back to the Romantic period, but they did not use quotation or other actual borrowing techniques to the extent of the Converts. The young Romantic composers usually composed original music that only alluded slightly to the former composers of the 1800s.

Works: Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (546), String Quartet No. 3 (546-47); Del Tredici: Pop-Pourri (547), Vintage Alice (548); Zwilich: Concerto Grosso (561); Larson: Symphony: Water Music (563).

Sources: Mozart: Divertimento K. 287 (546); Bach: Es ist genug (547); Traditional: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star (548), God Save the Queen (548); Handel: Violin Sonata in D (561), Water Music (563).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Niels Viggo Bentzon's Variationer for klaver, Op. 241, and Robert Muczynski's Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) participate in a long tradition of variations in general and variations on Paganini's Caprice No. 24, and their contributions to the latter tradition exhibit divergent approaches to variation technique. Bentzon obscures all melodic references to Paganini's theme and does not label variations, preferring instead to make subtle allusions to Paganini's harmonies and rhythms within the context of Bentzon's own language. Muczynski's Desperate Measures, on the other hand, is a work conceived of as entertainment, and references to Paganini's melody remain clear within a more traditional approach to variations and tonality, to which Muczynski adds modern dance idioms.

Works: J. S. Bach: Goldberg Variations (11-13); Mozart: Variations in F Major, "Salve tu Domine," K. 398; Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (14); Chopin: Twelve Concert Etudes, Op. 10 (18); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (28, 30-32, 101); Busoni: Paganini-Liszt Theme mit Variationen, Etüden, No. 6 (28-32); Lutosławski: Variations on a Theme of Paganini (28, 32); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 35 (28, 32-33, 101); Rachmaninov: Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 43 (28, 32-33); Niels Viggo Bentzon: Variationer for Klaver, Op. 241 (29, 34, 37-62, 65, 98-101); Robert Muczynski: Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) (29, 65-98, 100-102).

Sources: Anonymous: Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west (12), Kraut und Rüben (12); Paisiello: "Salve tu, domine" from I filosofi immaginarii (13); Anton Diabelli: Waltz (14); Paganini: 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (26-29); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (30).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1500s

Claude Gervaise wrote three- and four-part chansons. Those in four parts are freely composed in a progressive style while the three-part chansons use borrowed material in the tradition of earlier pedagogical tricinia. These traditional pieces are composed in one of three ways: 1. use of a cantus firmus plus completely new material; 2. combination of cantus firmus with parodied material from the model with little or no concern for originality; 3. combination of cantus firmus and parodied material with significant original contributions. Gervaise's three-part compositions fall in this last category. Gervaise may have learned these particular borrowing techniques from Thilman Susato's Premier livre of 1544. Gervaise wrote these chansons for the inexperienced singer yet retained his artistic integrity in the process. Like no other composer of sixteenth-century chansons, Gervaise borrows his material according to a consistent set of compositional principles.

Works: Gervaise: Aultant que moy (366), Mon Pencement (367), M'amye est tant honneste (368), Au temps heureux (369), D'Amour me plains (369), Si l'on doibt prendre (370), Las! je sçay bien (370).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Tylman Susato's Premier and Tiers livres à 2 ou à 3 parties include approximately fifty chansons that derive their material from preexistent sources. The models for Susato's cantus firmus chansons come from Flemish, Italian, and Parisian prints; from compositions for two voices or four; from both polyphonic and homophonic compositions; and from composers as divergent as Josquin des Prez and Claudin de Sermisy as well as Susato himself. Susato modifies the cantus firmus to suit the needs of his new composition. While retaining most cadential schemes from his models, Susato feels free to change some cadences to fit the logic of his new piece. He borrows from the lower voices of his models as well, using parody to highlight tension or stability in the new piece. Unlike Gervaise [see Bernstein, "Claude Gervaise as Chanson Composer"], who demonstrates little regard for the formal implications of borrowed material, Susato takes care to emphasize the structural nature of his models.

Works: Susato: Content désir (218), Long temps y a (219), Je prens en gré (220), Mon pauvre cueur (221), Grace vertu (222), Puisque j'ay perdu mes amours (229-30).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Louis Armstrong's prolifically wide-ranging tastes regarding art and music find their outlet in his incorporation of operatic fragments in his improvised solos. Armstrong was inclined to imitate operatic gestures such as recitative style, as exemplified by his solo in Blue Again. Armstrong also played operatic cadenza-like passages in certain breaks, such as in I Can't Give You Anything But Love (234). In other instances, Armstrong quoted operatic themes, such as Verdi's Rigoletto quartet and "Vesti la giubba" from Pagliacci. By quoting Pagliacci and Rigoletto, he was showing that his artistic influences were not limited to the pantheon of New Orleans cornet virtuosos of the early twentieth century. Armstrong did not distinguish between "high" and "low" art; it was all jazz to him, and his quotations of well-known music are a demonstration of this belief.

Works: Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Araby (220), Blue Again (222, 235), New Orleans Stomp (223), Dinah (223-24, 234, 236), Tiger Rag (225), New Tiger Rag (225); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Kansas City Man Blues (228), Texas Moaner Blues (229); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Potato Head Blues (229); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Cake Walking Babies from Home (230, 234); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on West End Blues (231-36); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Mandy Make Up Your Mind (232), Early Every Morn (233); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Beau Koo Jack (235), Once in a While (235), Can't Give You Anything But Love (235).

Sources: Verdi: Rigoletto (218, 222-23, 231-32); Gounod: Faust (220); Ponchielli: Dance of the Hours (221), Gershwin: Lady Be Good! (223); Sindig: Rustle of Spring (225); Leoncavallo: Pagliacci (225); Porter Steele: High Society (227, 232); Bizet: Carmen (231); Eva Dell'Acqua: Villanelle (232-33); Suppé: Poet and Peasant Overture (233).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan, Marc Geelhoed

In the works of Johannes Brahms, the use of musical allusions as a compositional procedure is most pronounced in his private genres of song and chamber music. Alte Liebe (1876) is a fascinating example of using musical allusion to create a personal connection between words and music, to reveal the composer's private thoughts, and to stir the memory of a particular audience, Clara Schumann in this case. Brahms incorporated in the song a six-note melodic segment from a solo piano piece in F-sharp minor that he had presented to Clara five years earlier (later revised and published as Capriccio, Op. 76, No.1). He then asked Julius Stockhausen to sing it to Clara, together with another song (Unüberwindlich), designating her to be the "best to hear them." Unüberwindlich, on Goethe's text describing a drunken man and his lost love, also incorporates an allusion, a literal quotation of the opening of Domenico Scarlatti's keyboard sonata in D major, K. 223. The two songs represent opposite sides of the same coin: one private and melancholically nostalgic and the other public and self-mockingly humorous. Seen from the same light, the former represents a female protagonist, while the latter a male. Both songs parallel recurrences of borrowed melodic segments with resurgences of old Romantic feelings.

Works: Brahms: Alte Liebe, Op. 72, No. 1 (79-111), Unüberwindlich, Op. 72, No. 5 (81-89, 101-6).

Sources: Brahms: Capriccio in F-sharp Minor, Op. 76, No.1 (72-81, 84-85, 88-89, 95-101, 104-11); Domenico Scarlatti, Keyboard Sonata in D Major, K. 223 (81-82, 101-4).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1900s

Self-quotation in the classical tradition is when a composer cites a melody or segment from an existing composition in a new work for some extramusical purpose or meaning. Although the technique is rarely found in Renaissance or Baroque music, it attained increased prominence in the late-Classical period and into the twentieth century, due to emerging aesthetics of originality and “absolute music.” The effectiveness of self-quotation, moreover, depends on the composer’s ability to present the existing material in a recognizable way, as well as the listener’s understanding of the origin and meaning of the original work.

Through self-quotation, a composer can create a diverse array of new presentations of older material ranging from commentary, illustration, humor, and either distancing or affirmation of the original material’s meaning. Mozart’s insertion of “Non piú andrai” from Le nozze di Figaro in the finale of Don Giovanni, for instance, momentarily dissolves the boundaries of operatic illusion and reality, invoking the plot of the former opera to foreshadow Don Giovanni’s impending doom. Beethoven utilizes a theme from his ballet Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus as the basis for the finale of his Eroica Symphony to invoke the image of Prometheus as the symbolic hero of the work, which is especially asserted in the coda. In his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Wagner quotes the “love motive” from Tristan und Isolde to draw a parallel between the love triangles of both operas. While the motive symbolized a tragic fate in Tristan und Isolde, however, in Die Meistersinger it reminds Hans Sachs of a tragedy to avoid, thus ensuring the opera’s happy ending. Anton Bruckner inserted quotations from many of his sacred works into his symphonies to give them a special character of reverence and piety. Richard Strauss practiced self-quotation frequently, but particularly fascinating is his symphonic poem Ein Heldenleben, which uses material from Guntram, Don Juan, and several other works to depict Strauss himself as the titular hero of Ein Heldenleben. Self-quotation’s continued relevance as a compositional technique can be seen in contemporary works, with Berg’s opera Lulu, Liebermann’s opera Leonore 40/45, and Zimmermann’s Ballet noir being notable examples.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni, K. 527 (21); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (Eroica) (21); Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (21-22); Bruckner: Symphony No. 0 in D Minor, WAB 100 (23), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor, WAB 102 (23), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor, WAB 103 (23), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (23), Symphony No. 7 in C-sharp Minor, WAB 107 (23); Richard Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (23-24), Feuersnot, Op. 50 (24), Der Bürger als Edelmann, Op. 60b (24), Eine Alpensinfonie, Op. 64 (24), Intermezzo, Op. 72 (24), Capriccio, Op. 85 (24), Vier letzte Lieder, Op. posth. (24); Alban Berg: Lulu (24); Rolf Liebermann: Leonore 40/45 (24); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Ballet noir: Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (24).

Sources: Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro, K. 492 (21); Beethoven: Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (21); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (21-22); Bruckner: Ave Maria, WAB 6 (23), Mass in F Minor, WAB 28 (23), Mass in D Minor, WAB 26 (23), Te Deum in C Major, WAB 45 (23); Richard Strauss: Guntram, Op. 25 (23-24), Macbeth, Op. 23 (23), Don Juan, Op. 20 (23), Tod und Verklärung, Op. 24 (23-24), Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche, Op. 28 (23), Also sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30 (23), Don Quixote, Op. 35 (23-24), Hymne an die Liebe, Op. 71, No. 1 (24), Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (24), Daphne, Op. 82 (24), Ariadne auf Naxos, Op. 60 (24); Alban Berg: Wozzeck (24); Rolf Liebermann: Sonate für Klavier (24).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Although Lutoslawski’s Funeral Music was written in 1954 for the tenth anniversary of Béla Bartók’s death in 1945, there was no intention to imitate Bartók’s musical style in this piece. Some of Lutoslawki’s stylistic interests are closely aligned with those of Bartók, which results in several accidental resemblances in the work. Of particular interest is the twelve-note structure (with alternating semitones and tritones) in the harmonic continuo in the second movement. Unlike the practice by composers in the Second Viennese School, this twelve-note structure does not exhibit serialism. Rather, the twelve-tone quality is found in vertical spaces of the harmonic continuo, in which thirds are absent.

Works: Lutoslawski: Funeral Music (17-21).

Sources: Lutoslawski: Two Etudes for Piano (17), Variations on a Theme of Paganini for 2 Pianos (17), Symphony No. 1 (17), Overture for Strings (17).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Index Classifications: 1600s

By borrowing a musical passage from his film score Hangman also Die within the opening of his song Auferstanden aus Ruinen, Hanns Eisler utilized the same music for two extremely different political and social circumstances—a paradox that illustrates music's ability to mediate meaning through cultural encoding. The 1943 motion picture Hangmen also Die by Fritz Lang is a product of the Hollywood entertainment industry and American capitalism, whereas Auferstanden aus Ruinen is a patriotic song adopted by the communist German Democratic Republic as its national anthem. In the film, the story centers on the struggle of the united Czech people to overcome the brutal Nazi occupation; the relevant musical passage is heard in a scene in which the leading Czech resistance leader lies on his deathbed after a Nazi raid. The slow, syncopated rhythm in the bass line and the three-note descending sequential figure in the melody symbolize the patriotism and heroism of the Czech people fighting against fascism. Eisler borrows these same gestures in the opening of the anthem, and in both cases exploits the emotional power of music to mediate a political and social message. The paradox of Eisler's self-borrowing emphasizes music's ability to cross social and political boundaries.

Works: Eisler: Auferstanden aus Ruinen.

Sources: Eisler: Score for Hangman also Die.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Musical quotation is an intentional act of re-use by the composer who intends for it to be heard as reference to other music. Hence, part of musical quotation’s success lies in listeners’ recognition of the borrowed material. Nelson Goodman posited that there are two prerequisites for direct or indirect quotations: containment and reference. While containment is explicit, reference poses musical challenges since there is no system of reference in performed music. Therefore, context, emphasis, and pause serve as auditory devices for reference in music. In listening to Schnittke’s String Quartet No. 3, one finds it easy to recognize the initial fragment from Lassus, as each time it appears, the Lassus fragment stands in contrast to the music that came before and after. However, the reference to Beethoven’s Grosse Fuge in less obvious, as there is no clear stylistic contrast between the quotation and Schnittke’s own compositional idiom. As a result, one is less likely to be able to recognize the quotation. The recognition of Shostakovich’s “D–E-flat–C–B” signature is dependent on listeners’ familiarity with the aural projection of the motive. While familiarity plays a key role in the identification of the quotation, a keen awareness of the practice of musical quotation and musical literacy is more crucial. The identification of musical references also relies on memory and a shared cultural context between the composer and his listeners. While musical reference can be exclusionary by forging a bond between the composer and his musically literate audience, it can also be seen as an invitation to others to discover the original context of the quoted work and join the group of enlightened listeners.

Works: Schnittke: String Quartet No. 3 (186).

Sources: Lassus: Stabat Mater (186); Beethoven: Grosse Fuge, Op. 133 (186).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Vincent d'Indy was heavily influenced by Gregorian plainsong, and this influence was clearly reflected in his musical philosophies, teaching, and compositions. D'Indy's music quotes, paraphrases, or alludes to the style of Gregorian chant in several ways. These are organized according to compositional genre. The use of Gregorian chant fits into d'Indy's musical aesthetic in several ways.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Index Classifications: 1900s

Max Reger’s Phantasie und Fuge über den Namen B-A-C-H, Op. 46, was his attempt to balance the expressive values of Bach and Wagner within the fin de siècle anxiety over the future direction of German music. Aesthetic and ideological comparisons between Bach and Wagner were common in Reger’s time, and the two pillars of German music were often described as two dialectic poles with an understanding of one completing the understanding of the other. Along these lines, Reger described Bach as a remedy for the affliction of “Wagneritis,” what he saw as a misunderstanding of Wagner’s true identity. The opening of Phantasie draws heavily on Tristan und Isolde, prominently utilizing the Tristan chord in the opening measure and developing unresolved seventh chords in the same way as Wagner does in the Tristan prelude. The harmonic and polyphonic language Reger (and Wagner) uses is prefigured in Bach’s music. Reger models his Phantasie on Bach’s Fantasy and Fugue in G Minor, BWV 542 (and to a lesser extent, Liszt’s 1870 Präludium und Fuge über B-A-C-H), and the B-A-C-H theme is present throughout the work. Elements of Bach’s harmonic language—common chord tones and leading-tone chromaticism, for two—that are also used by Wagner are highlighted by Reger, who draws on both composers’ work. Reger also alludes to the moment of transfiguration for the morbidly ill protagonist in Richard Strauss’s Tod und Verklärung, further underscoring Phantasie’s purpose of curing the illness of Wagneritis. Through Phantasie, Reger hoped to synthesize and transcend Bach and Wagner, and to proclaim a new era free of pessimism and cultural illness.

Works: Reger: Phantasie und Fuge über den Namen B-A-C-H, Op. 46 (502-14)

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (502-9); J. S. Bach: Fantasy and Fugue in G Minor, BWV 542 (506-10); Richard Strauss: Tod und Verklärung (512-14)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Kyrie trope is a Kyrie with independent text and melody inserted between phrases, in contrast with a texted Kyrie, which is a lengthy chant with a syllabic text. The most common forms of Kyrie trope contained one, three, or eight phrases. The texted Kyrie seems to be the older form and is more common in western Europe. It is possible that the Kyrie and trope were composed together, as may also be the case for the sequence, due to the presence of a more purely melismatic style. The longer Kyrie trope is more common east of the Rhine, uses shorter chant melodies, and has more formal and structural similarities to Kyrie melodies in general. Complete musical independence is the only universal characteristic of all Kyrie tropes. Tables list fourty-four Kyrie tropes and their sixty-one manuscript sources.

Works: Eia chorus clamans (12, 16, 20-22); Rex regnum domine (14, 23-26, 37); Omnipotens genitor lumenque (10, 13, 15-16, 17, 26-31); Deus solus et immensus (12, 31-36).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The many instances of self-borrowing in Franz Schubert's last completed opera Fierrabras (1823) may be seen as the composer's fervent effort to select the best melody from his repertoire to fit the dramatic situation. For instance, in the first act alone, the overture resembles an earlier song Himmelsfunken, a recurring motive in the opera echoes a similar motive used in the unfinished cantata Lazarus, and many passages resemble passages from Rosamunde and the song cycle Die schöne Müllerin, which were both written around the same time as the opera. Many of these passages are not direct quotations, but rather allusions or slight resemblances to earlier works. Additionally, these cross-references often serve a poetic purpose. For example, the melodic allusion to Blumenlied and Die Forelle in Act I of Fierrabras is an appropriate reference because of the innocence evoked in all three passages. The various quotations, cross-references, and allusions are indicated within a detailed discussion of the musical material of each number.

Works: Schubert: Fierrabras (17-37).

Sources: Schubert: Himmelsfunken (19-20), Lazarus (cantata) (21, 26, 35), Rosamunde (21, 35), Die schöne Müllerin (21-22, 27-28, 35-36), Die Forelle (22, 27), Blumenlied (22, 27), Die abgeblühte Linde (23-24), Abendröthe (24-26, 28), Piano Trio No. 1 in B-flat Major, D. 898 (26-27), Symphony No. 9 in C Major (Great) (26-27, 29, 35-36), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (30-31), Sonata for Piano Duet in B-flat Major, D. 617 (32-33), Three Piano Pieces, D. 946 (32-33, 35), Ins stille Land (33-34), Lied der Mignon, D. 877 (33-34), Sonata in A Minor for Arpeggione and Piano, D. 821 (33-34), Totengräbers Heimweh (33, 35).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

In electroacoustic music compositions, various types of sound and music borrowing are commonly practiced, and a carefully constructed terminology of borrowing would lay the groundwork for a better understanding of the nuances of these practices. First, within electroacoustic music, there is a difference between borrowing a sound recording and borrowing existing music. Composers of electroacoustic music describe their motivations for borrowing with a breadth of terminology. There is also a variety of specific types of borrowing, including sampling, appropriation, stealing, and so on, and the boundaries between them can sometimes be fuzzy. Layers and lineages of borrowing occur when a piece borrows from a source that itself borrows from an even earlier source. Different durations of borrowed material are also distinguishable, and are relevant to the legalities of borrowing. In electroacoustic music, there are distinctive modification and embedding techniques. For example, borrowed material can be reconfigured (changed in some way), disintegrated (broken up and reorganized), or obliterated (no sense of the original work remains). The terminology of borrowing in electroacoustic music is distinct from other typologies of borrowing, and it provides a framework for understanding the differences in borrowing between electroacoustic and instrumental music.

Works: Åke Parmerud: Necropolis: City of the Dead (143); Louis Dufort: Gen_3 (143, 146); Francis Dhomont: Novars (143, 146); Margaret Schedel: After | Applebox (146); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98 (146); Pauline Oliveros: Bye Bye Butterfly (149); Vladimir Ussachevsky: Wireless Fantasy (149).

Sources: Wagner: Die Walküre (143), Parsifal (149); Palestrina: Missa Papae Marcelli (143); J. S. Bach: Suite No. 1 in G major, BWV 1007 (143), Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 (146); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, Op. 14, Pathétique (143); Francis Dhomont: Novars (143, 146); Pierre Schaeffer: Étude aux objets (143, 146); Machaut: Messe de Nostre Dame (143, 146); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98 (146); Puccini: Madama Butterfly (149).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Within the context of an examination into film music as a component equally crucial to the film as the images on the screen, musical borrowing is discussed with special attention paid to the musical cliché. The use and creation of musical clichés in film music derives first and foremost from the recontextualization of "classical" music in film. The musical cliché is analogous to the literary. In some cases, the classifications and associations assigned to the musical cues of the silent films derive from already established semiotic codes, but in most cases film composers were creating and re-creating cultural and psychological points of reference in the ears and minds of the film spectators. In the process of recognizing the real social importance of these musical clichés, their respective archetypes are uncovered.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: David Oliver

That Bach's Christmas Oratorio consists in part of parodied movements from secular cantatas has been problematic for the work's reception. However, Bach's parody technique can be justified on economic, stylistic, and aesthetic grounds. An examination of the Christmas Oratorio demonstrates that Bach carefully reworked his models to harmonize with the new text and the new occasion. Three main aspects of Bach's parody technique may be discerned in the Christmas Oratorio: first, movements are transposed to conform to the overall tonal structure of the work; second, movements may be reorchestrated in order to better correspond with the affect of the new text; and third, the re-texting of the music is carried out in a skillful fashion that is rhetorically appropriate in the new setting. The Christmas Oratorio is, therefore, a highly individual work which owes its success to Bach's careful consideration of the consequences of parody. In the new work the parodied movements are integrated structurally as well as meaningfully into the new setting.

Works: Bach: Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

There is evidence to suggest that Schoenberg modeled the first movement of his Third String Quartet (1927) on the first movement of Schubert's String Quartet in A minor, Op. 29 (1824). Schoenberg's incessant eighth-note ostinato in the second violin and viola at the opening of the movement shows a clear allegiance to the perpetual eighth notes at the opening of the Schubert. But what is especially noteworthy is Schoenberg's unique manipulation and recasting of the traditional elements of sonata form within the new environment of the twelve-tone system.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

The recently revealed manuscript for L'Ile du rêve contains Hahn's marginal comments written in the style of Massenet. An examination of these markings displays Hahn's infatuation and dependence on not only Massenet, but also contemporary writers Loti and Proust. Regarding his teacher Massenet, Hahn wrote that he was dependent on him for compositional technique and melodic ideas. (EH)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Amy Beach composed five works using Native American music as themes. Her usage reflected an interest, shared by MacDowell, Dvořák, Farwell and others, in developing an American musical idiom. In her Indianist works, Beach integrated source tunes through dissonance, chromaticism, drones, and other devices, facilitating her development of a unique musical language.

Works: Beach: Eskimos, Op. 64 (148-50), An Indian Lullaby, Op. 57, No. 3 (149), From Blackbird Hills: An Omaha Tribal Dance, Op. 83 (150-52), Trio, Op. 150 (152-54), String Quartet, Op. 89 (154-63).

Sources: Native American tunes transcribed by Boas in The Central Eskimo (144, 149-50, 152, 156, 160); Beach: The Returning Hunter, Op. 64, No. 2 (152-53).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Dvořák had a wide-ranging impact on the creation of an American nationalism in music. His ideas about a national American music fall into three different categories, each dealing with a style of folk music. Dvořák felt that American composers should look toward these three folk styles as foundations for their compositions, following the model of his own New World Symphony from 1893. The first category of national American music is Native American music. Composers continued to follow Dvořák's ideas by collecting the music, using previous collections made by ethnologists, and alluding to the culture of the Native American in symphonic and chamber music and opera. The second folk style Dvořák discussed is African-American music. Composers broke into two categories of African-American music, yet they all still were following many of the ideals set forth in the writings of Dvořák. Many composers looked towards the traditions of the Creole people in the South, while others focused mainly on spirituals and other slave songs for the inspiration of various compositions. Finally, composers began looking toward Anglo-American folk traditions, which was the final type of folk music briefly discussed by Dvořák as a basis for a national music. Dvořák was a significant influence on the creation of American music from his entrance into the country until mid-twentieth century.

Works: Works: Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (158-59); MacDowell: Indian Suite (163); Loomis: Lyrics of the Red Men (163-64); Nevin: Poia (164); Farwell: The Hako (164); Griffes: Two Sketches Based on Indian Themes (164-65); Beach: String Quartet, Op. 89 (165-66); van Brockhoven: Suite Creole (169); Gilbert: Dance in Place Congo (169); Beach: Cabildo (169); Shelly: Carnival Overture (170); Schoenefeld: Suite, Op. 15 (170); Goldmark: Negro Rhapsody (171); Gilbert: Negro Episode (171); Mason: String Quartet in G Minor on Negro Themes (172); Cook: Uncle Tom's Cabin (173); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (174).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

The conversion of secular musical works into religious pieces by the substitution of a new text was a common technique in the sixteenth century. The noël-parody is one example, where a text describing the nativity would replace a secular text, thus creating a "new" piece without changing the music. The model for the noël-parody, the form into which the new text was introduced, was the chanson rustique, a form of popular origins that was part of an oral tradition. As many of the texts of the noël-parodies are preserved in printed collections, they can provide information about their models that is not available to us by any other means, such as the strophic design of a chanson rustique and its approximate date of circulation.

Works: [CHANSONS] Bulkyn: Or sus, or sus, bovier (32); Compère: Je suys amie du fourrier (37); Godart: Mariez moy, mon pere (41); Josquin: Si j'avois Marion (41); Rogier: Noble fleur excellente (41); Anonymous: En m'esbatant/Gracieuse plaisant mousniere/Gente fleur de noblesse; La Chanson de la grue (33); Maistre Jehan de Pont Allez, or allez (36); Mariez moy, mon pere (40); Mon cotillonnet (35); Monseigner le grant maistre (39, 41); Noble cueur d'excellence (40); Si j'eusse Marion (41). [NOEL-PARODIES] Autre noël sure la chanson de cotillon (35); De mon triste desplaisir (29); Or chantons de cueur isnel, o nouel (37); Or sus, or sus, bouvier, Dieu te coint bonne estraine (33); Quant l'empereur des romains (33).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: 1500s

When Beach claimed that a composition may be “a veritable autobiography,” she may have had her Piano Concerto in C-Sharp Minor, Op. 45 in mind, as it borrows from three of her own songs. The text, dedications, and dates of composition suggest that Beach was unhappy with socially constructed constraints on women in music. As a virtuosic pianist, she preferred to be a performer; however, her mother and her husband favored a more private lifestyle and strove to withhold Beach from performing. Her husband in particular advocated that Beach focus on composition instead. Consequently, by 1897 when the piano concerto was composed, Beach was one of America’s foremost composers. The text of the three songs used in the piano concerto, Jeune fille et jeune fleur, Empress of Night, and Twilight, was crucial in Beach’s formation of the melodies; she would repeat the texts until music formed from the words. Thus, the meanings of the texts used in a concerto on the instrument Beach was forbidden to play in public can create a hermeneutical extramusical reading of her piano concerto.

Works: Amy Beach: Piano Concerto in C-Sharp Minor, Op. 45.

Sources: Amy Beach: Jeune fille et jeune fleur, Op. 1, No. 3 (401-4), Empress of Night, Op. 2, No. 3 (404-7), Twilight, Op. 2, No. 1 (406-11).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Ives's borrowings from Beethoven in his Concord Sonata extend beyond reverence and homage. Ives integrates the famous four-note opening to Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 into his own theme, which he calls the "human faith melody." By reworking Beethoven's motto into a new context, Ives pays tribute to Beethoven and also challenges Beethoven's music by improving the material with new sounds Beethoven might have used had he been Ives's contemporary. The Concord Sonata thus displays Ives's success in overcoming what Harold Bloom calls the "anxiety of influence" by confronting Beethoven's influence head-on.

Works: Ives: Arrangement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (34-37), Second Piano Sonata (Concord) (37-50).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (34-37), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (40-44,47-50), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (44-47); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (42-45); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (42-44).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Brent C. Reidy

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Rochberg is an imitator who does not place his personal stamp on the compositions he quotes. Rochberg's style of quotation presents a shallow picture of the composer he tries to portray without adding anything of his own.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra

Critics of Cecil Taylor’s recordings have incorrectly accused him of abandoning tonality and emphasizing texture in his improvisations. Pitch-class set analysis of Taylor’s improvisations, however, reveals a much closer connection between Taylor and his predecessors than previously acknowledged. Two recordings of Thelonious Monk and Denzil Best’s Bemsha Swing, one by Monk in 1955 and one by Taylor in 1958, demonstrate this close connection. Monk uses only a small collection of pitch-class sets and pitch-class operators for many of his improvisations, all in the context of standard bebop extended tonality. Taylor uses sets that imply traditional jazz scales and derive from Monk’s improvisations. By applying pitch-class operations, particularly multiplication, to these sets, Taylor gradually removes them from a tonal context.

Works: Thelonious Monk and Denzel Best (composers) and Cecil Taylor (performer): Bemsha Swing (219-31).

Sources: Thelonious Monk and Denzil Best (composers) and Thelonious Monk (performer): Bemsha Swing (207-19).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Berlioz re-used the final adagio of his 1827 entry for the Prix de Rome, the cantata La Mort d'Orphée, in at least five other pieces, each in a slightly altered manner. The unique orchestration of the passage shows Berlioz's expert ability in the combination of instrumental colors for dramatic effect: here, the orchestral suggestion of the sounds of the aeolian harp and its accompanying sense of melancholy. An examination of the first and subsequent versions reveals that one of the more enigmatic features of the work, the inclusion of a dominant 7th in the final chord, is the result of Berlioz's conscious attempt to incorporate musical "fragments" or "shadows" which leave a sense of longing and lack of resolution at the end of the work.

Works: Berlioz: Le Retour à la vie (198-204), Lélio ou Le Retour à la vie (201-4).

Sources: Berlioz: La Mort d'Orphée (esp. 194-98).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Scholars have analyzed the fifteenth-century chanson Mass for its role in the development of cantus firmus technique, but there have been few attempts to contextualize the borrowing of a secular love song in the most solemn ritual of the Church. An exploration of the origins and developments of this practice across a range of expressive media situate these masses within a culture that juxtaposed secular with sacred love and the courtly lady with the Blessed Virgin Mary. Some of the same chanson tenors used within Marian-texted motets of the period were also borrowed in these masses, indicating a Marian reading for them. Three centuries prior to the chanson mass, interpretive traditions had already developed on the themes of sacred and profane love in theology and the vernacular. Commentaries on the Old Testament Song of Songs suggested that the erotic love expressed between the female and male voices represented the love between God and the Virgin Mary, authors of vernacular sources discussed the commingling of the cloister and court, and in visual representations of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries artists increasingly emphasized the humanity of the Virgin, depicting her as a contemporary woman within the courtly environment. Likewise, the writers Jean Gerson and Jean Molinet both used courtly and secular language to address the divine beloved. Molinet's poem Oroison a Nostre Dame carries the line, "A poem that may be addressed either to the Virgin Mary or by a lover to his lady." Within this text, which was directed explicitly to the Virgin Mary, Molinet incorporated several chanson incipits, six of which were also borrowed in the chanson mass. It is clear from these connections to poetry, theological writing, and visual art that out of the courtly environments, the chanson mass became another outlet for elevating profane love to the sacred realm.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The Marian masses Sicut spina rosam and Sub tuum praesidium by Jacob Obrecht exhibit connections to local devotional and liturgical usages. Obrecht's Missa Sicut spina rosam borrows from Ockeghem's Missa Mi-mi and takes a verse from the responsory Ad nutum Domini nostrum as its cantus firmus. Obrecht borrowed a segment of the chant corresponding with the text "sicut spina rosam, genuiut Judea Mariam" ("As the thorn brought forth the rose, so did Judea bring forth Mary"). The isolation of this fragment can be connected to its particular liturgical usage in the locale of Antwerp, where Ad nutum domini nostrum served as the culmination of the Matins service and as the great responsory for Vespers on the Feast of the Nativity of the Virgin. Likewise, Obrecht's Missa Sub tuum praesidium contains associations to local Marian traditions through its use of seven Marian plainsongs. Sub tuum praesidium is the main structural cantus firmus, four borrowed chants are drawn from internal verses of sequences for the Blessed Virgin, and two popular Marian antiphons Salve Regina and Regina caeli serve as cantus firmi in the final Agnus Dei. A comparison of the chants and their local usages in places where Obrecht was employed suggest that the Missa Sub tuum praesidium was probably written while he was working in Antwerp or possibly Bergen-op-Zoom.

Works: Obrecht: Missa Sicut spina rosam (52, 56-63); Missa Sub tuum praesidium (52, 64-74).

Sources: Responsory Ad nutum Domini nostrum (56-61); Ockeghem: Missa Mi-mi (56); Antiphons Sub tuum praesidium (65-71), Ave praeclara (65, 67, 70) Aurea virga (65-66, 68, 70-71), Verbum bonum (65, 67, 70), Regina caeli (66, 71), Salve Regina (66, 73).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1500s

Throughout the Middle Ages, veneration of local martyrs and miracle workers continually increased, leading to the creation of location-specific liturgical services and music to celebrate these saints’ feast days. One such creation is Matthaeus Pipelare’s Missa de Sancto Livino. Pipelare drew from a large body of texts and liturgical chant unique to Ghent, ultimately weaving twenty plainsong melodies into his polyphonic mass. His methods of integration varied; while he seldom quoted these chants in their entirety, he typically quoted portions faithfully or modestly paraphrased them. His mass demonstrates that local traditions of liturgy and chant exerted influence upon sacred polyphonic compositions.

Examination of the relationship between Pipelare’s mass and its plainsong sources allows the discovery that Pierre de la Rue’s Missa de Sancto Job was modeled directly upon Pipelare’s Missa de Sancto Livino. La Rue’s treatment of Pipelare’s cantus firmi and melodic motives demonstrates that he was not familiar with the plainsong melodies in their original contexts, or, at the least, he used Pipelare’s mass as his source. La Rue’s mass therefore is another example of the widespread practice in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries of finding inspiration for new polyphonic compositions in the materials of existing polyphonic works. Tables and schematic diagrams show the distribution of texts and melodies within the Missa de Sancto Livino and the Missa de Sancto Job.

Works: Matthaeus Pipelare: Missa de Sancto Livino (171, 177, 184-98); Pierre de la Rue: Missa de Sancto Job (199-213).

Sources: Matthaeus Pipelare: Missa de Sancto Livino (200-213).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

The revival of Bach's music in the Romantic era is of overwhelming historical significance. The stature of his music continues to grow in the twentieth century. Mention is made of two works based upon the theme B-A-C-H: Schumann's six fugues on B-A-C-H (1845) and Liszt's prelude and fugue on the name of B-A-C-H (1860). Liszt also made an organ arrangement of sections of Bach's Cantata No. 21 in 1855. The more general influence of Bach is evident in Mendelssohn's St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846) and in William Sterndale Bennett's oratorio The Woman of Samaria (1867).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

For various reasons Bach's output of secular cantatas is not very well known. This is the case despite the very ambiguous demarcation between Bach's sacred and secular music as well as the evident passion and skill he exhibits in many of the secular compositions. As the secular cantatas provided Bach with a wealth of musical material to draw upon, the use of parody technique is a central concern to this repertory. Although the argument that parody was a direct result of Bach's need for economy is certainly relevant, there indeed exist cases where the transformation of an existing work into a new one is so advanced that one must consider other factors. The oratorio-type works that Bach composed later in his Leipzig years, for example, rely to a large extent on very skillful parodies of movements from pre-Leipzig secular cantatas. It is likely that as his career progressed, Bach made greater use of parody procedure as the fund of existing source material grew. An understanding of the relationship between original and parody must consider the possibility that Bach's music was so rich that it was readily adaptable to widely divergent texts.

Works: Bach: Weichet nur, betrübte Schatten, BWV 202 (191); Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet, BWV 212 (193); Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen, BWV 66 (194-5); Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (198-9, 201); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (200); Easter Oratorio, BWV 249 (201-2); St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (202-3); Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (203-4).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Stephen Sondheim’s Sweeney Todd is not a musical, but an opera, and has suffered by not being performed by opera companies for opera audiences. In Sweeney Todd, Sondheim shows his knowledge of the Western art music tradition through musical borrowing, leitmotif-like motivic recurrence, stylistic allusion to canonic composers and popular musics, harsh dissonance and bi-tonality, mixed meter, and other techniques. Such techniques provide the work with dramatic cohesion and musical integrity.

Works: Stephen Sondheim: Sweeney Todd.

Sources: Anonymous: Dies Irae (20, 24-25).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Index Classifications: 1800s

Much of the music of the last century, especially art music, has been treated as intellectual property, and thus fixed and closed off to reuse or appropriation in new contexts. Such a mentality is both purist and anti-historical, as musical cultures around the world and throughout history have flourished and grown by reusing music in some way. In European history, one can find countless examples of existing music serving as the basis for new works, such as medieval motets based on chant, or the eclecticism of Haydn and Mozart’s music. The Romantic era, with its trends of originality and market-driven copyrights, witnessed a paradigm shift where music became less open to incorporating outside influences, and art music increasingly developed into a closed system of repetitive procedures. The possibilities of modern technology and a greater awareness of history, however, open up opportunities to integrate diverse resources and existing music into all kinds of genres and contexts to create imaginative new works and innovative musical expressions.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Hanns Eisler’s works have been going through a resurgence in a post-socialist, post-modern world. Why does his music, particularly Hollywood Songbook, resonate with later audiences? Part of the reason may be that Eisler’s works have a propensity not only to be covered by others but also to begin as covers themselves; bringing the popular music theories of covering into art music may help answer some of these questions about Eisler. The process of covering, regardless of genre, also raises further problems of authorship and authenticity, muddying who is the true author of the work and what the work means for a given time period. Connecting the concept of covers to the concept of performances and performative genres can help alleviate some of these problems.

Eisler’s Hollywood Songbook takes its influence both from Bertold Brecht’s poetry of the same name, the Hollywood Liederbuch, as well as the intangible “Great American Songbook” that many composers claim to reference. All three of these objects are difficult to classify in terms of genre, and thus invite intertextualization, which helps us understand Eisler’s songbook with its references to both exile and modernity borrowed from Brecht’s work and the Great American Songbook. As Eisler’s work itself is a sort of cover of these themes, other artists create their own covers and performances of the work, from popular singers such as Sting to visual artists like Ana Torf. These performative works invite further intertextual readings of both the performance and Eisler’s songbook.

Works: Hanns Eisler: Hollywood Songbook (19-29), Neue deutsche Volkslieder (19); Sting: The Secret Marriage (26-27); Heiner Goebbels: Eislermaterial (26-27); Ana Torf: Performance Art Installation (26-27).

Sources: Hanns Eisler: Hollywood Songbook (25-29).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Index Classifications: 1900s

Franz Liszt’s Weinen, Klagen Variations for piano, published in 1864, are an important example of his piano technique and mature compositional style. The Weinen, Klagen Variations display Liszt’s skillfulness in motivic manipulation, as he transforms and fragments Bach’s original chromatic bass line from Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Sagen, BWV 12, in a multitude of different ways. Liszt also explores various key areas and occasionally obscures the piece’s tonality, exemplifying the composer’s development of a more chromatic harmonic language by the 1860s. Furthermore, Liszt transforms Bach’s original chaconne form into a larger, multipart narrative form typical of his own piano works.

In addition to Bach’s chromatic bass line, Liszt also borrows the chorale tune from the final movement of BWV 12, Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan. The presentation of the tune, however, begets a variety of influences, including church organ, orchestral program music, and Liszt’s own virtuoso pianism. Liszt’s thorough manipulation of the chorale tune may have influenced Alban Berg’s elaborate treatment of the chorale Es ist genug in his Violin Concerto of 1935.

Works: Liszt: Variationen über das Motiv von Bach: Basso continuo des ersten Satzes seiner Kantate ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen’ und des Crucifixus der H-moll Messe (48-64); Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (55).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Sagen, BWV 12 (48-50, 52-53); Liszt: Variationen über das Motiv von Bach: Basso continuo des ersten Satzes seiner Kantate ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen’ und des Crucifixus der H-moll Messe (55).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

While at university in Manchester, Peter Maxwell Davies immersed himself in early music. From the Liber Usualis, the volumes in the Tudor Church Music series, and performances at Manchester Cathedral, Davies heard and studied this repertoire. Upon purchasing the volume of John Dunstable's works in the Musica Britannica collection, Davies began to use Dunstable's music in his own compositions as an alternative to the serial procedures currently in vogue. He says that he borrowed the idea of plainsong transformation from Dunstable, as well as the manner in which he structured rhythm. Davies was also concerned with aesthetic expression and the process in which a composition would speak to the listener. In order to reach the height of expression, a composition must also be in correct proportion, an idea Davies shares with Dunstable. However, the proportional structure need not be heard to communicate to the listener. Davies also uses the vocabulary of early music when he speaks of a cantus or tenor working its way through his compositions. For Davies, this is no mere intellectual exercise, but a compositional process which he believes allows him to communicate to a wide audience.

Works: Davies: Prolation (3).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Composers of the Second New England School sought to compose music that would satisfy conservative American audiences but also sound unique to the United States. George Chadwick's unacknowledged borrowing from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in his dramatic overture Melpomene can be analyzed in terms of Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence. Chadwick engages in the first two of Bloom's categories: clinamen (a clear allusion to another work which then swerves into new territory) and tessera (the antithetical completion of another composer's work). For example, Chadwick uses a slow tempo, English horn, and the Tristan chord in the passages that open and close Melpomene, but the middle section is Allegro agitato and contains a sense of urgency not present in Tristan. In Bloom's terms, Chadwick completed what Wagner left incomplete in order to free himself of the burden of his predecessor's influence.

Works: Chadwick: Melpomene (319-23, 329-30, 333-44).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (320-23, 330-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Amy Beach’s Variations on Balkan Themes, her largest and most difficult piano composition, utilizes four Balkan tunes throughout the work. Beach originally thought these melodies were peasant melodies, but two have been positively identified as Bulgarian urban songs. Though there are four melodies used, titled O Maiko Moya, Stara Planina, Nasadil e Dado, and Macedonia,, they do not receive equal treatment in length and development. For instance, the main theme of the variations is based solely on O Maiko Moya, whereas Nasadil e Dado only appears once in the entire work. The other two melodies had charged political meanings, suggesting that Beach was sympathetic to the Balkan people, especially the Macedonians. The form of the work is best described as “free” or “fantasia” variations since the theme is metrically and harmonically free, allowing for development of motives. In this regard, Beach’s variations are constructed similarly to Dvořák’s Symphonic Variations and Tchaikovsky’s Piano Trio, Op. 50. The descending-thirds key relationships between several of the variations also resemble Beethoven’s Six Variations, Op. 34, while the oscillation between slow and fast tempos in the sixth variation recalls the lassu-friss style found in Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies. The penultimate variation is a funeral march reminiscent of Chopin’s Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor in its pianism, especially the use of the lower range of the piano.

Works: Amy Beach: Variations on Balkan Themes, Op. 60.

Sources: Anonymous: O Maiko Moya (328-32, 337, 342-43), Stara Planina (328-332, 336-37, 340-41, 344), Nasadil e Dado (328-29, 337-38), Macedonia (328-332, 341-42); Dvořák: Symphonic Variations (333); Tchaikovsky: Piano Trio, Op. 50 (333); Beethoven: Six Variations, Op. 34 (336), Eroica Variations, Op. 35 (340), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (340); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsodies, S.244 (337); Chopin: Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 35 (339-40).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Amy Beach recommended in her essay “Ten Commandments for Young Composers” that when composers approached a new form, they should choose a work to use as a model for their composition. Her Variations on Balkan Themes may have been modeled after Beethoven’s Six Variations, Op. 34, a work that Beach had in her repertoire throughout her career. There is a similar tonal scheme between the two works, though Beach’s is in minor and Beethoven’s in major.

Works: Amy Beach: Variations on Balkan Themes, Op. 60.

Sources: Beethoven: Six Variations, Op. 34 (369-70).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

It has long been recognized that Mozart's "Haydn" Quartets (K. 387, 421, 428, 458, 464, 465) are a response to Haydn's String Quartets, Opp. 20 and 33; however, K. 464 and 465 can also be understood as a pointed response to the string quartets of Ignaz Pleyel, Mozart's slightly younger contemporary. Pleyel, a student of Haydn, also modeled much of his String Quartets, Op. 1 on Haydn's Opp. 20 and 33. Though Pleyel rarely moves beyond surface similarities, and his music seems to suffer from abundant repetition, extensive homophony, and slow dramatic pacing, several critics applauded the quartets for their accessibility. Mozart even wrote to his father commending Pleyel's Op. 1 and encouraged him to obtain a copy. Yet when Pleyel published a second set of string quartets (Op. 2) in the same year and dedicated them to Haydn, Mozart quickly rose to claim his musical superiority. K. 464 and 465 simultaneously expand upon elements of Haydn's Opp. 20 and 33 and Pleyel's Op. 1; in fact, Mozart undercuts several of Pleyel's more innovative movements by exposing their inherent structural weaknesses. Mozart also uses the title page of his "Haydn" Quartets to assert his role as Haydn's successor. By using a design similar to Pleyel's Op. 2, and by openly naming as Haydn a friend and paternal figure, as opposed to a teacher, Mozart identifies himself as the greater composer.

Works: Pleyel: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (215-18), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 1, No. 3 (205, 207-9, 212-216), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 1, No. 6 (205-7); Mozart, String Quartet in D Minor, K. 421 (207), String Quartet in A Major, K. 464 (212-15), String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (215-18).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in D Major, Op. 20, No. 4 (205-7), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 20, No. 6 (205, 207-9, 212-14), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (215-18), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (207); Pleyel: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (215-18), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 1, No. 3 (212-15).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Critics have often noted the structural similarities between the opening of Berlioz's Harold en Italie and that of Beethoven's Ninth. At the opening of the finale, both works reprise then reject themes from earlier movements. Unlike other composers who use this device (Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler, Franck), Berlioz does not conclude with a triumphant chorale-like theme. In fact, the viola protagonist remains passive to events throughout, much in the manner of Byron's Childe Harold. Yet Berlioz is in fact confronting the legacy of the "terrifying giant" Beethoven, following Harold Blooms's notions of the "anxiety of influence." Although other of Berlioz's works (Symphonie fantastique, Lélio, Roméo et Juliette, Symphonie funèbre et triomphale) bear the influence of Beethoven, Harold en Italie shows Berlioz's strongest confrontation with Beethoven's legacy.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie.

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The influence of Haydn's quartets Opp. 20 and 33 on Mozart's "Haydn" quartets goes beyond imitation. When Mozart invokes a specific Haydn quartet he uses overt parallels to invite a comparison with Haydn, yet usually changes and transforms the model's form. An element ostensibly borrowed from Haydn is for Mozart a mere point of departure, the striking transformations of which reveal Mozart's rivalry with his model. Mozart's veiled intention, homage combined with confrontation, is also traceable in the rhetoric of his notorious letter of dedication to Haydn.

Works: Mozart: String Quartet in D Minor, K.421 (371-77), String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, K.465 (380-92), String Quartet in A Major, K.464 (392-405).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (371-77), String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 20, No. 5 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (380-92), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 20, No. 2 (392-405).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Sonification, a process of transmitting information through sound, requires a listener to understand the four components of data, mappings, musical language, and emotional content in order to understand the transmitted message. Musification describes sonification for artistic purposes and sonification subjected to musical constraints. Musical borrowing offers one (albeit uncommon) solution to the challenges of successfully communicating data through sonification. Pitch shifting or tempo shifting recordings of familiar songs to map onto a dataset requires little context for a listener to understand, but they can be musically crude. Núria Bonet’s Wasgiischwashäsch (2017) is an orchestrated sonification piece that modifies Rossini’s William Tell Overture based on temperature data in order to convey the extent of climate change in Switzerland. The first movement of Wasgiischwashäsch maps average annual temperature in Switzerland data onto pitch, intervals, and harmony in the third and fourth movements of William Tell; rises in temperature result in rising pitches for high registers and descending pitches for low registers. The second movement maps the differences between the average annual temperature in Switzerland and the global average annual temperature to tempo; rises in temperature difference result in slower tempos with the final tempo reaching 40 beats per minute. The two datasets are not absolutely mapped to musical parameters, and some artistic liberties have been taken to emphasize the higher-level meaning of the data. Musical humor and familiarity with the source material are factors in making climate change data tangible through this particular musification.

Works: Nùria Bonet: Wasgiischwashäsch (189-92).

Sources: Rossini: William Tell Overture (189-92).

Index Classifications: 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Bartók's compositions contain numerous "hidden autobiographical elements," quotations from his own and from other composers' works. These can often be revealed only through careful analysis. In Bluebeard's Castle, Bartók quotes an ostinato motive from Bach's St. Matthew Passion and also uses the motive B-A-C-H. The Wooden Prince begins with an evocation of nature modeled upon that which begins Wagner's Das Rheingold except that in Bartók the first seven harmonics are combined (as opposed to the first five in the Wagner) to create the "Bartók chord." Other examples noted include reference to Ravel's Scarbo in Bartók's Allegro barbaro and the reformulation of the slow movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in A Minor, Op.132, in the second movement of Bartók's Third Piano Concerto.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bartók's quotations have never been completely examined. His quotations are rarely made for "effect," but are instead hidden away and are of a personal significance. Many examples are noted with reference to folk melodies and to the works of Haydn, Liszt, Wagner, Bach, Beethoven, Debussy, Ravel, Kodaly, and Stravinsky. Bartók also quotes music from his own earlier works. The quotations discussed are divided into four groups: (1) the reference to the music of other composers, often inspired by similar compositional situations, (2) programmatic and autobiographical quotations, (3) quotations of a humorous or ironic nature, and (4) "shopwork" quotations, themes which recur in several works and are molded to "final perfection." Bartók is viewed as an innovator who at the same time is a great synthesizer of disparate influences.

Works: Bartók: Kossuth (357), Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 1 (357), Scherzo for Piano and Orchestra (357), First Suite for Orchestra, Op. 3 (357), Second Suite for Orchestra, Op. 4 (357), Violin Concerto No. 1 (359), Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (361), Bluebeard's Castle (365), Piano Concerto No. 3 (369), Second String Quartet (371), Allegro barbaro (372), Contrasts (372), Violin Concerto No. 2 (373), Concerto for Orchestra (377), Cipósütés (378).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

An aesthetic of musical borrowing is emerging where the borrowed material functions as the central idea and inspiration of a work. The works of Bernd Aloys Zimmerman and Peter Maxwell Davies receive particular attention in a discussion that mentions numerous examples of works incorporating musical borrowings. Bonner theorizes that the technique has become particularly important in music of this century due to the growing lack of communication between composers and modern audiences. Borrowed material in new compositions provides a basis of familiarity, thereby serving as a path to comprehension of the new work.

Works: William Albright: Tic (30), Caroms (30); Alban Berg: Wozzeck (30), Violin Concerto (30); Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (30); William Bolcom: Whisper Moons (30), Sessions IV (30); Gavin Bryars: Jesus's Blood (30); John Cage: HPSCHD (30); Peter Maxwell Davies: Alma Redemptoris Mater (29), Frammenti di Leopardi (29), St. Thomas Wake (29), Eight Songs for a Mad King (29), I Love Dr. Herberden Best (29), Comfort ye (29); Brian Dennis: Programmes (30); Hans Werner Henze: Second Violin Concerto (30); Alec Hill: Mayerl Order (29); Christopher Hobbs: Remorseless Lamb (29); Gustav Holst: Hymn of Jesus (28); Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: "Supper scene" from Don Giovanni (28); Robert Schumann: Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17 (28); Dimitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15 (30); Karlheinz Stockhausen: Hymnen (30), Opus 170 (28), Prozession (30); Igor Stravinsky: L'Histoire du Soldat (30); John Tavener: Coplas (30), Celtic Requiem (30); Michael Tippett: Third Symphony (30); William Walton: Façade (28); Bernd Aloys Zimmerman: Die Soldaten (28), Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (28), Monologue (28).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Within a historical, analytical, and archival study of Paganini's 24 Caprices, Op. 1, is an examination of their influence on contemporaneous pianists and on later composers of violin caprices. Sigismund Thalberg, Robert Schumann, and Franz Liszt all sought to transfer Paganini's 24 Caprices or distinctive techniques from a specific caprice to the piano. In contradistinction, Chopin did not attempt to transfer Paganini's idiom to the piano, although Paganini's Op. 1 may have provided inspiration for his own twenty-four etudes, Op. 10 and Op. 25. Similarly, although Paganini's 24 Caprices exerted influence on later nineteenth-century violin caprices, these works generally do not model the 24 Caprices' serious affect and instead include special effects that suggest the influence of his less serious and often unnotated concert works. Extensive lists of compositions dedicated to Paganini and compositions influenced or based upon his works are included, as well as a facsimile of the autograph manuscript of the 24 Caprices.

Works: Sigismund Thalberg: Prière de Moïse (15-16); Chopin: Etude, Op. 10, No. 1 (19-20), Etude, Op. 10, No. 5 (19-20), 12 Etudes, Op. 25 (19-20); Robert Schumann: 6 Etudes pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (24-25), 6 Etudes de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (24-25, 195-96); Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini transcrites pour le piano et dédiées à Clara Schumann (30-31).

Sources: Paganini: Introduction and Variations on 'Nel cor più non mi sento' from Paisiello's "La molinara" (15-16), 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (18-20, 24-25, 30-31, 195).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications:

Musical parody in The Simpsons comes in several different forms and is a key component in the show’s function as television’s “king’s fool” or “court jester,” chipping away at authority and risking rebellion. The Simpsons uses music in five main ways: original songs, variations on its title theme, background music cues, references to existing music, and musician guest stars. Danny Elfman’s theme music for The Simpsons draws heavily from 1960s cartoon music, Hoyt Curtin’s theme music for The Jetsons in particular, lending the show a cheeky, self-conscious aesthetic. Frequently, series composer Alf Clausen writes self-deflating genre-parodies of Elfman’s theme for the end-titles, often relating to the content of the episode (for example, aping the 1964 Addams Family theme and adding a theremin for the season 5 Halloween episode, “Treehouse of Horror IV”). Guest stars including Tito Puente and Sonic Youth have also contributed similar end-title parodies. In addition to making fun of itself, The Simpsons parodies music from other TV shows and movies. For example, Cut Every Corner from the season 8 episode “Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala(Annoyed Grunt)cious” parodies A Spoonful of Sugar from Disney’s 1964 Mary Poppins, deflating the classic film. Guest stars on The Simpsons are also the target of self-parody, with musicians in particular poking fun at their own music. Musical references in The Simpsons are fluid. The characters’ ages are frozen, but their music comes from a wide range of eras. Music in The Simpsons participates in the show’s self-aware tone and jests at the expense of various kinds of authority.

Works: Danny Elfman: The Simpsons main title theme (98-100); Alf Clausen: soundtrack to The Simpsons (99-109); Alf Clausen, Al Jean, and Mike Reiss: Cut Every Corner (102-3); Jeff Martin: Capitol City (104-5).

Sources: Hoyt Curtin: The Jetsons main title theme (98-100), Meet the Flintstones (102); Danny Elfman: The Simpsons main title theme (99-102); Lee Adams and Charles Strouse: Those Were the Days (102); R. M. and R. B. Sherman: A Spoonful of Sugar (102-3); Johyn Kander and Fred Ebb: New York, New York (104-5); John Mellencamp: Jack and Diane (105); Burt Bacharach and Hal David: (They Long to Be) Close to You (106-7); John Williams: score to Star Wars (107); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (107); Maurice Jarre: score to Witness (108); Wendy Carlos and Rachel Elkind: score to The Shining (109).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Development of paraphrase technique in the fifteenth century may be traced through four stages: (1) the cantus firmus migrates successively through several voices; (2) the cantus firmus is subjected to melodic variation but remains in one voice; (3) introductory duos and trios anticipate the arrival of the cantus firmus (which remains in only one voice part); (4) points of imitation based on the cantus firmus open major sections of a piece, which continue in a non-imitative manner. Imitation as a structural device occurred first in secular works before moving to the sacred realm. The syntactic-imitative style reached its fruition in Italy, where humanism and its emphasis on the imitatio were helping to move music from the field of science to the field of humanities.

Works: Bittering: Nesciens mater (27-28); Pycard: Sanctus (28-30); Guillaume Dufay: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Vostre bruit (34-35), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40); Gilles Binchois (36): Ave regina coelorum (36-37); Johannes Regis: O admirabile commercium (40-42); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa Au travail suis (42-43); Jacob Obrecht: Missa Je ne demande (43-44); Salve regina (43-44); Anonymous: Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47); Johannes Martini: Missa ferialis (48-52), Missa dominicalis (52-57) Josquin des Prez: Missa de Beata Virgine (57-59).

Sources: Antiphon: Nesciens mater (27-28); Sanctus with Marian trope [Sarum] (28-30); Chant: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Ave regina coelorum (36-37), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40), Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47), Mass XVIII for the Ferias of Advent and Lent (48-52), Mass XI (52-56), Mass IX (57-58), Mass IV (57-58); Introit: Puer natus (41-42); Barbingant: Au travail suis (42-43); Loyset Compère: Au travail suis (42-43).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

There are similarities between the requiems of Britten (WarRequiem) and Verdi. These primarily concern not melodic resemblances but similarities in texture, speed, rhythm, tonality, and the deployment of vocal and instrumental resources. The Verdi-like passages serve as terms of reference for the listener, helping to form a familiar background against which to contrast the tritone relationships in the music and the disruptive elements of the Owen verses. However, in emulating another composer, Britten tried to purge his musical style of certain traits (including some Verdian ones), which resulted sometimes in completely different forms of expression.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Amplification of Gregory 1953. Quotation of the Dies Irae has been overdone, but some modern works have enriched the symbolism grown around the ancient plainchant melody. Russia especially has most closely associated this melody with the death of a revolutionary hero. Khatchaturian, in his Second Symphony, uses it in the general expresion of mourning of the war 1914-1918. Tchaikovsky's Suite No. 3 lacks a program to explain the chant's presence. In Respighi's Impressioni Brasiliane, the chant portrays the physical characteristics and deadly qualities of snakes. Dallapiccola's Canti di Prigionia uses the chant structurally in an outcry against tyranny and oppression. Pierres and Stevenson use it for similar effect. Some borderline cases are Rachmaninoff's Isle of the Dead and Mahler's Second Symphony. A list (pp. 355-56) of some secular references to the Dies Irae is provided.

Works: Bantock: Macbeth (355); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (347, 348, 355); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (351, 352, 355); Peter Maxwell Davies: St. Michael (355); Khatchaturian: Symphony No. 2 (348, 350, 355); Kraft: Fantasia Dies Irae for Organ (355); Liszt: Totentanz (351, 355); Mahler: Das klagende Lied (355), Symphony No. 2 (354, 355); Medtner: Piano Quintet (356); Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6 (348-350, 356); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death, #3 (356); Pierres: A Litany for the Day of Human Rights (352, 356); Pizetti: Requiem (348); Rachmaninoff: The Isle of the Dead (353, 354, 356), The Bells (353, 356), Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (354, 356), Symphonic Dances (354, 356); Respighi: Impressioni brasiliane (351, 356); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (356); Schelling: Victory Ball (356); Sorabji: Variation upon Dies Irae (356), Sequentia cyclica (356); Stevenson: Passacaglia on DSCH (352, 356); Stravinsky: Three Pieces for String Quartet (356); Tchaikovsky: In Dark Hell (356), Suite No. 3 (356); Vaughan-Williams: Five Tudor Portraits (356); Bergman film: The Seventh Seal (356); Fernandel film: The Sheep has Five Legs (356).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

An accomplished jazz composer and arranger who is little-known today, Melba Liston was able in her arrangements of existing compositions to render dramatically altered versions of existing works that highlight her own compositional ingenuity—namely, her unique harmonic and melodic language as well as her command of sophisticated motivic material. Her original compositions incorporate elements from other musical traditions, particularly African rhythms. Geof Bradfield’s 2012 composition Melba! takes Liston’s music as a model in a variety of ways. Bradfield sought, through careful analytical study of Liston’s musical scores (drawn from the CBMR archives), to take her use of African rhythms and themes as a model for his own compositions. He also sought to identify works by Liston that he could revise, arrange, or orchestrate. Both of these initiatives began with the analytical study presented here, which has resulted in a musical composition by Bradfield that not only borrows directly from Liston (using fragments of her music as source material), but programmatically celebrates her contribution to jazz. More broadly, Melba! incorporates stylistic elements drawn from a survey of Liston’s original compositions, as well as her collaborations with figures like Dizzy Gillespie and Randy Weston.

Works: Geof Bradfield: Melba!

Sources: Mary Lou Williams: Virgo (87); Melba Liston: “Bantu” from Uhuru Africa (88-92), African Sunrise (89-92), Just Waiting (90-92), Len Sirrah (92); Melba Liston and Elvin Jones: And Then Again (92); Melba Liston and Randy Weston: Cry Me Not (93).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

While the musical implications of plainchant tenor quotation have been extensively explored for fourteenth-century Ars nova motets, the same level of attention has not been paid to how composers choose tenors for thirteenth-century Ars antiqua motets. In the conventional historical narrative, motets transformed from a sacred Latin genre to borrowing tenors from vernacular songs by the end of the thirteenth century. However, tenor selection motivated by vernacular song idioms appears even in the earliest thirteenth-century polyphonic manuscripts. Certain tenors were selected for their musical simplicity, which allowed vernacular song practices to be incorporated while preserving the plainchant tradition. Unlike later practices, thirteenth-century motets frequently reworked a small number of short and simple tenors. The differences between the treatment of the Iustus tenor in the Magnus liber organi manuscripts (particularly manuscript W1) and in early motets based on the Iustus tenor (A grant joie/Iustus found in manuscripts W2, N, and as untexted organum in F, and Ja n’ert nus/Iustus found in N) show how composers adjusted plainchant tenors to accommodate song forms. The existence of motets using vernacular models as early as the 1240s (in F) demonstrates an earlier relationship between motets and vernacular models than is typically acknowledged. The many motets based on the Omnes tenor (found in Mo and Ba) further demonstrate the flexibility of simple and repetitive tenors in creating motets with overlying song forms, such as the rondeau form of Ci m’i tient/Haro/Omnes. The popularity of the chant Aptatur as a motet tenor even though it is not present in the Magnus liber organi manuscripts also suggests that tenors were selected for musical reasons over strictly textual reasons. By understanding the blending of motet tenors and vernacular song idioms as a practice common throughout the thirteenth century, the chronological questions present in later motets that quote both polyphonic vernacular songs and plainchant tenors can be resolved. Acknowledging the compositional practice of replacing the bottom voice of a polyphonic vernacular song with a similar-sounding plainchant tenor presents a compelling new hypothesis for the origins of motets like Dame bele/Fi, mari/Nus n’iert ja jolis that blend both traditions. The stylistic and modal similarities of motet tenors commonly used in the thirteenth century illuminate a motet tradition that valued the inclusion of vernacular song forms over developing complex tenor melodies. This adoption of vernacular music in motets contemporary to the Magnus liber organi manuscripts rather than a generation later uncovers a previously unrecognized sophistication in early motet composers.

Works: Anonymous: Magnus liber organi (437-41, 453-54); Anonymous: A grant joie/Iustus (441-44); Anonymous: Ja n’ert nus/Iustus (444-46); Anonymous: Ja pour longue demouree/Hodie (446-49); Anonymous: Ci m’i tient/Haro/Omnes (455-58); Anonymous: Amoureusement mi tient/He amours/Omnes (459); Anonymous: Je ne chant/Talens/Aptatur/Omnes (459-62); Anonymous: Psallat chorus/Eximie pater/Aptatur (463); Anonymous: Aucun se sont loe/A Dieu commant/Super te (466-75); Anonymous: Dame bele/Fi, mari/Nus n’iert ja jolis (475-83); Adam de la Halle: De ma dame vient/Diex, comment porroie/Omnes (453), Entre Adan et Hanikel/Chief bien seantz/Apatur (465), De ma dame vient/Diex, comment porroie/Omnes (471-75)

Sources: Plainchant tenors: Iustus (437-46), Hodie (446¬-49), Omnes (from Viderunt omnes) (452-62, 471-75), Aptatur (459-65), Super te (466-71); Anonymous: Nus n’iert ja jolis (475-83); Anonymous: De ma dame (472-75); Adam de la Halle: A Dieu commant (466-71), Diex, comment porroie (471-75), Fi, mari (475-83)

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A case study of a family of motets based on the Latus tenor demonstrates the multi-directional relationship between musical models and their offspring and highlights the limitations of general theories of chronology when studying thirteenth-century motets. The Latus discant (from Allelulia Pascha nostrum immolatus est) has a strong transmission history in the major “Magnus liber” sources. The two motetus texts conceived for the discant, Radix venie and Ave Maria, exhibit both similarities that suggest a codependent relationship and differences that suggest strongly independent responses to the same musical model. There is also musical evidence suggesting that the Latus discant was reworked in the creation of motets derived from it. The textual revisions in the double motet Radix venie/Ave Maria/Latus suggest that this motet was created by the unusual (but not unprecedented) method of combining two preexisting texts designed for the same musical model. The members of this motet family and their relationships to each other and to the Latus discant unsettle the conventional logic of motet chronology—particularly the assumption that the conductus motet is the earliest motet—and demonstrate the complexity of motet creation.

Works: Anonymous: Radix venie/Radix venie/Latus (162-84), Ave Maria fons letitie/Latus (162-84), Quant l’aloete s’esjoist en mai/Latus (194), Radix venie/Ave Maria/Latus (184-91)

Sources: Anonymous: Latus discant from Allelulia Pascha nostrum immolatus est (154-158, 162-91); Anonymous: Ave Maria fons letitie/Latus (184-91, 194)

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Paul Dessau’s score for the pseudo-documentary propaganda film . . . Du und mancher Kamerad employs extensive quotation throughout in order to effectively underscore the themes and emotional content of the film, and to provoke critical reflection in line with his political leanings. For Dessau, quotation was a tool for innovation, as well as a means to generate a sense of historical continuity. In this way, it could be both didactic and creative. The eclectic assemblage of musical quotations employed in the score mirrors the compiled nature of the film, drawn from sources scoured over the course of two years. Aside from two prominent leitmotifs (one of which is an altered quotation of a German folk song), Dessau treats his abundance of quotations—drawn from folk songs, soldiers’ songs, and his own compositions—as musical documents. They are treated in a similar manner as the passing footage fragments, appearing in relation to an image or series of images and never recurring. In some cases, Dessau actively produces critical detachment, or the creation of a musical setting that is incongruous with the musical document it treats or visual images it accompanies in order to engender critical reflection. It is in Dessau’s uncomfortable incongruities that his sense of irony and his penchant for Marxist dialectics is most directly expressed. Through this approach, he is able to both score the film, and to provide his own political commentary alongside it.

Works: Paul Dessau: Score to . . . Du und mancher Kamerad, “Da sind sechs Mörder” from Deutsches Miserere (210).

Sources: Anonymous: Schnitterlied (201-2); Balthasar Gerhard Schumacher (text): Heil dir im Siegerkranz (204); Anonymous: God Save the Queen (204); Max Kegel and Carl Gramm: Sozialistenmarsch (205); Pierre de Geyter and Eugène Pottier: The Internationale (205); Heinrich Anacker, Hans Tieszler, Hans-Wilhelm Kulenkampff (text), and Norbert Schultze (music): Von Finnland bis zum schwarzen Meer (205); Hugo Zuschnied (text): Nun geht’s ans Abschiednehmen (205); Vassili Lebedev-Kumatch (text), Erich Weinert (German text), and Isaak Dunajewski (music): Fatherland, No Enemy Shall Imperil You (206); Hoffmann von Fallersleben: O wie ist es kalt geworden (206); Wilhelm Hauff (text) and Johann C. Günther (music): Morgenrot Morgenrot (206-7): Paul Dessau: Lilo Herrmann (207-8), Sinfonischer Marsch (208-9), Sinfonie in einem Satz (209), Kol Nidre-Sinfonie (209-10); Herrmann Scherchen: Brüder, zur Sonne, zur Freiheit (209); Max Schneckenberger (text) and Karl Wilhelm (music): Die Wacht am Rhein (209); Arno Pardun: Volk ans Gewehr (209); Bertolt Brecht (text) and Paul Dessau (music): Deutsches Miserere (209-10); Chopin: Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1 (210); Haydn: Symphony No. 94 in G Major, Hob.I:94 (“Surprise”) (212-13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Molly Covington

The question of priority in Bach's composition of the St. Matthew Passion and the Funeral Music for Prince Leopold remains open to debate. An examination of Bach's use of parody technique in works where one is known to have been a model for the other yields a picture of the types of adjustments Bach was likely to make. Brainard finds that only two factors will cause Bach to make significant changes in the music when setting the second text: the demands of proper declamation and the portrayal of the text with traditional rhetorical figures. Brainard concludes that the St. Matthew Passion was composed first, because the changes that would have been required in that work if the Funeral Music was the earlier composition are uncharacteristic of Bach's use of parody technique in similar situations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Cantata BWV 30 (246, 249), Cantata BWV 68 (248, 251), Cantata BWV 173 (245), Cantata BWV 197 (249), Cantata BWV 210 (247), Cantata BWV 248 (246-49).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

MacDowell made frequent use of motives associated with music of the American Indians, although he disavowed the notion that this practice amounted to the creation of an American national music. His principal source of Indian melodies was Theodore Baker's German dissertation Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden. MacDowell seems to have been particularly drawn to a "dirge" motive derived from a "Kiowa song of a mother to her absent son" appearing in the Baker, for the motive appears in several works. Compared to similar efforts by his contemporaries, MacDowell finds a method of incorporating Indian motives in his music that is not contextually incongruous and that avoids overwhelming the melodies through over-harmonization.

Works: MacDowell: Sonata tragica, Op. 45, Suite No. 2, "Indian," Op. 48, Woodland Sketches, Op. 51, Sonata No. 3, "Norse," Op. 57, Sea Pieces, Op. 55, Fireside Tales, Op. 61, New England Idyls, Op. 62.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

An analysis of two contrafacta in the versified office for St. Donatus Splendor stelle clare lucis (dated circa 1300) demonstrates how musical borrowing can interact with literary borrowing to generate extra-musical meaning in medieval historiae. The text of Splendor draws on multiple sources for the St. Donatus passion and at times quotes related psalm texts to accentuate its themes. The office additionally alludes to the dragon-slaying iconography of St. Michael to glorify its subject. The second responsory of the office of St. Donatus, Luce carens corporali, deals with the healing of Syranna, a pivotal episode in the Donatus office, and is melodically derived from O summe Trinitati, a responsory from the Trinity office. The use of this chant in particular emphasizes the doctrine of the Trinity in the healing of Syranna, which is not emphasized in the text. Only at the invocation of the Trinity was Syranna’s conversion complete. Another significant episode, the miracle of the chalice, is addressed in the responsory Divinum mysterium, appearing in the Night Office of Splendor. Divinum is a contrafact of Accepit Ihesus calcem, a responsory from the Office of Corpus Christi. The melodic source is thematically relevant to the Donatus office by connecting the miracle of the chalice to the chalice bearing Christ’s blood. Because of their thematic relevance to the subject of the office, these two instances of melodic borrowing are extensions of the intertextual network of quotation and allusion that paints a portrait of St. Donatus.

Works: Anonymous: Luce carens porporali from Splendor stelle clare lucis (66-69), Divinum mysterium from Splendor stelle clare lucis (70-72)

Sources: Anonymous: O summe Trinitati (66-69), Accepit Ihesus calicem (70-72)

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In mm. 63-64 of his Intermezzo, Op. 116, No. 2, Brahms quotes and at the same time distills mm. 33-40 from Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 2. Although both harmony and melody correspond only partially, this is a clear case of quotation, in which the two measures point to the complete model: Brahms used the motivic material in question at formally similar places as Chopin and also the key schemes correspond.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The identification of Jewish elements in Shostakovich's music is preceded by a definition of what these elements may be considered as being. The understanding of the meaning of these elements in Shostakovich's music depends upon the understanding of the position of Jewish culture in the Soviet Union. Twelve works which include Jewish elements are listed in Table I. Jewish elements often appear in works that employ the self-identification motive of D-S-C-H [D-Eb-C-B] which corresponds to the D. SCHostakovitch of the composer's name in German usage. The use of Jewish elements may be interpreted as concealed dissidence.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Contrafacta are songs of which the secular text has been replaced by a sacred one. While the melodies should at least closely relate, the textual connections may vary considerably. In some cases, the author of the sacred text translated the original text nearly literally with the exception of a few words providing the sacred meaning. In other cases, he preserved only the affections and/or the rhyme scheme of the secular poem. After 1600, the contrafactum could include changes of measure and melodic as well as harmonic progressions in order to achieve a better correspondence of text and music.

Works: Works: Gramann-Poliander: Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (92); Luther: Nun freut euch, lieben Christen gmein (92, 109); anonymous contrafacta: Freut euch, freut euch in dieser Zeit (92), Von Gott will ich nicht lassen (97); Speiser: Ach, wie ein süsser Name ist der Name Jesu Christ (106), Amor, amor hab ich zu Gott allein (106), Frisch her, ihr lieben Christen, zum Streit so lasst uns rüsten (106), Ich bin frölich im Herren, das kann mir niemand wehren (106), O du mein Herre Jesu Christ, der du für mich gestorben bist (106), O Tod mit deiner G'stalte, wie bist du mir gar so grimm (106), O Herr, ich schreie zu dir mit ganz herzlicher Begier (106), Der jüngst' Tag ist nit ferre (106), O Gott, mein Herre, Mein' Glauben mehre (107); Regnart: Venus, du und dein Kind (106); Lindemann: In dir ist Freude In allem Leide (107); Rist: O Göttinne zart (107-8, 112-13); Neukrantz: Eile, Gott, mich zu erretten (107-8, 112-13); Praetorius/Schultze: Das ist mir lieb, mein Gott und Herr (108-9).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s

The sacred vocal parodies of the seventeenth century are not characteristic of the artistic spirit of the age, as evidenced by the few compositions of composers such as Schütz and Monteverdi based on other composers. Despite this, it is possible to speak of a history of parody in the seventeenth century. The seventeenth-century view of parody, as set forth in Quitschreiber's treatise De parodia of 1611, departed from that of the Renaissance in two main ways. First and most important was a new recognition of the concept of artistic ownership. Second was the regard of parody as a useful pedagogical and stylistic tool in composition ("Stileinübung").

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

The techniques of quodlibet, quotation, and parody are discussed for a selection of fifteen works written between 1908 and 1970. The reasons for borrowing are considered, along with the categories of renewal, homage, humor, and satire.

Works: Foss: Baroque Variations; Berio: Sinfonia; Rochberg: Nach Bach; Stravinsky: The Fairy's Kiss; Hindemith: Symphonic Metamorphosis, Mathis der Maler; Debussy: "Golliwog's Cakewalk" from Children's Corner; Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra; Berg: Violin Concerto; Crumb: Black Angels.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Arrangements of instrumental works that change the original performing forces are a useful starting point to study Bach's compositional processes because he uses similar methods in the majority of his works. He adapts sections of Reincken's chamber work Hortus musicus for his keyboard compositions (BWV 954, 965, and 966) and retains the original keys of B-flat Major, A Minor, and C Major respectively. In some movements he retains the structure and musical substance of the work, but ornaments and condenses the material. In many of the fugal movements he only uses the subject of Reincken's work to create a new movement. In the rest of the movements, Bach balances the borrowed material with his own ideas by keeping the subject and structural elements of the original work. Bach also arranges concertos by Vivaldi and Johann Ernst for organ. He exploits the differences in capabilities between the original instrument and organ by adding counter themes to the solo lines. By comparing Bach's arrangements with literal transcriptions for organ of the original, his compositional process can be studied more carefully. Bach transcribed several of his concertos for violin and oboe into works for harpsichord in which he addresses several problems in the transcription process. In the harpsichord concerto BWV 1058, he adopts the written out version of the extemporizing process. Concertos based on works now lost show a varied order of composing the orchestral and solo lines. All of these arrangements and transcriptions show how carefully Bach handled the issue of instrumentation.

Works: J. S. Bach: Fugue in B-flat Major, BWV 954 (155, 158), Sonata in A Minor, BWV 965 (155), Sonata in C Major, BWV 966 (155, 157-58), Concerto for Organ in C Major, BWV 594 (161-62), Concerto for Organ in G Major, BWV 592 (161-63), Concerto for Harpsichord in G Minor, BWV 1058 (167), Concerto for Harpsichord in D Minor, BWV 1052 (168), Concerto for Harpsichord in E Major, BWV 1053 (168-69), Concerto for Harpsichord in F Major, BWV 1057 (169).

Sources: Johann Adam Reincken: Hortus musicus recentibus aliquot flosculis Sonaten, Allemanden, Couranten, Sarabanden, et Giguen (155-60); Vivaldi: Violin Concerto in D Major RV 208 (161-62); Johann Ernst of Saxe-Weimar: Concerto in G Major (161-63); J. S. Bach: Violin Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1041 (167), Brandenburg Concerto No. 4, BWV 1049 (169).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The authorship of the parody motet O Jesu dulcissime, based on Giovanni Gabrieli's motet O Jesu Christe, has long been doubtful. The following features of the parody, however, suggest that Heinrich Schütz is very likely its author. (1) O Jesu dulcissime, which includes contrafactum, reworking of motives, and entirely new passages, is qualitatively equal to Gabrieli's model; (2) the composer often intensified the expression; and (3) the parody shows in several places the character of a study, which is typical for Schütz's concern with Italian music.

Works: Schütz: Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395 (24), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 470 (24), O Jesu süss, SWV 406 (24), Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356 (24), Psalm No. 11, SWV 34 (24), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (24).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1600s

Schütz rarely parodied his own works, first because he seldom reset a standard text, as did sixteenth-century composers with the Ordinarium Missae, and second because parody would only have loosened the close relation of music and text. In a few instances, however, Schütz reused either his own pieces or those by modern Italian composers. In the former case, he usually only translated the text in order to perform the composition under different circumstances, whereas the reworking of the Italian compositions served to deepen his skills in new styles, such as the madrigal, polychoral music, the stile concitato, thoroughbass, and ostinato.

Works: Schütz: "Gloria patri" for the 111th psalm from Psalmen Davids, SWV 34, Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356, from Symphoniae sacrae, part two (20), Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395, from Geistliche Chormusik (20), O Jesu süss, wer dein gedenkt, SWV 406, from Symphoniae sacrae, part three (20), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (20), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 440 (20).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

[See p. 98.]

Index Classifications:

In his Four-Part Mass, William Byrd pays homage to John Taverner by using the basic structure of Taverner's "Meane" Mass. Structural connections between the Masses include similar voice distribution, section breaks and cadential points in corresponding passages. However, Byrd eschews his model's thematic links, except for the use of a head motive to unify only the Gloria and Agnus Dei. Byrd's Sanctus movement does not feature any thematic link to the other Mass movements; however he reveals homage to Taverner overtly at the beginning of this movement. Here Byrd transforms the "Meane" Mass's head motive using melodic expansion and contrapuntal techniques, and thus refers directly to the model's thematic material for the first time. From this study, it is likely that the Sanctus movements of Byrd's other two masses share similar features with Taverner's "Meane" Mass.

Works: William Byrd: Four-Part Mass (170-74), Five-Part Mass (174), Three-Part Mass (174-75).

Sources: John Taverner: "Meane" Mass (170-76).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

In the last few years, interest has increased in the connections between Mahler's song and symphonies. While there is general agreement on these connnections in the vocal symphonies II, III, IV, and VIII, and the instrumental symphonies I and IX, there is less certainty for the middle symphonies V, VI, and VII. The Kindertotenlieder and the Wunderhornlieder have been linked by Theodor Adorno to symphonies VI and VII, respectively, while Monika Tibbe has determined that one motive in the first movement of the fifth symphony is quoted from the first song of the Kindertotenlieder. Brincker shows that this motive, the actual statement of which appears near the end of the movement, appears in varied form throughout the movement, a result of Mahler's own variation technique.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (9-15), Symphony No. 1 (9-10), Symphony No. 2 (9-10), Symphony No. 3 (9-10), Symphony No. 4 (9-10), Symphony No. 6 (9-10), Symphony No. 7 (9-10), Symphony No. 8 (9-10), Symphony No. 9 (9-10).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Index Classifications: 1900s

Some modern composers have felt limited by the mainstream avant-garde movement and have turned elsewhere for inspiration. This includes uses of music of the East, a tradition which goes back to Debussy and consists mostly of stylistic modeling. It also includes the use of jazz, which brings a popular style to art music. Avant-garde composers have also looked to music of the past, mostly to medieval music. While many use general stylistic references, a few have used direct borrowings. For example, Peter Maxwell Davies's Missa super L'Homme Armé offers his criticism on the material he borrows, demonstrating that the mass has degenerated in modern society; hence, he interrupts the sacred reference with the foxtrot. Donatoni reduces borrowed material to small sound bites, offering no respect for the composer's ego or personality. These and other examples demonstrate that the search for outside inspiration has advantages as well as disadvantages; some composers seem to seek mere novelty or shock value, but fresh developments in the field have been interesting in any case.

Works: Berio: Sinfonia (141-2); Davies: Missa super L'Homme Armé (142); Donatoni: Etwas ruhiger im Ausdruck (143-4).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

A knowledge of Debussy's earliest works is important to the understanding of the development of his personal style. One can compare the first conception of an idea to its further realization in a later work. Two examples are considered: (1) Fête galante (a mélodie of 1882) and its later revision as the menuet of the Petite Suite (1889); and (2) La Fille aux cheveux de lin (a mélodie of ca. 1882-84) and the prelude for piano (Book I, 1910) of the same title. These works demonstrate that Debussy's personal style is already implicit in his earliest works.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Brahms's models for Opus 39 came from Schubert's Twelve Ländler (Op. 171) and Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze. Brahms acknowledged the debt to Schubert, as seen in examples of harmonic similarities and the introduction of counterpoint into simple dance forms. The bipartite division and "double ending" of Opus 39 seems to have been inspired by Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze, which was comprised of two sets of dances ending with two conclusive pieces.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

About half the music of "Hawthorne," the second movement of Ives's Second Piano Sonata, Concord, Mass., 1840-60, also appears in The Celestial Railroad, a "Phantasy" for solo piano, and virtually all of the latter appears in the second movement of his Fourth Symphony. In Memos, Ives wrote that the sonata was written first, then the symphony movement, and then The Celestial Railroad. An examination of his manuscripts suggests a different order, in which The Celestial Railroad was adapted from "Hawthorne" and then was used in turn as the basis for the symphony movement. All three works have a common root in the abandoned "Hawthorne" Piano Concerto, conceived between 1910 and 1916 as part of Ives's planned "Men of Literature" series. The "Hawthorne" Concerto was reworked as the sonata movement. In the early 1920s, Ives was working on a "Concord" suite for piano, derived from the sonata. Four Transcriptions from "Emerson" recasts material from the first movement, and The Celestial Railroad, using material from "Hawthorne," was intended to be the second section of the suite. Clippings from the published score of the sonata appear in the manuscript of The Celestial Railroad. Ives worked on it in stages, affixing new patches with revisions onto the manuscript. The final stages correspond to material as presented in the Fourth Symphony movement. Thus Ives worked out the material in detail for The Celestial Railroad, then orchestrated the work for his Fourth Symphony. Because The Celestial Railroad predates the second movement of the Fourth Symphony, the program of the piano work--a short story by Hawthorne--may be used to interpret the narrative of the symphonic movement.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1700s

The body of materials upon which Stravinsky based Pulcinella are organizes and clarified. First, Stravinsky's remarks on the process of composing Pulcinella are proven unreliable. Second, a table shows the Pulcinella source materials housed at the Paul Sacher Stiftung in Basel. Elements once falsely attributed to Pergolesi are movements from ten trio sonatas by Domenico Gallo, an air and a gavotte for keyboard by Carlo Monza, and a concerto attributed to Count Unico Wilhelm von Wassenaer. Verifiable Pergolesi sources are a movement from a cello sonata, eleven pieces from his operas Il flaminio and Lo Frate 'nnamorato, and one from his cantata Luce degli occhi miei. As a postscript, the discovery of an intermediary score of Pulcinella in the Stefan Zweig Collection of the British Library shows something of Stravinsky's compositional process and connects the sketches held at the Paul Sacher Stiftung with the fair copy piano score, also in the British Library.

Works: Stravinsky: Pulcinella.

Sources: Pergolesi: Twelve Sonatas for Two Violins and Bass (46, 49-50, 54-55, 62-63); Domenico Gallo: Trio No. 7 (49, 50-51, 62-64); Alessandro Parisotti: Arie Antiche, "Se tu m'ami" (46, 62-63); Carlo Monza: Pièces Modernes pour le clavecin, Suite in E Major, Air (51-52, 62, 64); Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer: Concerti Armonici, no. 2 (52-53, 62-63); Carlo Monza: Pièces Modernes pour le clavecin, Suite in D Major, Gavotte (53-54, 62, 64); Pergolesi: Il Flaminio, "Mentre l'erbetta pasce l'agnella" (55, 62-63), "Con queste paroline" (55, 62-63), Luce degli occhi miei, "Contento forse vivere" (55, 62-63), Lo Frate 'nnamorato, "Pupilette, fiammette d'amore" (55, 62, 64), "Chi disse c'à la femmena" (55, 62-63), "Gnora credeteme ch'accosi è" (55, 62-63), Nina's aria from Act III, scene 3, introduction (56, 62-63), "Sento dire non c'è pace" (56, 62-63); Pergolesi: Il Flaminio, "Benedetto maledetto" (62-63).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Critics of Mad Men (AMC, 2007-15) have typically understood the show’s use of music in terms of “getting” an advertisement, but there are examples of musical cues that challenge this puzzle-solving experience and force viewers to critically engage with the symptomatology of consumer capitalism the show presents. In the season one episode “The Marriage of Figaro,” excerpts from Mozart’s opera—Cherubino’s aria Voi che sapete in particular—are heard diegetically (on the radio) and non-diegetically as Don Draper films his daughter’s birthday party. The scene creates a parallel between Cherubino and Don’s yearning for true love, even as it only exists in fantasy in the advertising logic Don (and the show itself) dwells on. In the season two episode “The Mountain King,” the musical selection of George Jones’s hymn-like country song Cup of Loneliness reflects the cycle of (religious) guilt and self-loathing experienced by Don’s protégé Peggy and the kitschy Christian imagery of the ad she produces in the episode. In the season five episode “Lady Lazarus,” Don’s (new) wife suggests he listen to The Beatles’ Tomorrow Never Knows before she quits the ad industry. The song plays over a montage showing the emotional emptiness of various characters’ lives, ending with Don violently ripping the needle off the record. Unlike the first two examples, in which the music resonates with particular symptoms of consumer capitalism, Tomorrow Never Knows suggests a countercultural solution to Don’s feeling of emptiness that Don fears and rejects. Rather than directly instilling a message (as advertising does), these three musical moments allow for open-ended critical interpretation.

Works: Matthew Weiner (showrunner): soundtrack to Mad Men (2, 8-33).

Sources: Colin Meloy (songwriter): The Infanta (2); Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (8-16); George Jones: Cup of Loneliness (16-25); John Lennon and Paul McCartney: Tomorrow Never Knows (25-33).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The 1855 burlesque Pocahontas by John Brougham and James G. Maeder, although laden with humor, including extensive parody, exemplifies both a respect for masterpieces of the past and a newly-developed historical consciousness. Although this is most readily ascertainable through the text of the burlesque, as the music has been lost, reconstruction of the likely musical parodies reveals wit and rapid juxtapositions of high and low genres, intermixed with a sense of a false history. Includes an extensive table of probable sources for the songs in Pocahontas (33).

Works: John Brougham and James G. Maeder: Pocahontas (28, 31, 34, 35-36, 28-43).

Sources: Samuel Lover: Widow Machree (28); Anonymous: Rosin the Bow (31), Hot Corn (36), Wait for the Wagon (36); Bellini: La Sonnambula (34, 37); Verdi: Ernani (35, 38); Stephen Foster: Massa's in de Cold Ground (38, 43), Old Folks at Home (38, 43), Oh! Boys, Carry Me 'Long (38); William Vincent Wallace: Maritana (38, 44); Daniel D. Emmett: De Boatman Dance (38).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1900s

The idea that Joseph Haydn was the predominant influence on Mozart's 1773 Viennese string quartets (K. 168-173) began with Otto Jahn and has been repeated and elaborated in much of the Mozart literature. Stylistic traits such as motivic development, irregular phrase length, contrapuntal texture, fugal finales, inversion of the subject, slow introductions, and so on are not specific to Haydn, but are either part of a broader Viennese tradition or have precedents in Mozart's earlier works. Nearly every observer of these quartets has noted the thematic similarity of the second movement of K. 168 with Haydn's Op. 20, No. 5, fourth movement. But a more convincing model is Ordonez's Quartet in C minor, Op. 1, No. 3, in which almost every parameter suggests a direct influence. The quartets K. 168-173 were intended for a specifically Viennese taste; many of the movements conform to a character reportedly favored by Joseph II, since Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart made the trip to Vienna in order to be in place if the Imperial Kapellmeister Florian Leopold Gassmann were to die. After they returned to Salzburg, Mozart wrote two symphonies, the first of which, the "Little" G minor Symphony, K. 182, has been linked with Mozart's supposed encounter with the "crise romantique" in Austrian music, as represented by Haydn and Vanhal among others. Yet the symphony is indebted to the music of Gassmann (his Quartet in G minor, Hill 476, No. 2 in particular) and to Mozart's knowledge of the repertoire in the "pathétique" style intended for Joseph II.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Haydn's late oratorios The Creation and The Seasons were performed all over Europe soon after their premieres and became immensely popular throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. Haydn borrowed from some previous traditions and predecessors, and the two oratorios were in turn sources of allusions, quotations, and models to many composers in the German-speaking lands, such as Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, providing many musical, textual, and rhetorical relationships. Haydn borrowed from specific works of Handel, Mozart, and himself, as well as from the general stylistic conventions of opera seria and the Singspiel. The famous representation of chaos leading to the appearance of light employed in The Creation was particularly influential for the next generation of composers, with Beethoven prominent among them. Further source materials were provided by the pastoral setting of both oratorios, spinning choruses, and general representations of nature such as storms and sunrises.

Works: Haydn: The Creation (28-30, 35-39), The Seasons (31-39); Beethoven: The Creatures of Prometheus (40), Fourth Symphony (41), Fifth Symphony (41, 50), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (42); King Stephan, Op 117 (42); Leonore Overture No. 3, Op 72 (44), Sixth Symphony (44-47, 50), Second Symphony (48-49), Fidelio (50), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (50), Ninth Symphony (50-51); Schubert: "Tragic" Symphony, No. 4, D. 417 (52), "Great" C-Major Symphony, D. 944 (50); Weber: Der Freischütz (52); Mendelssohn: Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

It is widely believed that C. P. E. Bach asserted great stylistic influence on Joseph Haydn, especially in his keyboard compositions. A large amount of the twentieth-century musicological literature on Haydn deals with the similarities and parallels found in the works of the two composers; however, many of the analytical conclusions are unconvincing. This ingrained view of influence is a result of the misrepresentation of a Bach-Haydn relationship in the earliest Haydn biography and journalistic documents, documents that were circulated during Haydn’s life time and soon after his death. Subsequently, these writings affected the interpretations of Haydn’s musical development by later historians and musicians. However, a careful reconstruction of the chronology of Haydn’s works and a close study of the historical evidence reveal that C. P. E. Bach’s influence is most pronounced through one work: Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen. In particular, Bach’s influence is seen in the instructions on how to write a “free fantasia.”

Works: Joseph Haydn: Capriccio in G Major “Acht Sauschneider müssen seyn,” Hob. XVII:1 (222-25), Capriccio from String Quartet in C Major, Op. 20, No. 2, Hob. III:32 (225), Capriccio from Symphony in D Major, Hob. I:86 (226), Fantasia in C Major, Hob. XVII:4 (226-27), Fantasia from String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 2, Hob. III:80 (228), “Chaos” from The Creation Hob. XXI:2 (228-29).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Carlo Francesco Badini's libretto Le pazzie d'Orlando was set by Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Nunziato Porta, and Franz Joseph Haydn. These settings include musical borrowing as well as textual borrowing from the original poem by Ariosto. Guglielmi's setting borrows from earlier operas through intertextuality and hypertextuality. By using part of Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice, Guglielmi enters into a tradition of mocking French styles. He also borrows French airs to mock not only French opera, but also other English theaters using these tunes. The parody had to be altered for different audiences on the continent by Nunziato Porta. It retained much of Guglielmi's music, including the Gluck borrowing, but altered Badini's text and incorporated other texts in the libretto. Haydn's setting, based on revisions of Porta, has plot themes similar to the other versions, but is less similar musically. It does not directly borrow musical material from the earlier versions. Mozart's Don Giovanni uses similar methods and reasons for borrowing as Le pazzie d'Orlando.

Works: Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi: Le Pazzie d'Orlando (584-94, 602); Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi/Nunziato Porta: Orlando paladino (592-96); Mozart: Don Giovanni (599-600).

Sources: Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice (587-93, 602); François André Danican Philidor: Tom Jones (589-91); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (600).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Embellishment in sixteenth-century intabulations ranged from the more sparing use of ornaments by mid-century lutenists to a much heavier and consistent use of ornamentation in the 1580s and 1590s. A comparison of several intabulations from the mid-century reveals a similar procedure of applying embellishments to obscure points of imitation and repeated sections of the vocal model. The lack of concern for bringing out the structure of the model and the freedom with which ornaments were applied shows how mid-century lutenists prized variety more than structural clarity. In the intabulations of Francesco da Milano and Francesco Spinacino, original vocal models are transformed into idiomatic pieces through a more motivic use of graces and through recomposition of certain passages. While the practice of free embellishment through idiomatic figuration continued throughout the sixteenth century as a special technique of virtuoso soloists, the systematic exploitation of stereotyped graces led to diverse figuration patterns and a rich network of motives used in intabulations as well as variation sets in the second half of the century.

Works: Intabulations of O s'io potessi by Barberiis, Bianchini, Gintzler, and Vindella (56-62); Francesco da Milano: Intabulation of Las je me plains (72); Spinacino: Intabulation of Mon souvenir (74-75), Arrangement of La bernardina (78).

Sources: Arcadelt or Berchem: O s'io potessi, donna (56-62); Sermisy: Las je me plains (72); Ghizeghem: Mon souvenir (74-75); Josquin: La bernardina (78).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Due to the recovery of a few sixteenth-century compositional drafts, attention has recently been turned to the process of composition in the Renaissance. It appears, from these manuscripts, that students of composition were still being taught to compose one line at a time and learned their craft by imitating older masters, modeling new pieces directly on old ones. Emulation was not only pedagogical but may have also been used as a means of competition or of paying homage to other composers. Composers of chansons in the fifteenth century imitated one another in various ways. All of these kinds of emulation in composition seem to relate directly to the late medieval and Renaissance concept of imitation, known to Tinctoris and applied to music possibly as early as the late fourteenth or early fifteenth centuries. Presumably it was taught as well. Some theories concerning imitation in music, particularly those of Lewis Lockwood, are relevant to the topic. Before the advent of syntactic imitation, there were two principal methods of composition, which continued through the sixteenth century. The first consisted of the addition of new lines around a cantus firmus, the medieval contribution to polyphony. The second relied on the newer techniques of imitatio beginning in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries.

Works: Anonymous: En contemplant la beaulté de m'amye (2-6, 8, 15); Isaac: Helas que pourra devenir mon cueur (15-21, 25); Anonymous: On est bien malade par amer trop (21-25); Busnois or Caron: Cent mille escus quant je voldroie (25-29); Anonymous: La Martinella (32-34); Isaac: La Martinella (35-37).

Sources: Anonymous: Vivent vivent en payx tous loyaux pastoreaux (6-8); Caron: Helas que pourra devenir mon cueur (15-19), O vie fortunée (25-29); Busnois: On a grant mal par trop amer/On est bien malade (21-23); Martini: La Martinella (29-35).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

Chansons rustiques existed in both monophonic and polyphonic versions. Few sixteenth-century chansons rustiques survive, although some of the popular monophonic tunes can be reconstructed from polyphonic chansons that incorporate the original. These preexisting tunes are most often found as a cantus firmus in the tenor of the new work, with or without new text added to the free voices; as two cantus firmi in canon surrounded by new material; as a cantus firmus in the superius; or paraphrased in multiple voices. Polyphonic chansons rustiques prior to 1500 show more contrast between the new and preexistent material, while those after 1500 integrate imitation more carefully. Composed works in this manner indicate that the division between popular and courtly style was beginning to dissolve.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Chansons spirituelles were spiritual songs encouraged and disseminated by the Calvinists for performance in the home. Except for one collection, all extant chansons spirituelles are in the form of text, meant to be set to well-known secular songs. The exception is a collection by Jacques Buus from 1550. Four of his pieces are based on preexisting works. In these chansons Buus's method of composition involves the reshaping of a tune by compression or fragmentation, which is then surrounded by new material. In an earlier secular chanson anthology (1543), Buus parodies eight models. Typically, he either quotes the existing material exactly and surrounds it with new material, or treats each voice as a model to be paraphrased, with one in particular dominating.

Works: Buus: A toy Seigneur (158), Chantons de cueur (158), Christ souffrit peine (157), Pour ung plaisir (157), Content desir (164), Vivre ne puis content (164), Ces fascheaux sotz (164), Doulce mémoire (164), Dieu vous gard (165).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies, Sergio Bezerra

Early sixteenth century collections of lute intabulations reveal that a lutenist’s core repertoire came from vocal music, including sacred works such as mass movements and secular works such as frottole and madrigals. These arrangements suggest that lutenists often accompanied vocalists. Intabulations for lute and solo voice by Franciscus Bossinensis and Willaert bear idiomatic features of musical reworking, including ornamentation and alteration. When Bossinensis transcribed frottole by Cara and Tromboncino, he utilized conventional melodic formulas to ornament the tenor voice. Willaert adapted madrigals by Verdelot, making necessary alterations at the cadences so that the grammatical and musical accents in the now solo vocal line properly aligned. Both composers utilized musica ficta, though Willaert did so with less restraint.

Works: Adrian Willaert: Quanto sia liet’il giorno (29-31); Franciscus Bossinensis: Afflitti spirti miei (33), Non val aqua mio gran foco (36), Quella bella e biancha mano (37); Anonymous: Vale diva mia, vale in pace (38).

Sources: Philippe Verdelot: Quanto sia liet’il giorno (29-31); Tromboncino: Afflitti spirti miei (33), Non val aqua mio gran foco (36), Vale diva mia, vale in pace (38); Antonio Caprioli: Quella bella e biancha mano (37).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

[Has a list of all printed arrangements before 1600 with their sources.]

Index Classifications: 1500s

[Has extensive lists of related compositions.]

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1600s

Although aria borrowing was commonplace in opera history, the distinctive feature of the "suitcase aria" was that it was re-used by the same performer. An investigation of opera performances in late seventeenth-century Italy shows that borrowed arias were not transmitted by individual singers but were exchanged between singers. Certain other singers and impresarios maintained an aria repertory and served as brokers for other cast members. A more apt metaphor for this type of collaborative sharing might be the "recycling box" rather than the "suitcase."

Works: Giovanni Legrenzi: Etecole e Polinice (6-7, 11-13), Germanico sul Reno (13-15); Domenico Freschi: L'onor vindicato (6-7); [Carlo Pallavincino?]: Bassiano (8-10); Antonio Cesti: Il Tito (10-11)

Sources: Pietro Andrea Ziani: Il talamo preservato (6-9, 11-13); Domenico Freschi: Sardanapolo (6)

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Despite Ciconia’s notable break from the fourteenth-century cantus firmus tradition, the question of borrowing from a liturgical source looms over the tenor of his isorhythmic motet Petrum Marcello venetum/O Petre antistes. Four of Ciconia’s ten surviving motets are isorhythmic and are particularly notable for their tenors. Instead of borrowing them from liturgical sources, Ciconia’s tenors are newly composed, making Ciconia one of the first to compose isorhythmic motets without liturgical cantus firmi. However, a comparison of cadential intervals above the finals shows Petrum Marcello venetum/O Petre antistes to be an exception to Ciconia’s usual compositional practice. Given that the motet tenor cadences on the third, a chant—possibly Oremus pro antistite—is a likely model for the tenor.

Works: Johannes Ciconia: Petrum Marcello venetum/O Petre antistes (12-15).

Sources: Gregorian Chant: Oremus pro antistite (14-15).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

After 1840, the music of Robert Schumann shifted in focus from idiosyncratic piano music toward more traditional instrumental works, reflecting the influence of the composer's past. One movement in particular, the finale of his Piano Quartet in E-flat Major, draws upon more traditional sonata-form techniques and reworks them in unique ways, all while alluding to and subverting earlier works by Schubert, Beethoven, and Schumann himself. For instance, the self-contained arabesque that interrupts the recapitulation is similar to a technique used in Schumann's Piano Fantasy, Op. 17: they both show Schumann challenging (and perhaps usurping) earlier Beethovenian models of sonata form by inserting a discontinuous character piece. Additionally, this unique take on sonata form in the finale recalls the "parallel forms" present in some of Schumann's 1830s piano sonatas, as well as in some earlier models by Schubert including first movement of the Impromptu in F Minor and the finale of the Piano Trio in B-flat major. The subject of Schumann's fugato also seems to draw upon a similar fugal melody from Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata. Finally, there is a musical allusion to the fifth movement of Schumann's own Novelletten, which is particularly meaningful because both works are closely tied to Schumann's relationship with his wife Clara. These reflections of the past taken together are seen as Schumann's way, not of battling with his predecessors, but rather of working with them to create his own unique style.

Works: Robert Schumann: Piano Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 47 (516-60), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 41 (534), Piano Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (534).

Sources: Robert Schumann: Fantasie, Op. 17 (519-25, 533, 543-45), Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (533-34), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14 (533-34), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (533-34), Novelletten, Op. 21 (545-60); Schubert: Impromptu in F Minor, D. 935 (534-43), Piano Trio in B-flat Major, D. 898 (534-43); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (543).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Edvard Grieg's Peer Gynt Suites carry cultural codes for the complex and ironic relationship between human and monster. These codes were recognized by authors such as Lageröf, Lie, and Ibsen, and they enter intertextually into films like Griffith's Birth of a Nation. Fritz Lang uses Peer Gynt to represent a murderer in M, and after this film, the music takes on generically spooky connotations. The film Needful Things goes beyond coding for malevolence by taking advantage of the written-in acceleration of Peer Gynt (beginning it early and making it quite fast) and synchronizing the music with the onscreen action. Film scenes using Peer Gynt exemplify Nicholas Cook's categories of conformance and contest, which characterize the relationship between image and music (the elements are invertible or each medium deconstructs the other, respectively).

Works: D. W. Griffith (director) and Joseph Carl Breil (composer): Sound track to Birth of a Nation (74-75); Fritz Lang (director): Sound track to M (77-80); Dario Argento (director): Sound track to Demoni (81-82); Fraser Clarke Heston (director): Sound track to Needful Things (80-85); Jerry Zucker (director): Sound track to Rat Race (84-85).

Sources: Edvard Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite (74-87); Schubert: Ave Maria (82); Patrick Doyle: Dies irae (82).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Franz Schubert's Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 15 (1822) was given the nickname "Wanderer" because of an apparent borrowing of his famous earlier song Der Wanderer (1816); however, the musical support for this borrowing has never been evaluated. There exists no written evidence of the Fantasy having any connection to the song during Schubert's lifetime, or even almost fifty years after his death. It was not until 1873 that the first published record of the borrowing can be found. The moniker stuck because at this time, the whole work was viewed as a cyclic development of the second movement Adagio theme, which itself had motivic similarities to the song. However, the character of the Adagio theme and the song theme differ slightly, and the C-sharp minor tonality of both melodies may be seen as a result of Schubert's fondness for semitonal key relationships rather than a deliberate quotation. Judging the borrowing as accidental rather than intentional then calls into question analyses that incorporate the song's mood into a discussion of the Fantasy.

Works: Schubert: Fantasy in C major, Op. 15, D. 760 (Wanderer) (540-42).

Sources: Schubert: Der Wanderer, D. 493 (540-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

While William Grant Still's Afro-American Symphony, Florence Price's Symphony in E Minor, and William Dawson's Negro Folk Symphony are examples of American musical nationalism, they also represent the culmination of the Harlem Renaissance, an affirmation of the black cultural heritage in which composers sought to elevate the Negro folk idiom to symphonic form. Still's Afro-American Symphony is based on a theme in the Blues idiom. The second theme of the first movement of Dawson's Negro Folk Symphony is based on the spiritual "Oh, M' Littl' Soul Gwine-a Shine," and the two themes of the third movement are based on the spirituals "O Le' Me Shine, Lik' a Mornin' Star" and "Hallelujah, Lord I Been Down into the Sea." In Symphony in E Minor, Price is more subtle in her use of elements from the Afro-American folk tradition: her instrumentation calls for African drums; the principal theme of the first movement and its countermelody are built upon a pentatonic scale (the most frequently used scale in Afro-American folk songs); and the third movement is based on the syncopated rhythms of the Juba, an antebellum folk dance.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

From the earliest beginnings of jazz, classical music has played a role in its development. Early and pre-jazz musicians were known to have performed classical music publicly, and others, such as Scott Joplin, studied with European teachers. As jazz moved into the twentieth century, the borrowing of classical music instrumentation became prominent. In the 1950s, jazz musicians employed fugal writing, as exemplified by Dave Brubeck's Fugue on Bop Themes, among other works. In the 1960s, twelve-tone rows were utilized, as exemplified by Bill Evans's T.T.T. Also, the procedure known as "jazzin' the classics" has been a constant feature within jazz tradition, from Jelly Roll Morton's recording of a version of the Misere from Il Trovatore through Joe Walsh's synthesized arrangement of Ravel's Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty. An appendix includes selective annotated discography.

Works: Brubeck: Fugue on Bop Themes (22); Lewis: Vendome (23), Three Windows (23), Concorde (23), Versailles (23); Hampton: Fugue (23); Williams: Prelude and Fugue (23); Ferguson: Passacaglia and Fugue (23); Johnson: Music for Brass (23); Schuller: Abstraction (23); Bank: Equation Part I (23); De Franco: 12-Tone Blues (23); Giuffre: Densities I (23); Farberman: . . . Then Silence (23); Smith: Elegy for Eric (23); Schifrin: The Ritual of Sound (23); Coltrane: Miles Mode (24); Evans: T.T.T. (24-25); Heckman: The Twelves (26); Waller: Russian Fantasy (26); Morton/Verdi: Misere (26-27); Gershwin: The Man I Love as performed by Paul Whiteman (27); Ellington: Ebony Rhapsody (27); Walsh/Ravel: Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty (30); Ginastera: Toccata as performed by Emerson, Lake, and Palmer (30).

Sources: Liszt: Rigoletto Concert Paraphrase (26); Rossini: William Tell Overture (26); Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite (26); Rachmaninoff: Prelude in C sharp Minor (26); Verdi: Il Trovatore (26-27); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (27); MacDowell: To a Wild Rose (27); Rimsky-Korsakov: Song of India (27); Wagner: Tristan and Isolde (27); Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (27), Passacaglia in C (27); Stravinsky: Rite of Spring (28, 30); Ginastera: Toccata (30); Ravel: Mother Goose Suite (30).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Luigi Dallapiccola's use of symbolism has been a fundamental part of his compositional process throughout his life. Symbolic techniques range from a madrigalian style of text painting to complex structural associations to ideograms and personal rhythmic representation. One of the most salient forms of symbolism in Dallapiccola's music can be found in his practice of self-quotation. Beginning as early as 1937, Dallapiccola quotes thematic material from his Tre laudi in Volo di notte. His 1942 Liriche greche quotes sections from the Cinque frammenti di Saffo, and this practice continues in the composer's quotation of the Canti di prigionia in Il prigioniero as well as the Quaderno musicale di Annalibera and Il prigioniero in the Canti di liberazione. The culmination of this practice is Dallapiccola's 1968 opera Ulisse, in which quotations from a wide range of the composer's previous works can be found, especially in the work's Epilogue. Many times these self-borrowings have a symbolic meaning in that they draw upon earlier dramatic or textual contexts present in the original works and insert those associations into a new musical environment. The wide-reaching use of self-quotation in Dallapiccola's work not only serves a symbolic function but also works as a unifying factor in the composer's output as a whole.

Works: Dallapiccola: Volo di notte (277-80), Liriche greche (280-82), Due liriche di Anacreonte (282), Il prigioniero (282-89), Canti di liberazione (282-90), Il Cenacolo--Le vicende del capolavoro di Leonardo da Vinci (290), Variazioni (290), Ulisse (290-302), Sicut Umbra (303-4).

Sources: Dallapiccola: Tre laudi (277-80), Cinque frammenti di Saffo (280-82), Canti di Prigionia (282-84), Il prigioniero (284-90, 295), Quaderno musicale di Annalibera (289-90), Goethe-Lieder (290-94), Volo di notte (294-95), An Mathilde (297-98), Requiescant (299-302), Canti di liberazione (301-2), Ulisse (302-4).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Certain characteristics of "classical" music (in styles from Baroque to late Romantic) were adopted and changed in the music of the early cinema. On the surface, film music from the mid 1920s through the early 1940s shares certain aesthetic principles with the music of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, such as a similar manipulation of themes and motives. Although many existing compositions were employed in early film scores, the aesthetics of the music newly composed for film are the primary focus (Chapters 2-3, pp. 12-66). The "Interviews" section (pp. 269-334) offers candid discussions of and useful insights into the compositional process of film music composers, such as the comment from Harold Shore that "You're constantly in the music library digging up old records, writing new pieces, parodying pieces of this or that."

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: David Oliver

Shostakovich's D-S-C-H motive (D-Eb-C-B) as it first appears in his Tenth Symphony was potentially derived from two possible sources: from Shostakovich's own works, dating back to his First Symphony, or from the use of similar motives in the works of composers Shostakovich admired, such as Bach or Schumann. When considered as a specific transposition and ordering of a 0134 tetrachord, the D-S-C-H motive can be seen as the culmination and ultimate distillation of certain compositional techniques favored by the composer in works predating the Tenth Symphony, such as "modal lowering" (in which Shostakovich flattens various scale degrees, thereby creating a 0134 tetrachord), "modal clash" (in which various forms of the same scale degree are juxtaposed), and "scalar tightening" (in which Shostakovich contracts a given scale down to four pitches). These techniques all resulted in 0134 tetrachords, and Shostakovich gradually came to favor and repeat the "D-S-C-H level" tetrachord that has come to be associated with the first letters his name. However, Shostakovich's use of a specific four-note motive can also be viewed as an imitation of other four-note motives, either by contemporary or past composers who used prominent 0134 tetrachords (ranging from Bach to Stravinsky) or by composers from the past who used motives to represent names or ciphers (such as the B-A-C-H motive or Schumann's A-S-C-H motive from Carnaval, both of which share pitches with Shostakovich's D-S-C-H motive). Both theories of origin are plausible and are not mutually exclusive; however, the theory that the D-S-C-H motive is derived from earlier examples of 0134 tetrachords in Shostakovich's own works might better explain why his namesake motive emerged as gradually and late in his output as it did.

Works: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 10 in E Minor (69-72, 74, 85, 87-89), String Quartet No. 8 in C Minor (69, 95).

Sources: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 1 in F Minor (71, 79-81), String Quartet No. 5 in B-flat Major (71-72), Violin Concerto No. 1 in A Minor (71, 73), Twenty Four Preludes, Op. 34 (74-77), Piano Sonata No. 2 in B Minor (76, 78), Six Romances on Texts by Japanese Poets (82-83), Symphony No. 6 in B Minor (82-84), String Quartet No. 2 in A Major (83-87), From Jewish Folk Poetry, Op. 79 (95); Robert Schumann: Carnaval (90-91), Doppelgänger (91-92); J. S. Bach: The Art of Fugue (90-91), The Well-Tempered Clavier (91-92); Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole (91-92); German Galynin: Piano Concerto (91); Veniamin Fleyshman: Rothchild's Violin (91-93); Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms (96-98), Octet (98); Rimsky-Korsakov: The Tsar's Bride (98-100).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt

A number of major Romantic authors, including Jean Paul, Wilhelm Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, and E. T. A. Hoffmann, had a profound influence on Robert Schumann’s aesthetics. Schumann embraced numerous Romantic concepts as articulated by these authors, including the Romantic genius, the transcendent power of music, and fascination with the historic past. In some form or another, Schumann’s music, writings, and overall philosophy from the early to the mid-1830s reflect these concepts.

As a writer, Schumann echoed Herder and Schiller in his beliefs that the musical genius acts as a cultural critic who improves art and society by exalting other geniuses, while also attacking “musical Philistinism.” Additionally, he draws upon the Romantic writers in his emphasis on musical feeling and sentiment, as well as inspiration over planning when composing. Schumann actively promoted these Romantic-inspired musical aesthetics, especially through his Davidsbund and the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, which greatly impacted the German-speaking music world.

Schumann’s piano music serves as a useful case study for his Romantic aesthetic stance. He actively absorbed and emulated styles of past masters, as seen in the Bachian counterpoint of Novelletten, Op. 21, No. 1. Furthermore, he promoted both past and contemporary geniuses by transcribing or arranging their works, or by borrowing and reworking their melodies. Jean Paul also greatly informed Schumann’s stance on program music and the interaction of music and text, as reflected in works such as Papillons and Carnaval. However, Schumann’s music after 1840 demonstrates a reaction against these Romantic influences, as he begins to favor Classical forms and genres to a much greater degree.

Works: Robert Schumann: Allegro, Op. 8 (34-37), Kinderszenen, Op. 15 (36, 177-79), Fantasiestücke, Op. 12 (36, 54-55), Intermezzos, Op. 4 (36-41, 142, 149), Papillons, Op. 2 (36-38, 70-73, 142, 146, 154-55, 166, 168-74), Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6 (38-40, 54-56, 91-93), Fantasie in C, Op. 17 (38-42, 67-68), Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (42-43, 70-73, 77-78, 91-94, 142, 148, 164-67, 174-77), Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26 (73-74), Impromptus, Op. 5 (77, 81-82, 142-43), Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (77, 84), Studien für das Pianoforte nach Capricen von Paganini, Op. 3 (86-90), Variationen über den Namen Abegg, Op. 1 (91-92), Novelletten, Op. 21 (142, 144-45), Symphonische Etüden, Op. 13 (142, 147), Kreisleriana, Op. 16 (142, 150-51, 178-79), Klavierstücke, Op. 32 (142, 152), Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (157-59), Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14 (157-59), Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (159-60).

Sources: Robert Schumann: An Anna II (36), Im Herbste (36), Der Hirtenknabe; Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (73); Anonymous: Groβvater-Tanz (77); Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73 (77), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (77), Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 (77), Violin Sonata in F Major, Op. 24 (77, 85); Paganini: Caprices, Op. 1 (86-89); Robert Schumann: Intermezzos, Op. 4 (91), Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (91-93), Papillons, Op. 2 (91, 94).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

The "Indianist" composers of the period 1890-1920 took two approaches to the Native melodies that they used: music as raw material, and music as culture. Edward MacDowell used the Native melodies collected by Theodore Baker in his ‹ber die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden (1882). For MacDowell, these tunes were strictly raw musical material, with no reference or attention to tribal sources. Whatever cultural interpretation he made of the music is a generic one based on Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of "cultural evolutionary stages." Arthur Farwell's source of Native melodies came from the work of Alice Fletcher and Francis LaFlesche, whose research focused on the Omaha nation and dealt extensively with cultural context. Ultimately, the Indianist composers sacrificed cultural authenticity as a result of their attempt to make the music accessible for a consumer culture.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Second ("Indian") Suite, Op. 48 (268-71), Second Sonata (Eroica), Op. 50 (271); Arthur Farwell: American Indian Melodies: "The Old Man's Love Song" (277, 279).

Sources: Kiowa melody, collected by Theodore Baker: "Kiowa Song of a Mother to Her Absent Son" (269-71); Omaha melody, collected by Alice Fletcher: "Be-Thae Wa-An" (277-78).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

For his ballet The Fairy's Kiss, Stravinsky borrows harmonic progressions, melodic fragments, and general style characteristics from Tchaikovsky's early piano pieces and songs. Similarities in style might also be the result of both composers' Russian nationality and embrace of classicism. Though a large portion of Stravinsky's score does borrow from Tchaikovsky, Stravinsky writes several unique passages of his own. Literal quotations rarely last for more than a few measures, as Stravinsky commonly expands upon Tchaikovsky's material. Aside from Stravinsky's quotation and expansion upon Tchaikovsky's works, there are a few moments in The Fairy's Kiss wherein style and orchestration become more overtly romantic or the texture becomes static. These moments sound plain and "un-Stravinskian" and likely led to contemporary criticism of the ballet. Stravinsky's later re-working of The Fairy's Kiss into a concert version (Divertimento) is devoid of these moments.

Works: Stravinsky: The Fairy's Kiss.

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Zwölf mittelschwere Stücke, Op. 40, No. 7 (12-13), Natha-Valse, Op. 51, No. 4 (13-14), Humoreske, Op. 10, No. 2 (14-15).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Charles Ives’s Concord Sonata, together with his Essays before a Sonata, can be read through the lens of turn-of-the-century psychologist William James’s work on the functioning of the human brain, yielding new insights into the behavior of Ives’s music. James conceptualizes consciousness as a flowing “Stream of Thought” in which fringe images fill the space between more concrete ideas. Throughout Concord Sonata, Ives constructs a sense of musical vagueness comparable to the Jamesian fringe through uncertain meter and key signatures as well as obscured and distorted musical borrowing. The structure of the sonata is also related to James’s metaphor of “flights” and “perches” in that relatively stable musical phrases emerge from the hazy musical texture. Although Ives does not directly address James’s psychological theories in Essays before a Sonata, he does incorporate many of James’s ideas, which were widespread at the time. Furthermore, James’s cosmological ideas about the multiverse (an extension of his psychological work) are expressed in Ives’s Concord Sonata as well as his Fourth Symphony through their incorporation of borrowed material from many varied musical sources and connections to other works.

Works: Charles Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (179-84), Symphony No. 4 (189-91)

Sources: David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (179-80, 190); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in da Cold Ground (180); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (180-81); Traditional: Loch Lomond (183-184); Wagner: Lohengrin (183-84); A. F. Winnemore: Stop That Knockin’ at My Door (183-84); Lowell Mason: Watchman (189), Missionary Hymn (190), Bethany (191); Charles Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (190), String Quartet No. 1 (190); Oliver Holden: Coronation (190)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan’s 1945 recording of Stone Cold Dead in the Market, a reworked Barbadian folk song about an abused wife murdering her husband, was able to become a rhythm and blues hit in part because the Caribbean styling produced an exoticized cultural mask which allowed for frank portrayals of taboo subjects. The Barbadian folk song, usually known as Murder in the Market or Payne Dead, has been collected in several versions and was likely known in Trinidad by the 1910s. The first commercial recording of the song was made by calypso artist Wilmouth Houdini in 1939. Houdini’s version, called He Had It Coming, had modified lyrics aimed at an American audience, making it an early example of calypso crossover. Fitzgerald and Jordan’s Stone Cold Dead is a re-recording of He Had It Coming that changes the song in several ways to make it a more popular American hit. Fitzgerald and Jordan’s arrangement is faster than Houdini’s and includes instrumentation (muted trumpet, maracas, and claves) typical of post-war Americanized calypso and “Latin” music. They also modified the lyrical structure of the song, repeating the refrain and title line to create a verse-chorus structure with a clear melodic hook. Some lyrics were also changed to be in first-person perspective, and Fitzgerand and Jordan sing with affected West Indian accents. Several artists recorded cover versions of Stone Cold Dead, occasionally with nods to Houdini’s version or earlier folk variations. Although the song addresses the often-unspoken issue of domestic violence, it does so through stereotyping and exoticizing West Indian culture.

Works: Wilmouth Houdini: He Had It Coming (9-13); Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (13-15); Betty Mays and Her Orchestra: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (He Had It Coming) (15); Grace Berrie: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (15-16); Alan Lomax: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (16); Maya Angelou: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (16).

Sources: Traditional: Murder in the Market / Payne Dead (9-13, 16); Wilmouth Houdini: He Had It Coming (13-15); Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Jordan: Stone Cold Dead in the Market (15-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The works of Gustav Mahler have exerted a profound influence on those of George Crumb, especially in the latter's settings of Federico Garcia Lorca's poetry. These influences include formal and tonal designs, instrumentation, notation, poetic imagery, motivic structure, and theatrical effects. Self-quotation is also present in Crumb's music, as in the finger-cymbal crashes in Echoes of Time and the River and Night Music I. Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde has also been a fertile source for Crumb, as his Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death borrows from it heavily. The use of a guitar and mandolin in Mahler's Symphony No. 7 is echoed in Crumb's Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death, Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965, and Makrokosmos I. An oboe figure from the Mahler is obviously evoked in Ancient Voices of Children.

Works: Crumb: Night Music I (9-14, 16-17, 22), Echoes of Time and the River (9, 14, 20), Ancient Voices of Children (10, 24-33), Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965 (12-15, 20, 24, 33), Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death (14-15, 17-20, 26), Makrokosmos I (15-17), Night of the Four Moons (21-24, 33), Five Pieces for Piano (36).

Sources: Bartok: Out of Doors (11); Mahler: Symphony No. 7 (10, 15, 17, 33, 35-6), Das Lied von der Erde (12, 15, 17, 20-33), Symphony No. 6 (17, 33), Symphony No. 5 (20), Das Klagende Lied (20), Symphony No. 9 (21); Haydn: Symphony No. 45, Farewell (21-22); Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (29), Symphony No. 4 (29).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Although the short-lived Celtic Twilight movement in fin-de-siècle Britain was primarily expressed in literature and visual art, Rutland Boughton’s 1912 opera The Immortal Hour exemplified the aesthetics of the movement musically and had a lasting impact on public life in Great Britain. William Butler Yeats defined the Celtic Twilight movement in literature, employing themes of pan-Celtic mythmaking, nostalgia, sexual dissidence, and mysticism. These themes were shared with the broader European movements of Decadence and Symbolism. In music, some Celtic revivalists collected and transcribed Irish folksongs. Others, including Boughton, attached themselves to a Wagnerian aesthetic after Wagner drew on Celtic mythology in Tristan und Isolde. The Immortal Hour was based on an 1899 play by Fiona Macleod (the pen name of William Sharp), loosely based on the Celtic myth “The Wooing of Étaín.” Much of the score has a modal, folk-like character, but Boughton regularly alluded to Wagner’s operas, especially Tristan. Specific allusions include Klingsor’s leitmotif in Parsifal and the Tristan chord. Structural allusions include the way Boughton foreshadows the Faery Song before it is sung complete, which mirrors Wagner’s treatment of the Preislied in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. The Winterstürme from Die Walküre also clearly influenced the storm music in the second scene of The Immortal Hour. After the First World War, revival performances of the opera found great success with the British public, and it particularly appealed to the emerging middlebrow sensibility. The spiritualism and communion with the faery world in The Immortal Hour especially resonated with the collective mourning of the British public in the wake of the Great War.

Works: Rutland Boughton: The Immortal Hour (316-21)

Sources: Wagner: Parsifal (317), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (317-18), Tristan und Isolde (319-21), Die Walküre (320-21)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

There are many connections between Mahler and the Second Viennese School. At least one example of melodic resemblance exists, but more important is Webern's distinctive orientation to sound, for which Mahler is the predecessor. The flow of the movement is suspended in a number of episodes in Mahler's Tempo di Minuetto (Symphony No. 3) and Lied von der Erde. The extremely transparent orchestration and the equal importance of all the parts--often combined with ritardando--constitute "spaces of sound" (Klangräume), structuring the piece formally. The "space of sound" in Webern's fourth variation of the second movement of the Symphony Op. 21 becomes the axis of symmetry on which the whole work is constructed and to which all the other "sound-identical" spaces are structurally related. The comparisons between Webern's symphony and Mahler's Lied von der Erde seem to imply not only that Webern was influenced by Mahler but that the "spaces of sound" in Webern can be traced from specific episodes in Mahler's work.

Works: Webern: Langsamer Satz for String Quartet (165); Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 (170); Symphony, Op. 21 (172).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Although some scholars claim that in Les vêpres siciliennes Verdi's compositional voice is lost as he engages with Meyerbeer, Verdi's work ultimately suggests inspiration by, rather than surrender to, Meyerbeer. Although Meyerbeer had influenced some of Verdi's operatic works in terms of music-dramatic techniques, Verdi remained at odds with Meyerbeer in terms of approach to structure, as Meyerbeer's strength was not in large-scale development, but in small numbers. With Les vêpres siciliennes, Verdi faced direct comparison to Meyerbeer, as the work was in French and as the libretto was typical of that used by Meyerbeer. In particular, the Sicilienne and the Mélodie from the last act demonstrate Verdi's successful tackling of Meyerbeerian miniatures.

Works: Verdi: Les vêpres siciliennes (11-12, 15-20), Attila (15); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (13).

Sources: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (11-13, 16), Robert le Diable (15); Martin Luther: Ein Feste Burg (13); Donizetti: Le Duc d'Albe (15-17, 19).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Christoph Willibald Gluck used a theme borrowed from the gigue of Bach's Partita No. 1 in B-flat major in three of his own operas. Of Gluck's biographers, only Anna Amalie Abert notes that Gluck used the first part of Bach's gigue. Gluck was probably attracted by the gigue's agitated character, its leaping melodic line, and its repeated dissonant appoggiaturas. In the three arias in which this theme is used, the characters are suffering from an emotional crisis. Gluck adds an ornamented upbeat to Bach's theme, and uses a section of the theme in the bass line. The extent of Gluck's adaptation makes this a true borrowing, rather than a "paraphrase" as Klaus Hortschansky argues.

Works: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride, "Je t'implore et je tremble" (188, 192-95, 198-203), Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (195-96), Antigono, "Perchè, se tanti siete" (189).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, BWV 625 (188, 189-91, 194); Christoph Willibald Gluck: Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (189, 195-96).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

[With contributions by Bernd Baselt, George J. Buelow, Hans Dieter Clausen, John Walter Hill, Christine Ickstadt, and Hans Joachim Marx.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Handel relied more than most composers on reuse and reworking of existing material. However, the majority of these instances should not be classified as borrowings. The notion of constructive principles, or using models and common formulas, was essential to the Baroque style. Therefore scholars should exercise caution in labeling passages as "borrowings" based only on a melodic motive or measure of similarity. For example, the arias No. 22, "Cade il mondo," from Agrippina, and "Caddi, e ver" from La Resurrezione, are likely modeled on "Fällt ihr Mächtigen" from Keiser's opera Nebucadnezar. The similar harmonic sequence, as well as the common motive, provide convincing evidence that this is indeed a borrowing. On the other hand, the aria "Sperero," labeled by Bernd Baselt as a borrowing from Rodrigo, appears to be similar only in the opening motive of the voice part, and this evidence is not conclusive enough to classify the passage as a borrowing. Clarification of terminology will help to remedy these misunderstandings regarding Handel's borrowing techniques. "Parody" should be restricted to literal or almost literal reuses of material with a different text, where structure and musical substance remains intact. Literal repetition of the same piece, including the text, should be termed "reuse." "Reworking" defines a musical idea that has been modified, and "new work" describes those works which use brief motives or themes to form a new piece. Also, Handel frequently does not match new texts with similar Affections in his use of preexistent material in Agrippina. An appendix summarizes the sources for Agrippina and the ways Handel uses them.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Johann Mattheson, in his Vollkommener Capellmeister, suggests that a composer have at his disposal a number of what are called "moduli." These consist of "modulations, little turns, clever motives, pleasing figures" and the like, that the composer can apply to his own melodic invention. The origins of these "moduli" are not as important as their usage, because even great ideas poorly used will amount to nothing. Handel used the "moduli" often as an integral part of his compositional process. Three different melodic figures are given, with numerous examples of how Handel developed these into themes.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The view that originality is the main force in the creative process grew out of the extended period of influence that humanism held over the arts in England and the rest of Europe. During this time, imitation of ancient authors was an accepted and even required practice. The reaction of those concerned with the excesses and questionable morality of artists who copied literally from other sources led to a considerable literature on imitation and plagiarism. It is in the middle of the eighteenth century, and first in England, that the concepts of both originality and plagiarism became significant elements in critical writings. To be unoriginal could only mean a lack of genius. This foundation of new ideas made possible much of the further development of aesthetic criticism and artistic achievement in all the arts in the nineteenth century.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

The issue of musical borrowing in Handel's music has contributed to an atmosphere of ignorance and suspicion in the 200-year history of Handel scholarship. This has resulted from a failure to recognize the importance of craftsmanship and rhetorical imitation as important aspects of Handel's compositional technique. While writings on Handel in the early eighteenth century are generally uncritical of Handel's borrowing procedure (to the extent that Handel significantly improves on his models), a certain uneasiness about the composer's borrowings is manifested in writings from the late eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, especially in English scholarship. Writings on Handel in the nineteenth century are generally characterized by disapproval of Handel's procedure as lacking originality and even suggesting immorality. This attitude has changed only slowly in the twentieth century, and only in the past twenty years has scholarship begun to approach a more balanced view of Handel's borrowing technique and its significance to his style. In order to achieve this balance it is necessary to develop more useful tools, such as catalogues of Handel's borrowings and self-borrowings and a bibliographical survey of relevant literature, as well as clearer terminology to describe types of musical borrowing in Handel.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Adrian Willaert's and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina's settings of the Petrarch sonnet "Amor, Fortuna, et la mia mente schiva" demonstrate similarities in their openings as well as in the number of voices, choice of mode, and cleffing. While the normal assumption would be that the younger composer (Palestrina) is borrowing from the older one, Palestrina's madrigal came out in 1555, four years before the publication of Willaert's setting in his Musica nova. While it may be possible that Willaert was modeling his setting after Palestrina's or that Palestrina knew Willaert's madrigal prior to its formal publication in 1559, the directionality of this relationship cannot be determined with absolute certainty. What is more likely is a common influence on both composers from Arcadelt as a model. The arch-shaped opening phrase of both madrigals can be traced back to Arcadelt's musical style, as well as a concern for text setting and attention to both structural and thematic aspects of the poetry in the musical realization. The relationship between Palestrina's and Willaert's settings of the same Petrarch text may then be due to two salient aspects of the art of imitation: a contemporary influence on each other and a case of modeling on an older master.

Works: Willaert: Amor, fortuna, et la mia mente schiva (105-31); Palestrina: Amor, fortuna, et la mia mente schiva (105-31).

Sources: Willaert: Amor, fortuna, et la mia mente schiva (105-31); Palestrina: Amor, fortuna, et la mia mente schiva (105-31); Arcadelt: Del più leggiadro viso (119), Gli prieghi miei tutti gli port?il vento (119), Viva nel pensier vostro (119).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Fragments of a newly discovered English manuscript contain a portion of the Agnus Dei from Dufay's Missa Caput, as well as portions of a different cyclical Mass. This new discovery strengthens the probability that Dufay borrowed the tenor of his Missa Caput from another unknown Caput Mass by an English composer. Several stylistic differences between the Mass of the manuscript and Dufay's Missa Caput exist as evidence of Dufay's English influence. These include: (1) the presence of a fourth voice acting as bass; (2) the bipartite division of each movement; (3) contrasting of parts by means of triple and duple meter; (4) introductory duets in each part; and (5) imitations between the free voices. Evidence also suggests that Dufay composed the Kyrie of the Missa Caput approximately ten years after the rest of the mass. This includes stylistic differences between the Kyrie and the other movements, an entry in the Cambrai archives which notes the copying of "'les kyriels' of the Caput Mass" into choirbooks, and the fact that the English cyclical Mass, which Dufay adopted, typically omitted the Kyrie.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

The source on which the cantus firmus of the Caput Masses by Dufay, Ockeghem, and Obrecht is based is the melodic variant of the melisma on the final word "caput" from the antiphon Venit ad Petrum of the Sarum use. English influence on the earliest Mass (still considered Dufay's) can be seen in its use of the Kyrie trope Deus creator omnium, a melody appearing almost invariably in troped Sarum Graduals. The fact that the Sarum Processionals have not been reprinted with their music may be the reason why the source of the caput melody has remained undiscovered for so long. It appears, however, in the facsimile edition of the Graduale Sarisburiense since 1894. Dufay's tenor corresponds to the caput melisma except for two notes and the arrangement of the ligatures. This is important for the comparison with Ockeghem's and Obrecht's Caput masses, since they take over not only the exact rhythmic layout of Dufay's cantus firmus, but often its major divisions by rests as well. Therefore Ockeghem and Obrecht must have used the mass of their predecessor as a model and springboard. Van den Borren's hypothesis that Ockeghem's mass might be the earliest one of the three cannot be true, since it omits the first part of the cantus firmus in the Christe and "since it is most unlikely that partial presentation should precede integral presentation." Ockeghem follows the model more closely than Obrecht. While the former borrows the arrangement of the ligatures and quotes the cantus firmus in the tenor voice only, Obrecht treats it more freely, shifting it to other voices and transposing it between the movements.

Works: Dufay: Missa Caput (256-66); Ockeghem: Missa Caput (263-69); Obrecht: Missa Caput (264-65, 269-71).

Sources: Antiphon: Venit ad Petrum (242-49); Dufay: Missa Caput (263-71).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although generally considered to be two directly opposed forms, the conductus and the clausula have many interrelations. One unifying feature is that the upper voices in both forms are written in the same style. Both forms employ melismas, albeit to different extents. Sometimes features from the two genres blend together in one piece. In the three-part conductus Si membrana esset celum, the melisma is based entirely on plainsong. This would be done in the same manner in a clausula. On the other hand, entire sections of clausulae are sometimes inserted directly into the fabric of conducti. Thus, these two genres have much more in common than was originally believed.

Works: Conductus: Parit preter morem (69), Veris ad imperia (70), Legis in volumine (70), Purgator criminum (70), Suspirat spiritus (70), Ver pacis aperit (71), Isaias cecinit (71), Flos de spina procreatur (71), Ave Maria gratia plena (72), Adiuva nos (72), Si membrana esset celum (74), Benedicamus Domino (76), Dic Christi veritas (89).

Sources: Estampie: Piec'a que savoie (69); Song: A l'entrada del tens clar (70); Conductus: Veris ad imperia (70); Blondele de Nesle: L'Amour donc sui espris (70), Ma joie me semont (71); Sequence: Laetabundas (71), Flos spina procreatur (71), Deus creator omnium (76).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Index Classifications: 1400s

Understanding a wide breadth of material is essential in comprehending the music and musical practices of both the medieval and renaissance periods. Practices of musical borrowing underwent many changes throughout the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In chapter one, a comparison of two fourteenth-century motets, Deus militum/De Flore martyrum/Ave Rex gentis and Ave miles/Ave rex patrone/Ave Rex shows how two different pieces borrowed from the same plainchant melody. Both tenors begin the same way, then diverge by adopting two contrasting rhythmic patterns. The Fountains Fragment, as is described in detail in chapter three, preserves various polyphonic pieces which illustrate the manner in which plainchant was transformed into these newer pieces, producing a much different affect primarily through rhythmic means. Chapter seven focuses on the basse dance as people in the fourteenth century used it: not for dancing, but for liturgical pieces. Overall, many transformations occurred in music over the span of these four centuries, and much of this centered on some form of borrowing practices.

Works: Motet: Deus tuorum militum/De Flore martyrum/Ave Rex gentis (17-33), Ave miles/Ave rex patrore/Ave Rex (17-29); Anonymous Mass in British Museum, Add. 40011 B and Old Hall (102-11); Leonel Power: Missa Alma redemptoris (223-24).

Sources: Antiphon: Antiphonale Sarisburiense (18-29), Ave regina caelorum, mater regis (18-29); Plainchant: British Museum, Add. 40011 B Sanctus No. 7 (102-11), British Museum, Add. 40011 B Agnus No. 11 (102-11); Basse dance: La Spagna (191-212).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

It has long been known that Charles Ives borrows from other composers and from himself. These borrowings have generally been labeled quotations. However, quotation is not the only technique Ives uses when he is alluding to other pieces. Others include modeling (emulation), paraphrasing, cumulative setting, and quodlibet. The emphasis of this article is on Ives's use of models since this has not yet been discussed. If a composer models his piece on another, he borrows the structure or reworks musical material to build the framework of the composition. The use of models is the most important factor to consider in tracing the compositional process. Motivic borrowings are only the most visible part of a deeper dependence on the sources, allusions that lead us to the pieces on which Ives modeled his compositions.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep, Slow March, Turn Ye, Turn Ye, Waltz, Study No. 20 for Piano, The One Way, Charlie Rutlage, Serenity, On the Counter, The Celestial Country, West London.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Most of the borrowings in Ives's Second Symphony are not quotations but paraphrases. They are not inserted into an existing framework but form the very basis of the piece. All of the themes paraphrase American vernacular tunes, and the themes in turn provide the material for developments and transitions. In each movement one or more transitional passages are paraphrased from episodes from music by Bach, Brahms, or Wagner. This connection is the first real synthesis of American and European musical traditions in Ives's oeuvre, uniting the sound of American melody with the forms and procedures of the European symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Johannes Martini was not the first to cultivate borrowing from two or more voices of a polyphonic model, but he was the first to do so fully and consistently in his work. Perkins's "Communication" (1987) strengthens Martini's ties to the rhetorical tradition of imitatio, thereby supporting the labeling of masses based on a polyphonic source as "imitation masses." Masses based on a polyphonic source form a distinctive genre, separate from cantus firmus masses based on a monophonic source. Although the term "parody mass" is insufficient for the sixteenth-century mass based on a polyphonic model, it may serve to distinguish between the experimental fifteenth-century type and the later, mature type.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

As a performer and composer, Charles Ives worked in four distinct musical traditions: American popular music, American Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. In his mature music, Ives synthesizes these traditions into a new modernist idiom. Ives initially worked in these four traditions independently, occasionally modeling his compositions on existing works in their tradition; for instance, his First Symphony is modeled on Dvořák’s New World symphony and echoes music by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert and Tchaikovsky. Later in his career, Ives frequently combined elements from two or more of these four traditions in a single work, often through various musical borrowing practices. In his 1914 song General William Booth Enters Into Heaven, Ives weaves all four musical traditions together. Popular music is evoked by the marching band “street beat” cadence—realized by an experimentalist recreation of drum sounds using dissonant piano chords—and by the paraphrase of James A. Bland’s minstrel song Oh, Dem Golden Slippers. Protestant hymns are evoked by Ives’s borrowing of There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood. Finally, the song itself is constructed as a Romantic art song, meant to convey to the listener a vicarious experience of the text. The variety in Ives’s music should not be understood as a lack of discipline, but as versatility to appeal to a broad range of musical tastes.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (6-7), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (12-13), General William Booth Enters Into Heaven (23-29)

Sources: David Wallis Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (7); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (12-13); William Cowper: There is a Fountain Filled with Blood (24, 26-28); James A. Bland: Oh, Dem Golden Slippers (25-26)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Masses of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries that are based on polyphonic models and that preserve cantus-firmus structure belong to a distinct genre of imitation mass, related to the fifteenth-century rhetorical concept of imitatio. Johannes Martini—with eleven surviving masses including at least six imitation masses—is particularly important to the history of the imitation mass and to the evolution of musical borrowing in masses in general. Martini’s masses fall into six categories according to the type of model used and (with one exception) the techniques used to elaborate on the borrowed material: plainchant, French chansons, a German lied, Italian songs, instrumental works, and the cuckoo call. Two of the masses based on French chansons (Missa Orsus orsus and Missa Se la sans plus) borrow the least from their models, while the masses on instrumental pieces (Missa Coda di Pavon and Missa La Martinella) borrow extensively from all four voices of their models. With an understanding of Martini’s compositional practices with regard to borrowed material, it is possible to construct hypothetical models that closely approximate the sources Martini must have used for Missa Io ne tengo quanto a te and Missa Dio te salvi Gotterello, neither of which have known surviving models. While the full extent of Martini’s influence is unclear, the available evidence suggests that he was connected with several contemporary composers who were also writing imitation masses, notably Vincenet and Guillaume Faugues. Josquin Desprez, Jacob Obrecht, and Heinrich Isaac, each of whom composed works that borrow from multiple voices of a polyphonic model, also have some potential—if sometimes circumstantial—connection to Martini, his masses, and the idea of musical imitatio. Still, Martini composed the first large body of masses to extensively incorporate several voices from a polyphonic model and his importance for the development of the parody mass was probably very great.

Works: Johannes Martini: Missa Dominicalis (481-82), Missa Ferialis (481-82), Missa Orsus orsus (482-84), Missa Se la sans plus (482-83), Missa In feuers hitz (485-86), Missa Coda di Pavon (486-87, 488-89), Missa La Martinella (486), Missa Ma bouche rit (487), Missa Io ne tengo quanto a te (490-505)

Sources: Plainchant: Domenicalis (481-82), Ferialis (481-82); Anonymous: Or sus, or sus par dessus tous les aultres (482-84), In feuers hitz (485-86); Collinet de Lannoy: Cela sans plus (482-83); Johannes Martini: La Martinella (486); Barbingant: Der Pfoben Swancz (486-87, 488-89); Ockeghem: Ma bouche rit (487)

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although musical borrowing has been an area of study for over a century, it has never been considered as a field that extends over the whole of music history. A study of borrowing in this way may help to answer analytical, interpretative, and historical questions. Analytical tools developed to study borrowing in one musical era can give insight into music of other eras as well. A typology of the uses of existing music in new compositions would comprise several distinctions: (1) the relationship of the new work to the borrowed piece, (2) the elements of the existing work that are borrowed, (3) the structural relationship of borrowed material to the new work, (4) the alteration of the borrowed material, (5) the musical function of the borrowed material, and (6) the associative or extramusical meaning of the borrowed material.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Felix Cox

One significant contributing element to musical meaning is the principle of association, which can be modeled in five steps: (1) recognizing familiar elements, (2) recalling other music that uses those elements, (3) perceiving associations the other music may carry, (4) noticing what is new or changed, and (5) interpreting what this means. One method of testing this model is to analyze several pieces whose meaning can in part be derived from their association with military bugle calls. Military calls themselves have specific arbitrary meanings. Hearing a military call can evoke memories that suggest emotional associations. Some music, like Charles Ives’s Decoration Day, uses listeners’ familiarity with certain tunes (in this case, Taps) to convey specific meaning. Other music relies on familiarity with a general melodic shape or style; George M. Cohan’s World War I song Over There uses a figure that is recognizable as a bugle call (perhaps a cross between Taps and Reveille), but is not actually a quotation of a bugle call. Aaron Copland’s Fanfare for the Common Man recalls the familiar timbre and texture of a bugle call, giving the piece an associative meaning of military dignity, nobility, and duty. Alternatively, other meanings for Fanfare for the Common Man arise if one hears it as reminiscent of Richard Strauss’s Also sprach Zarathustra. In absolute music, the generic, formal, or internal conventions of a familiar reference in a piece—a fanfare topic in a Mozart sonata, for instance—can also generate meaning. Meaning related to musical syntax can also be examined with the association model. There are several implications of this associative model of musical meaning: (1) meaning depends on what the listener knows, (2) music acquires meanings through use, (3) the most familiar music is often the most meaningful, (4) meaning depends on context, (5) meaning depends on interpretation, (6) musical meaning can change as listeners learn, and (7) this model provides a framework for communicating about musical meaning.

Works: Ives: Decoration Day (83-84); George M. Cohan: Over There (85); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (89-93)

Sources: Anonymous: Taps (83-85), Reveille (85); Lowell Mason: Nearer, My God, to Thee (83-84); Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra (89-93)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Despite the traditional depiction of Brahms as a musical conservative, he is the single most important influence on twentieth-century classical music in regard to how composers think about music and measure their success. Musical-technical definitions of modernism are inadequate to explain the changing social context of music, particularly in how composers starting with Brahms dealt with the musical past. One example of this is Brahms’s use of the chaconne in the finale of his Fourth Symphony. The movement is modeled on Bach’s Chaconne for solo violin, which Brahms had previously transcribed for piano, and the two pieces share many similarities. The movement is also modeled on Beethoven’s Eroica symphony, particularly its unusual theme-and-variations finale. Both movements are in three sections suggesting a sonata form, and both close with a faster coda that develops the opening thematic material in a new way. By modeling his work on important classical composers, Brahms conspicuously participates in the classical tradition. This dialectic between old and new music, pioneered by Brahms, has been adopted by later modern composers such as Mahler, Stravinsky, and Bartók, and provides the framework for serious music in the twentieth century.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (78)

Sources: Bach: Chaconne, from Partita No. 2 in D Minor for Solo Violin, BWV 1004 (78); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica (78)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Charles Ives is as much a part of the European tradition of art music as are his progressive contemporaries in Europe. Ives’s character as a composer was greatly influenced by German Romanticism, which he absorbed through his composition teacher, Horatio Parker. Ives’s connection to the European Romantic tradition can be traced through his use of allusion and quotation throughout his career. Early compositions, up to and including his First Symphony, demonstrate how Ives learned to compose by imitating European models. In his Second Symphony, Ives begins to establish a distinctive voice by emphasizing allusion and quotation of American material. At the same time, the Second Symphony also adopts the elaborate forms of European art music and borrows material from Brahms, Bach, and Wagner. In his Third Symphony, Ives invests American tunes with the seriousness of European art music. The Fourth of July, which culminates with a quotation of Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean, exemplifies Ives’s increasing turn to American subjects and careful use of quotation and texture. While Ives’s importance as an avant-garde composer is certain, he is also a worthy peer of his European contemporaries of international stature.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (43), Slow March (43), Variations on America (43), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (44-45), Symphony No. 2 (46), The Fourth of July (48-49)

Sources: Handel: Saul, HWV 53 (43); Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck: Theme and Variations in C Major on God Save the King (43); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (44-45); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (46); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (48)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Charles Ives is as much a part of the European art music tradition as are his progressive European contemporaries. Ives’s adoption of European genres, ideal of music practiced for its own sake, penchant for program music, nationalism, and desire to express new things in music all show the influence of European Romanticism, which Ives learned in large part from his composition teacher, Horatio Parker. When analyzing the idea of allusion and quotation through Ives’s compositions in chronological order, a clear pattern of development emerges. Ives began by imitating musical models; for example, his early Polonaise in C is modeled on the sextet from Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor. His First Symphony continues this practice of modeling, but now in the spirit of competition. The second movement theme is an elegant condensation of the second movement theme of Dvořák’s New World symphony, and as such it can be read as a sincere challenge to the famous tune. In his Second Symphony, Ives begins to claim a distinctive voice as a composer by using borrowed material to celebrate American music within the European symphonic tradition. This process of self-assertion continues in the Third Symphony, which includes the first instance of Ives’s new “cumulative form,” borrowing the principles of development that underlie the European tradition. The Fourth of July, a symphonic poem also using cumulative form, exemplifies Ives’s mature style and an extraordinary complexity of quotation used to evoke the process of memory. Still, the nationalism and programmaticism underlying The Fourth of July are rooted in European Romanticism. While Ives certainly deserves his avant-garde reputation, he is also a composer whose music is rooted in the European tradition and a worthy peer to his European contemporaries.

Works: Ives: Polonaise in C (15-18), Ich grolle nicht (19-22), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (22-26), Symphony No. 2 (26-28), Symphony No. 3 (28-31), The Fourth of July (31-32)

Sources: Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (15-18); Robert Schumann: Ich grolle nicht from Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (19-22); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Op. 74, Pathétique (22); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (22); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, Unfinished (22); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (22-25); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (26-27); William B. Bradbury: Woodworth (28-31); C. G. Gläser, Lowell Mason (adapter): Azmon (28-31); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (31-32)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Musicians use a broad spectrum of practices to make new music out of old: performance, including everything from making performing choices to improvising variants or added material; creating a new version of a piece by arranging it, transcribing it for different media or setting it with a new accompaniment; borrowing material from one or more existing pieces to use in a new one; building a new piece out of schemas, shared routines that can be deployed in endless new combinations; using topics, references to familiar styles and types of music, to delineate form and create meaning through association; and other forms of intertextuality, which encompasses these and other kinds of relationships between and among pieces of music. Borrowing has been a subject of musical scholarship for centuries, and in the past four decades scholars have developed parallel fields of study focused on the others. Each of these approaches is useful, drawing our attention to significant and longstanding practices in our musical tradition and to ways creators shape music and listeners understand it. Moreover, all of these scholarly approaches and musical practices are related, serving to demonstrate how central to our tradition are our many ways of making old music new.

Works: Franz Liszt: William Tell Overture, S. 552 (72); Bob Rivers: Not So Silent Night (72-73, 78); Stravinsky: Pulcinella (73), The Fairy’s Kiss (73); Josquin Desprez: Missa Pange lingua (74); Charles Ives: Symphony No. 2 (74, 78)

Sources: Rossini: William Tell Overture (72); Franz Xaver Gruber (composer), John Freeman Young (English lyricist): Silent Night (72-73, 78); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (74); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where are the Verdant Freshmen? (78)

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Studies of allusion, modeling, paraphrase, quotation, and other forms of musical borrowing hinge on the claim that the composer of one piece of music has used material or ideas from another. What evidence can be presented to support or refute this claim? How can we know that the material is borrowed from this particular piece and not from another source? How can we be sure that a similarity results from borrowing and is not a coincidence or the result of drawing on a shared fund of musical ideas? These questions can be addressed using a typology of evidence organized into three principal categories: analytical evidence gleaned from examining the pieces themselves, including extent of similarity, exactness of match, number of shared elements, and distinctiveness; biographical and historical evidence, including the composer’s knowledge of the alleged source, acknowledgment of the borrowing, sketches, compositional process, and typical practice; and evidence regarding the purpose of the borrowing, including structural or thematic functions, use as a model, extramusical associations, and humor. Ideally, an argument for borrowing should address all three categories. Exploring instances of borrowing or alleged borrowing by composers from Johannes Martini and Gombert through Mozart, Brahms, Debussy, Ives, Stravinsky, and Berg illustrates these types of evidence. The typology makes it possible to evaluate claims and test evidence for borrowing by considering alternative explanations, including the relative probability of coincidence. A particularly illuminating case is the famous resemblance between the opening themes of Mozart’s Bastien und Bastienne and Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony, discussed by hundreds of writers for more than 150 years. Bringing together all the types of evidence writers have offered for and against borrowing shows why the debate has proven so enduring and how it can be resolved.

Works: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (227, 241); Liszt: Totentanz (227); Camille Saint-Saëns: Danse macabre (228); Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (228), Symphonic Dances (228); Luigi Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (228); Alban Berg: Lyric Suite (229-30, 233), Warm die Lüfte (237-41); Claude Debussy: Golliwogg’s Cakewalk, from Children’s Corner (229-31, 233-34), Pour la danseuse aux crotales, from Six epigraphes antiques (237-41); Nicolas Gombert: Ave regina celorum (231-33); Mozart: Requiem in D Minor, K. 626 (235-36); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (237); Ives: Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (235), Violin Sonata No. 4 (242-43); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (244-46); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica (250-65)

Sources: Attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (227-28, 241); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (229-31, 233-34); Poissy Antiphonal: Ave regina celorum (231-33); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, Op. 95, From the New World (235); Bach: Chaconne, from Partita No. 2 in D Minor for Solo Violin, BWV 1004 (237); Ravel: Gaspard de la nuit (237-41); William Howard Doane: Old, Old Story (242-43); Mozart: Bastien und Bastienne (250-65)

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Juxtaposing disparate styles is a defining characteristic of Ives’s music. Analyzing The Alcotts from the Concord Sonata, Larry Starr showed how styles ranging from diatonic tonality to three distinct post-tonal styles delineate the form, and argued that Ives was exceptional in embracing “stylistic heterogeneity” as a basic principle. Yet Ives’s practice fits well in the tradition of musical topics described by Leonard Ratner and others, especially the coordination of contrasting styles to provide variety and articulate the form. A topical approach also reveals how using styles that carry particular associations creates expressivity and mean- ing. Ives uses as topics numerous traditional styles, beginning in his early tonal music, as well as modernist stylizations of familiar styles. Often, these musical topics overlap considerably with Ives’s use of borrowed musical material. For example, in The Alcotts the hymn topic contains material derived from Missionary Hymn and the pounding chords of the Hammerklavier topic explicitly evoke Beethoven’s Hammerklavier sonata. Understanding Ives’s stylistic heterogeneity as the use of topics allows a deeper and more comprehensive analysis of The Alcotts and other works and links his practice to that of past composers such as Mozart.

Works: Ives: Memories (177-81), Symphony No. 2 (181-83), Luck and Work (186-89), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (189-97)

Sources: Stephen Foster: Gentle Annie (178-81), Massa’s in de Cold Ground (183) Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (181-83); Schubert: Gretchen am Spinnrade (186-76); Robert Robinson: Come, Thou Fount of Ev’ry Blessing (187-88); Wagner: Lohengrin (191-92); A. F. Winnemore: Stop That Knocking at My Door (192); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (192-94); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (192-97), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (193-94)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder, Matthew Van Vleet

Many elements of Charles Ives’s compositional technique, including some that seem to be his most radical, can be traced back to his early career as a church organist. Although pieces for solo organ make up a small part of Ives’s output, there are several pieces (including movements of symphonies 2, 3, and 4 and A Symphony: New England Holidays) that Ives reworked from now lost organ pieces. Four aspects of organ performance influence Ives’s later music, even when the organ itself is not especially prominent: improvisation, virtuosity, multiple keyboards with contrasting timbres, and mutation stops. Additionally, three characteristics of organ literature, fugue, pedal point, and elaboration of hymns, influenced the new directions Ives took in his music. For example, Ives links organ fugue and hymn practices in a lost organ fugue that was adapted into his String Quartet No. 1 and Symphony No. 4. The subject of this fugue was the first phrase of Missionary Hymn and the countersubject was a phrase of Coronation. In Symphony No. 4, both the fugue and hymn tunes evoke the extramusical “formalism and ritualism” of Ives’s program. Elements of Ives’s cumulative form are also anticipated in organ music introducing and accompanying hymns. Mendelssohn’s Organ Sonata No. 1 in particular anticipates several elements of Ives’s cumulative form practice, including adapting a hymn tune as a theme, stating the theme at the end, and developing variants of the tune before the tune itself. While organ music gives a foundation for many of his compositional techniques, Ives’s willingness to extrapolate from the organ tradition makes him unique among modernist composers.

Works: Ives: Sonata No. 2 for Piano, Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (264), Four Transcriptions from “Emerson” (264), String Quartet No. 1 (290-92), Symphony No. 4 (290-92), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano (292-93); Mendelssohn: Organ Sonata No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 65, No. 1 (304-6)

Sources: Ives: Emerson Overture for Piano and Orchestra (264); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (290-92); Oliver Holden: Coronation (290-92); William Hovard Doane: Old, Old Story (292-93); Claudin de Sermisy: Was mein Gott will, das g’schel’ allzeit (304-6)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The use of existing music is one of the most characteristic facets of Charles Ives’s music. What has been broadly described as musical “quotation” is in fact fourteen distinct procedures that Ives uses: modeling, variations, paraphrasing, setting, cantus firmus, medley, quodlibet, stylistic allusion, transcribing, programmatic quotation, cumulative setting, collage, patchwork, and extended paraphrase. Analyzing Ives’s use of existing music through these procedures allows for a clearer understanding of Ives’s compositions, the discovery that most of these procedures can be traced back to existing practices in the European tradition, and the tracing of a logical development in Ives’s practice from common types of musical borrowing to highly individual methods. The development of Ives’s use of existing music largely corresponds to six periods in Ives’s career: youth (to 1894), apprenticeship (1894-1902), innovation and synthesis (1902-8), maturity (1908-18), last works (1918-27), and revising (1927-54).

In his early career, Ives, like countless other composers, often modeled compositions on existing works to learn from the masters and develop his own voice. At the same time, Ives honed his skills at paraphrasing existing melodies (particularly hymn tunes) for use in classical idioms. Ives’s First and Second Symphonies represent the height of his use of modeling and paraphrase; the First Symphony demonstrates Ives’s command of the symphonic tradition, and the Second demonstrates his ability to bend American vernacular material to fit the symphonic form, paraphrasing American tunes as themes and adapting transitional passages from European compositions. Between 1907 and 1920, the most common form in Ives’s concert music was cumulative setting, a distinctive form in which a borrowed or paraphrased theme is first heard in fragments, gradually accumulating until the entire theme is heard at the end of the movement, often with a countermelody that accumulates in a similar way. Cumulative setting is based on techniques that have precedents in various musical traditions. Ives’s synthesis of these ideas served several musical and extramusical functions, celebrating American melodies and hymn tunes in a new, thematically-driven form. In other mature compositions, Ives uses conventional borrowing techniques in novel ways, such as alluding to a style or genre (often through a specific piece) as a means of commenting on it. Two extensions of paraphrase technique—patchwork, in which a melody is stitched together from fragments of multiple tunes, and extended paraphrase, in which the main melody of an entire work is paraphrased from an existing tune—also became important compositional techniques for Ives. Programmatic quotation, in which a tune is explicitly quoted for a clear extramusical purpose, is uncommon is Ives’s music, but the technique is used in works where the program involves listening to a musical event. Among the most extraordinary uses of borrowed music in Ives’s works are his orchestral collages, which blend several compositional techniques (modeling, paraphrase, cumulative setting, programmatic quotation, and quodlibet) and many borrowed tunes to create a stream-of-consciousness effect representing the process of memory. By systematically analyzing Ives’s increasing use of borrowed music throughout his career, the prevailing “crazy-quilt” view of Ives’s borrowing—that old and new material are stitched together without discrimination—can be replaced by a more accurate assessment that Ives drew on traditional techniques and developed new ones to give expression to his American culture within his own musical language.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep (14-16), Polonaise in C (17-20), Variations on “America” (21-22, 43-46), Turn Ye, Turn Ye (23-24), Ein Ton (25-27), Ich grolle nicht (27-31, 33-34), Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), The Celestial Country (34-36), Fantasia on “Jerusalem the Golden” (38-41), March No. 1 in F and B-flat (41-43), String Quartet No. 1 (49-75, 86-87), The Side Show (76-79), Fugue in Four Keys on “The Shining Shore” (80-81, 162-64), Religion (82-83), Evening (83-84), String Quartet No. 2 (84-85, 348-50), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (88-102), Symphony No. 2 (102-36), Symphony No. 3 (139-54, 238-40), Violin Sonata No. 3 (139, 142, 154-61, 166, 174-78, 206-12, 243), The Camp-Meeting (149-50), Violin Sonata No. 1 (163-72, 201-6, 241-42, 250), Violin Sonata No. 2 (165, 170-74, 197, 200, 242, 315-16), Violin Sonata No. 4 (167-68, 177-84, 189, 193-94), Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day from Holidays Symphony (168-69, 185-86), His Exaltation (174), Piano Sonata No. 1 (187-93, 212-14, 243-44, 248-49), At the River (193-94), Adagio cantabile (The Innate) (194-95, 196), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (195-200, 350-57), Ragtime Dances (212-14), The Rockstrewn Hills Join in the People’s Outdoor Meeting from Orchestral Set No. 2 (214), “Pre-First” Violin Sonata (236-38), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (253-62), From Hanover Square North, at the End of a Tragic Day, the Voice of the People Again Arose from Orchestral Set No. 2 (262-66), Waltz (268-70), Grantchester (277-78), On the Counter (278-80), The One Way (279-80), Serenity (281-86), The Rainbow (287-89), The White Gulls (291-94), The Last Reader (301-5), The Things Our Fathers Loved (306-11), Old Home Day (311-12), Lincoln, the Great Commoner (312), In Flanders Fields (313), He Is There! (313-15), An Elegy to Our Forefathers from Orchestral Set No. 2 (316-17), The “St.-Gaudens” in Boston Common (Col. Shaw and his Colored Regiment) from Three Places in New England (317-22), The Housatonic at Stockbridge from Three Places in New England (327-30), Down East (330-33), West London (333-39), Yale-Princeton Football Game (342-43), Calcium Light Night (343), The Gong on the Hook and Ladder (343), The General Slocum (343-44), Central Park in the Dark (344-45), Decoration Day from Holidays Symphony (345-46), The Celestial Railroad (357-60), The Pond (Remembrance) (360-63), Requiem (363), Tom Sails Away (363-64), Trio for Violin, Cello, and Piano (373-74), The Fourth of July from Holidays Symphony (376-82), Washington’s Birthday from Holidays Symphony (383-85), Putnam’s Camp from Three Places in New England (386-89), Country Band March (386-87), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Symphony No. 4 (389-411); George M. Cohan: The Yankee Doodle Boy (322-24, 325-26)

Sources: David W. Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (14-16, 346, 373-74); Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (17-20); Johann Christian Heinrich Rinck: Variations on “God Save the King” (21-22); Josiah Hopkins: Expostulation (23-24); Peter Cornelius: Ein Ton (25-27); Robert Schumann: Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (27-31, 33-34); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit (27-28, 31-34), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (126-30, 132-33), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (127), Vier ernste Gesänge (128), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (349); Horatio Parker: Hora novissima (34-36); Alexander Ewing: Jerusalem the Golden (38-41); Anonymous: The Year of Jubilee (41-43); Attributed to John Bull (composer), Samuel Francis Smith (lyricist): America (43-46, 312-13); Attributed to Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth: Nettleton (50-52, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 105-7, 115, 194-95, 196, 197, 200, 306-11, 349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); John R. Sweney: Beulah Land (52-55, 61-70, 73-74, 86-87, 99-101, 111-14, 207-12, 392-401); George J. Webb: Webb (55-57, 73-74); Oliver Holden: Coronation (55-57, 71-74, 402); George F. Root: Shining Shore (56-70, 73-74, 80-83, 86-87, 99-101, 162-63, 164-65, 168-69, 170-72, 185-86, 291-94), Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (236, 241-42, 250, 314, 359-60, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), The Battle Cry of Freedom (236, 306-11, 313, 314, 315-16, 317-22, 377-82, 386-89), There’s Music in the Air (239); Lowell Mason: Missionary Hymn (71-74, 402), Bethany (81-85, 301-5, 330-33, 349-50, 390-92, 402-10), Watchman (201-6, 301-5, 390-92), Work Song (202-3, 205-6); J. S. Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (“Dorian”) BWV 538 (71, 402), Three-Part Invention in F Minor BWV 795 (126-27), Fugue in E Minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (128-30); Pat Rooney: Is That You, Mr. Riley? (76-79); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Op. 74, Pathétique (76-79, 95-97, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 36 (130-31); C. G. Gläser, Lowell Mason (arranger): Azmon (80-83, 140-41, 143-46, 151-54, 162-64, 240, 404, 408); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (89-95, 101-2, 130-31); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (97-98, 101-2, 349), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (195-200, 350-60), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (195-200, 350-60); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, Unfinished (98-99, 101-2); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (104-7, 115, 122-24, 316-22, 357, 383-85, 386-89, 392-401), De Camptown Races (115-22, 359-60, 383-85, 392-401), Old Black Joe (122-24, 316-22, 359-60, 392-401), My Old Kentucky Home (306-11, 373-74, 386-89), Old Folks at Home (383-85); Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (107-8, 373-74, 383-85, 392-401); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (108, 116-24, 312, 313, 314, 348-49, 355, 359, 364, 376-82, 386-89, 392-401); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (108-9), Marching Through Georgia (312-14, 317-22, 345, 348-49, 359-60, 373-74, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401), Kingdom Coming (377-82); George A. Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (109-10, 213-14, 243-44); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where Are the Verdant Freshmen? (110-11); Gregorian chant, Lowell Mason (arranger): Hamburg (110-11); Johann G. Naegeli, Lowell Mason (arranger): Naomi (110, 238-40); Samuel A. Ward: Materna (112-15); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (115, 123, 195-200, 402-10); Thomas Haynes Bayly: Long, Long Ago (120, 373-74, 392-401); George Washington Dixon or Bob Farrell: Turkey in the Straw (121-24, 315, 348-49, 383-85, 392-401); Handel, Lowell Mason (arranger): Antioch (123-24, 402, 402-10); Anonymous (bugle calls): Reveille (124, 257, 312-13, 314, 377-82, 392-401), Assembly (312, 377-82), Taps (313, 345-46, 360-63); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (127); William Bradbury: Woodworth (140-41, 143-51, 153, 240), Jesus Loves Me (168, 181-84, 316-17); Charles Converse: Erie (141, 151-54, 188-89, 192-93, 239-40); Robert Lowry: Need (142, 154-61, 207-12, 243), The Beautiful River (166, 174-77, 189, 193-94, 195, 196, 392-401), Where Is My Wandering Boy? (249); François-Hippolyte Barthélémon: Autumn (165, 170-74, 237); Ira D. Sankey: There’ll Be No Dark Valley (166, 174-78); William H. Doane: Old, Old Story (167, 178-81); George E. Ives: Fourth Fugue in B-flat (167, 178-81); John Hatton: Duke Street (168-69, 185-86); Henry K. Oliver: Federal Street (168-69, 185-86); George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (170, 236, 241-42, 250, 363-64); John Zundel: Lebanon (187-92, 244, 249); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (195-200, 402-10); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (195-200, 355-56, 358-60, 392-401, 402-10); Anonymous: Happy Day (213-14, 243-44); Lewis Hartsough: Welcome Voice (213-14, 243-44, 402); William G. Tomer: God Be With You (236, 359-60, 392-401); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (236, 313-14); Anonymous: Sailor’s Hornpipe (236, 315, 373-74, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: Money Musk (236, 315, 383-85); Anonymous: The White Cockade (236, 315-16, 377-82, 383-85); Anonymous, Lowell Mason (arranger): Fountain (238-40, 254-62, 333-39, 373-74); Andrew Young, Lowell Mason (arranger): There Is a Happy Land (238-40, 392-401, 402-10); James P. Webster: In the Sweet Bye and Bye (262-66, 306-11, 373-74, 390, 392-401); Michael Nolan: Little Annie Rooney (268-70); Debussy: Prélude à “L’après-midi d’un faune” (277-78); Ives: A Song—for Anything (278-80), Country Band March (313, 355, 359-60, 386-87, 392-401), Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (357-58, 392-402), Old Home Day (377-82), Overture and March “1776” (387-89), Violin Sonata No. 1 (390-92), The Celestial Railroad (392-401), String Quartet No. 1 (402), String Quartet No. 2 (406); Oley Speaks: On the Road to Mandalay (279-80); William V. Wallace: Serenity (282-86, 288-89); Ludwig Spohr: Cherith (301-5); Henry W. Greatorex: Manoah (301-5); Alexander R. Reinagle: St. Peter (301-5); Paul Dresser: On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away (306-11); William Steffe (composer), Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (311-12, 312, 314, 377-82, 386-89); H. S. Thompson: Annie Lisle (311-12); Anonymous: Arkansas Traveler (311-12, 386-89); Anonymous: The Girl I Left Behind Me (311-12, 377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Garryowen (311-12, 377-82, 383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: Saint Patrick’s Day (311-12, 373-74, 377-82, 385, 392-401); Anonymous: Auld Lang Syne (311-12); Philip Phile: Hail! Columbia (312, 348-49, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (312, 314, 386-89); Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (313, 314); Henry S. Cutler: All Saints New (313); George M. Cohan: Over There (314, 364); Dan Emmet: Dixie (314, 348-49, 373-74, 377-82); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (314, 377-82, 386-89, 392-401); James Ryder Randall: Maryland, My Maryland (314); Isaac B. Woodbury: Dorrnance (327-30, 402-10); Nelson Kneass: Ben Bolt (344); Ellen Wright: Violets (344); Joseph E. Howard: Hello! Ma Baby (344); John Philip Sousa: Washington Post March (344, 392-401), Semper Fidelis (386-89); William Crotch: Westminster Chimes (349-50, 390-92, 392-401, 402-10); Edward S. Ufford: Throw Out the Life-Line (359-60, 392-401); Frederick Crouch: Kathleen Mavourneen (361-63); Handel, Anonymous (arranger): David (361-63), Christmas (402); Mendelssohn, Anonymous (arranger): Hexham (361-63); William G. Harris (arranger): A Band of Brothers in DKE (373-74); George Morris: Few Days (373-74); Anonymous: The Worms Crawl In (373-74); Anonymous: That Old Cabin Home Upon the Hill (373-74); Anonymous: The Campbells Are Coming (373-74, 383-85); Henry J. Sayers: Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay! (373-74); Anonymous: Hold the Fort, McClung in Coming (373-74); William Gooch: Reuben and Rachel (373-74); Anonymous: Fisher’s Hornpipe (377-82, 383-85); Anonymous: London Bridge (377-82, 386-89); Anonymous: Katy Darling (377-82); Henry R. Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! (383-85, 392-401); Edwin P. Christy: Goodnight, Ladies (383-85); Anonymous: For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow (383-85); Anonymous: Irish Washerwoman (383-85, 392-401); Anonymous: The British Grenadiers (386-89); Theodore E. Perkins: Something for Thee (391-401, 402-10); Arthur Sullivan: Proprior Deo (391-92, 402-10); Anonymous: Crusader’s Hymn (391-92); Justin Heinrich Knecht, Edward Husband (arranger): St. Hilda (402-10)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Charles Ives’s extraordinarily diverse musical output can seem daunting, but by studying the historical and artistic context surrounding his compositions, listeners can gain an appreciation for and better understanding of Ives’s music. One of the most salient features of Ives’s music is its variety. In his collection 114 Songs, Ives apparently hoped that everyone could find something to like in it, and even sampling just a few of the songs demonstrates its breadth of musical style. During his youth, Ives encountered the four musical traditions that would shape his compositional career: popular music, Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. As Ives studied under Horatio Parker at Yale, he based several compositions (including his First Symphony) on European classical models. Starting with his First String Quartet, Ives began incorporating American tunes into European forms, and in his Second Symphony he completely integrates European and American music. With his Third Symphony and four violin sonatas, Ives developed cumulative form, a new form in which fragments of a borrowed tune (in these pieces, a hymn) are developed before the complete tune is heard at the end of the movement. Around the same time, he began to compose the four movements of A Symphony: New England Holidays, which celebrate American holidays through music associated with them and evoke memory through musical collage. Ives’s two Orchestral Sets use similar procedures to evoke American historical events, and, like the Holidays Symphony, combine elements of popular music, Protestant church music, European classical music, and experimental music. One of Ives’s best-known pieces, his Concord Sonata, conveys his impressions of four American Transcendentalist writers. In his Second String Quartet and his Fourth Symphony, Ives conveys two similar transcendent journeys, both culminating in the hymn tune Bethany (“Nearer, my God, to Thee”). In 1922, Ives self-published 114 Songs, a collection of old and new songs that, along with the Concord Sonata, brought him to the attention of the classical music community. It was not until after Ives stopped composing new music in 1926 that he began to be recognized as a major American composer.

Works: Ives: Down East (20-21), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (21-24), Holiday Quickstep (32-35), Variations on “America” (39-43), Feldeinsamkeit (58-61, 63), Ich grolle nicht (58-60, 61-63), Symphony No. 1 in D Minor (63, 65, 69-71), The Celestial Country (81-82), String Quartet No. 1 (82-89), Yale-Princeton Football Game (93-96), Central Park in the Dark (117-19), Symphony No. 2 (125-44), Symphony No. 3: The Camp Meeting (149-58), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano: Children’s Day at the Camp Meeting (158-63), Sonata No. 3 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 163-66), Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 166-67), Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (158-60, 167-68), Washington’s Birthday from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-81), Decoration Day from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 181-85), The Fourth of July from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 185-90), Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day from A Symphony: New England Holidays (173-76, 190-93), Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England (195-209), Orchestral Set No. 2 (210-15), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (217-42), String Quartet No. 2 (249-56), Symphony No. 4 (257-68), On the Counter (273), Watchman! (273-74), At the River (273-74), His Exaltation (273-74), The Camp-Meeting (274, 275-76), Slow March (274-75), In Flanders Fields (276), He Is There! (276-77), Tom Sails Away (277), The Greatest Man (278), The White Gulls (278-79), Evening (278), The One Way (282), Three Quarter-Tone Pieces (282-83)

Sources: Lowell Mason: Bethany (20-21, 184-85, 249, 254-56, 258, 259-61, 266-68, 279), Missionary Hymn (84-85, 257, 265-66), Work Song (168), Watchman (168, 257, 260-61, 273-74); James A. Bland: Golden Slippers (23); Anonymous, Lowell Mason (arranger): Fountain (23-24, 154-55); David Wallis Reeves: Second Regiment Connecticut National Guard March (34, 95, 183-85); Attributed to John Bull (composer), Samuel Francis Smith (lyricist): America (39-43, 276, 283); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit (59-61), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (132, 134, 136, 138), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (133), Vier ernste Gesänge (136), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (254); Robert Schumann: Ich grolle nicht from Dichterliebe (61-63); Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (63, 65, 69-70); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Pathétique (63, 70, 254); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (63, 65, 70, 254), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (223-28, 230, 232-34, 236, 241), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, Hammerklavier (224-28, 241); Schubert: Symphony No. 8, D. 759, Unfinished (63, 70); George F. Root: Shining Shore (70-71, 86-87, 89, 167-68, 191-93), The Battle Cry of Freedom (166-67, 168, 184, 188, 201-2, 205, 276-77, 283), Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (168, 188, 262-63, 276-77); John R. Sweney: Beulah Land (70-71, 86-87, 89, 134-35, 163-64, 262-64); Anonymous (bugle calls): Taps (71, 183-85), Reveille (138, 188, 276); David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (71, 132, 136, 138, 144, 186-89, 237, 253, 254, 263, 276-77); Horatio Parker: Hora novissima (81-82); J. S. Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (“Dorian”) BWV 538 (85), Prelude in B Minor BWV 869 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (131), Three-Part Invention in F Minor BWV 795 (132, 136), Fugue in E Minor BWV 855 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 (137-38); Oliver Holden: Coronation (85, 87-88, 89); Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth: Nettleton (87, 135, 167, 210, 254, 262-63); George J. Webb: Webb (88); Karl Langlotz (composer), Harlan Page Peck (lyricist): Old Nassau (94-95); Anonymous: Hy-Can Nuck a No (94-95); Anonymous: Harvard Has Blue Stocking Girls (94-95); Carl Wilhelm (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Bright College Years (Dear Old Yale) (95); Philip Bliss (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Hold the Fort, McClung Is Coming (95); Nelson Kneass: Ben Bolt (118); Ellen Wright: Violets (118-19); Joseph E. Howard: Hello! Ma Baby (118); Anonymous: The Campbells Are Coming (118-19, 178-79); John Philip Sousa: Washington Post March (119), Semper Fidelis (204-5), Liberty Bell March (204-5); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (131-32, 135, 137-38, 141-43, 178-79, 201-2, 205, 210, 214, 240-41, 254), De Camptown Races (136-37, 178, 263, 264), Old Black Joe (137-38, 142-43, 201-2, 210), Old Folks at Home (177-78, 180); Anonymous: Pig Town Fling (131-32, 137-38, 179); Henry Clay Work: Wake Nicodemus (132-34, 142), Marching Through Georgia (184, 187-89, 201-2, 205-6, 253, 254, 262, 264, 276-77); George A. Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (133-34, 168, 210); David Walker (composer), Anonymous (lyricist): Where, O Where Are the Verdant Freshmen? (133-34); Gregorian chant, Lowell Mason (arranger): Hamburg (133-34); Johann G. Naegeli, Lowell Mason (arranger): Naomi (133-34, 154-55); Samuel A. Ward: Materna (134-35); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (135), Lohengrin (227); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (135, 224-28, 266-67); George Washington Dixon or Bob Farrell: Turkey in the Straw (137-38, 166-67, 178-79, 253, 264); Carl Gotthelf Glaser, Lowell Mason (arranger): Azmon (153-54, 156-57, 267); Charles Converse: Erie (153-54); William B. Bradbury: Woodworth (154, 156-57, 274, 275-76), Jesus Loves Me (161-62, 210); Andrew Young, Lowell Mason (arranger): There Is a Happy Land (155); William H. Doane: Old, Old Story (161); Robert Lowry: The Beautiful River (162, 164-65, 273-74), Need (163-66); Ira Sankey: There’ll Be No Dark Valley (164-65); François-Hippolyte Barthélémon: Autumn (166, 273-74); Anonymous: College Hornpipe (Sailor’s Hornpipe) (166-67, 178, 188); Anonymous: Money Musk (166-67, 178-79); Anonymous: The White Cockade (166-67, 178, 188); George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (168, 277); Henry R. Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! (177-78, 180); Anonymous: For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow (178); Anonymous: Fisher’s Hornpipe (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Irish Washerwoman (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Garryowen (178-79, 188); Anonymous: Saint Patrick’s Day (178-79, 188); Edwin P. Christy: Goodnight, Ladies (179, 180); John Francis Wade: Adeste fideles (183-85); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (184, 276-77); William Steffe (composer), Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (184-85, 187-89); Philip Phile (composer), Joseph Hopkinson (lyricist): Hail! Columbia (188, 205, 253, 254, 263); Anonymous: The Girl I Left Behind Me (188); Anonymous: London Bridge (188); John Hatton: Duke Street (191-93); Henry K. Oliver: Federal Street (191-93); Anonymous: The British Grenadiers (203-6); Ives: Overture and March “1776” (203-4), Country Band March (203-4, 236, 264, 276), Ragtime Dances (210, 283), Emerson Overture (218, 228-29), Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England (236, 264, 276), Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (257, 273-74), The Celestial Railroad (257, 258), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-1860 (257, 258, 263), String Quartet No. 1 (257, 265-66), String Quartet No. 2 (257, 267), A Song—for Anything (273), Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano (273-74), Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano (273-74), Symphony No. 3: The Camp Meeting (274, 275-76); Anonymous: Arkansas Traveler (205); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (205, 264); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (206, 276); Isaac B. Woodbury: Dorrnance (207-9, 266-67); Edward S. Ufford: Throw Out the Life-Line (210, 262, 263); Anonymous: Happy Day (210); Lewis Hartsough: Welcome Voice (210, 266); James P. Webster: In the Sweet By-and-By (211-14, 260, 262-63); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (224, 236-7, 262, 263-64, 267); Anonymous: Loch Lomond (227); A. F. Winnemore: Stop That Knocking at My Door (227); Dan Emmet: Dixie (253, 276-77); William Crotch: Westminster Chimes (255-56, 260, 266-67); William G. Tomer: God Be With You (262); Handel, Lowell Mason (arranger): Antioch (Joy to the World) (266); Handel: Saul (274-75); Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (276, 283); Anonymous (composer), James Ryder Randall (lyricist): Maryland, My Maryland (276-77); George M. Cohan: Over There (277); Oley Speaks: On the Road to Mandalay (282)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The tradition surrounding the L’homme armé tune is an example of musical imitatio. There is little consensus in musicological literature over a precise description of the relationship between musical borrowing and imitatio, a literary concept with roots in rhetoric. Opinions on the matter are so varied that some, Honey Meconi and Rob Wegman in particular, find little value in the term. Nevertheless Meconi’s and Wegman’s conclusions are drawn from an overly constricted conception of what was a widely varied, complex, and hotly debated concept in the Renaissance. There were, in fact, three general types of imitatio that Renaissance literary theorists discussed: non-transformative, transformative, and dissimulative. The last of these three included an element of competition between a work at its model, through which a writer attempted to surpass his or her predecessors to achieve fame and glory. A discussion of competition of this type, though never by the name imitatio, is present in writings about music, particularly dealing with the L’homme armé tradition. Many composers use the tune as a cantus firmus in mass movements, and with it each seems to demonstrate their technical skill through mensural manipulations, extravagant transpositions, or the canonic treatment of the tune. Josquin’s two masses, the first of this tradition to be published by Petrucci in 1502, seem to consciously compete with settings of this tune by earlier composers, and composers that came later seem to consciously compete with Josquin’s settings. The goal of this competitive relationship between these composers coincides with the goal associated with eristic imitatio in the Renaissance and thus may be comprehended as musical imitatio.

Works: Josquin: Missa L’homme armé super voces musicales (269-77), Missa L’homme armé sexti toni (269, 277-81); La Rue: Missa L’homme armé (281-82); Obrecht: Missa L’homme armé (268-69); Forestier: Missa L’homme armé (282-83); Morales: Missa L’homme armé (284-85); Palestrina: Missa L’homme armé (284-86).

Sources: Anonymous: L’homme armé (262-63); Josquin: Missa L’homme armé super voces musicales (281-83, 285-86 ), Missa L’homme armé sexti toni (284-85); Regis: Missa L’homme armé (263-70); Busnoys: Il sera pour vous conbatu/L’homme armé (263), Missa L’homme armé (263-69); Ockeghem: Missa L’homme armé (263-69); Du Fay: Missa L’homme armé (263-69); De Orto: Missa L’homme armé (285-86).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Analysis of visual and musical elements of Michael Jackson's video for his song Black or White reveals it as a series of intertextual references that generate meaning through allusions to aspects of popular culture. Intertextuality is defined according to Gerard Genette's theories of transtextuality and therefore is taken to be a relationship between "two or more texts existing or showing their presence within a work," including quotation, plagiarism, and allusion as types of intertextuality. In every scene of the video, intertextual references can be found, including the use of quintessential heavy metal guitar and drum sounds, cinematic allusions to Hitchcock and the film Raising Arizona, evocation of the militant political groups the Black Panthers as Jackson morphs into a panther, a rhythmic reference to Buddy Rich drum solos, and the inclusion of a brief section of rap.

Works: Bill Botrell and Michael Jackson: Black or White.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Billie Holiday was quoted as saying that she wanted the “feeling” of Bessie Smith with the “style” of Louis Armstrong. Two Holiday songs, Tain’t Nobody’s Biz-ness if I Do and I Gotta Right to Sing the Blues, serve as clear homages respectively to Smith and Armstrong, each of whom recorded the songs well before Holiday. Both the style and feeling are identifiable by three vocal metrics: quality (dynamics/intensity), space (range/range-based timbre), and articulation (enunciation/rhythmic emphasis). Detailed transcriptions of the Smith, Armstrong, and Holiday recordings of these song, including dynamics, bending of pitches, and rhythmic manipulation show not only that Holiday was strongly influenced by her predecessors, but also that elements of vocal quality, space, and articulation that Holiday actively wanted to emulate appear in her performances of these songs.

Works: Porter Grainger and Everett Robbins (composers) and Billie Holiday (performer): Tain’t Nobody’s Biz-ness if I Do; Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler (composers) and Billie Holiday (performer): I Gotta Right to Sing the Blues.

Sources: Porter Grainger and Everett Robbins (composers) and Bessie Smith (performer): Tain’t Nobody’s Biz-ness if I Do; Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler (composers) and Louis Armstrong (performer): I Gotta Right to Sing the Blues.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

A benefit performance for Handel on March 28, 1738, contained a composition advertised solely as An Oratorio. The mixture of English and Italian texts in this work continues Handel's practice in the preceding years of using texts in the native language of whatever singers happened to be available. Although Handel routinely assembled self-pasticcio operas in the 1730s, the 1738 Oratorio seems to be the only occasion in which he did this in oratorio form. Handel's pasticcio operas are listed in the appendix to HWV as A1 to A14, and A15 is used for instrumental minuets derived from opera arias; the 1738 Oratorio is worthy of inclusion as A16.

Works: Handel: An Oratorio (1738) (passim), Israel in Egypt (18, 33-24, 36), Esther (23, 37), Athalia, HWV 52 (27).

Sources: Handel: Chapel Royal Anthem, HWV 251c (17, 33), Athalia, HWV 52 (17-18, 21, 33, 35), Deborah, HWV 51 (22, 29, 34-37), My heart is inditing (22-24), Esther, HWV 50 (23-24, 33-34, 36-37), Silete Venti, HWV 242/3 (33-34), Cecilia volgi un sguardo, HWV 89 (37), Carco sempre di Gloria, HWV 87 (37), Coronation Anthem, HWV 258 (37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Analysis of the first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in D major Op. 18, No. 3 (1798-1800) reveals an intriguing use of a VII# chord at the end of the development and its interaction with, and impact on, other passages in this and in the third movement. Haydn also utilized VII# or a VII#-V progression at the end of developments in more than a dozen sonata-form and sonata-rondo-form movements, including his Piano Trio No. 16 in D major. Haydn's relatively prominent use of VII#, notably in movements in D major, anticipated and influenced Beethoven's Op. 18, No. 3. Both Haydn's and Beethoven's exploitation of that device serves dramatic purposes at similar locations in the piece and exploits related chromatic motives.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in D Major, Op. 18, No. 3 (295-301, 308-10).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 66 in B flat Major (302), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 54, No. 1 (303), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 1 (303), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, Hob. XVI:25 (303), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (303), Piano Trio in F Major, Hob. XV:6 (304), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 20, No. 4 (304), Symphony No. 93 in D Major, (305, 306), Piano Trio in E Minor, Hob. XV:12 (305, 307), Trio for Piano, Flute (or Violin) and Strings in D Major, Hob. XV:16 (307-9).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

There are many musical similarities between Forest's Quam, Tota pulcra and Dunstable's Quam pulcra es. Assuming that the Dunstable motet was the model for the Forest motet, an investigation of borrowing procedures can ensue. Both motets are Marian antiphons that comprise texts from the Song of Songs; consequently there are many textual similarities between the two pieces. In terms of musical similarities, both pieces are English declamation motets, which feature homorhythmic textures. Harmonically, both pieces include a series of parallel first-inversion chords and similar dissonance treatment. The formal structure of Tota resembles that of Quam, and the motets feature similar mensural changes, yet melodic embellishments disguise some of the correspondences. Furthermore, both motets open with three voices in unison, which is unique among the fifteenth-century repertoire. Another striking textural similarity between the two pieces is the unvaried three-part texture, which is unlike the changing textures of many other fifteenth-century motets. Despite differences in tonalities, the pieces share similar harmonic and tonal movement in part. There are also a significant number of melodic parallelisms in the motets. These similarities point toward classifying the Forest motet as an early example of parody technique.

Works: Forest: Quam, Tota pulcra (245-56).

Sources: Dunstable: Quam pulcra es (245-56).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Any study of musical borrowing in the early fifteenth century can be useful in its ability to highlight both preferred compositional practices and possible biographical connections between composers. The musical and textual parallels between Power's motet Anima mea liquefacta est and its model, Binchois's chanson De plus en plus, show a careful integration of pre-existing musical material into a new musical context. Power's adaptation of the chanson melody ranges from nearly literal quotation to extensive paraphrase, and includes large-scale structural modeling. Textual similarities between these two works suggest that it may have been the text, more than any musical considerations, which prompted Power to choose De plus en plus as his model, and a recognition of these textual correlations is necessary for a full appreciation of Anima mea.

Works: Power: Anima mea liquefacta est (55-72).

Sources: Binchois: De plus en plus (55-72).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Busoni's "young classicism" views music as a simultaneous mixture of old and new styles, "the mastery, the sifting and the turning to account of all the gains of previous experiments and their inclusion in strong and beautiful forms." He believed (pp. 85-95, 150-51) that Liszt's operatic fantasies are different from the "plebeian pot-pourri" and that the transcription is a legitimate art form, because (1) Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, and Brahms wrote quality transcriptions, (2) notation itself is the transcription of an abstract idea, (3) performances are all transcriptions, (4) some great compositions sound like transcriptions, and (5) transcriptions are like variations, which also change original music.

Works: Liszt: Don Juan Fantasy (89-95), transcription of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique (151).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Analysis of Oswald’s contrafacta reveals the function of memory in the reworking of polyphonic models. Most composers of polyphony in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were musically literate and familiar with mensural notation. Minnesinger Oswald von Wolkenstein (c. 1376-1445) was active among nobles who valued written works, but his training as a knight would not have prioritized literacy. Scholars have not previously focused on compositional process but rather the tradition of polyphonic transmission; examining Oswald’s output can shed light on his unique compositional and memory devices. His borrowed chansons would have been performed from memory rather than notation, and after he had learned a tenor line, Oswald would compose poetry and dictate to his scribe. The transformations between the models and his songs reveal a preference for strophic forms and memorable texts. Generally considered the inventor of the “Tenorlied ,” Oswald recast the tenor voice as the melody, leaving its original contour unaltered. He also consistently eliminated the countertenor and transformed melismatic lines into syllabic ones. Oswald’s compositions were notated either in a simple version of one or two voices, or in fuller polyphonic settings by a musically literate person with access to a copy of the model chanson. This investigation emphasises the great importance of memory and oral compositional practice in Oswald’s works. His process for creating contrafacted tenor lieder can be described as secondary orality, and illustrates how writing changed but did not replace oral tradition during the late Middle Ages.

Works: Oswald von Wolkenstein: O wuniklichter, wolgezierter mai (165), Wol auf, wir wollen slafen (165–67, 175), Stand auf, Maradel (168–69), Frölich, zärtlich, lieplich und klärlich, lustlich, stille, leise (169–77).

Sources: Binchois: Triste Plaisir et douloureuse joye (165); Anonymous: En tes douz flans (164–75).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart, Chelsey Belt, Maria Fokina

Artistic authenticity is a central concern in the genre of rock music. "Covering" previously recorded songs directly involves rock and popular bands' rendering of a cover song as either authentic or artificial (inauthentic). Two cover songs by the Pet Shop Boys exemplify two opposing notions of authenticity. Their cover of U2's Where the Streets Have No Name casts the original version as artificial, as the Pet Shop Boys ignore the original song's emphasis on individuality, undermine the structural importance of motivic elements, recast the song in a quasi-disco style, and make other significant musical changes. On the other hand, the Pet Shop Boys' version of Go West heightens the authenticity of the Village People's version. The song evokes the climate of "1970s urban gay culture," with an emphasis on community and the freedom to be liberated by going west. The Pet Shop Boys' cover not only recaptures the Village People's message, placing it in its 1970s pre-AIDS culture, but also uses musical devices to also evoke the song's new context in an post-AIDS culture. For example, the interaction among the musicians seems more formally restrained, which resembles the heightened sense of caution members of the gay community must take in an AIDS-stricken world. Ultimately, the Pet Shop Boys' Go West celebrates the history of gay culture and casts the Village People's version as authentic.

Works: Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Where the Streets Have No Name as performed by the Pet Shop Boys (4-7); Henri Belolo, Jacques Morali, and Victor Willis: Go West as performed by the Pet Shop Boys (7-15).

Sources: Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Where the Streets Have No Name (2-6); Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio: Can't Take My Eyes Off You as performed by Frankie Valli and by Boystown Gang (5-6); Henri Belolo, Jacques Morali, and Victor Willis: Go West (7-12); Pachelbel: Canon in D (13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Refrains are elements which repeat not just within a particular piece, but also from work to work. This includes repeating between different genres, and sometimes appearing in different contexts. The persistent question that has long perplexed scholars is how exact a repetition of a refrain needs to be before it can be considered a refrain. Varying meters, rhythms, and melodies sometimes obscure an appearance of a refrain in a specific work, as in Adam de la Halle's Rondeau 72. In this work as in many others, in order to consider a specific passage a repetition of a specific refrain, precise similarities of both verbal and musical patterns must be present.

Works: Adam de la Halle: Rondeau 72 (5-7, 13-17); Motet: Que ferai, biaus sire Dieus?/Ne puet faillir a honour/Descendentibus (5-7), Ne sai ou confort trover/Que por moi reconforter/Et spera bit (5-7); Jacquemart Giélée: Renart le nouvel (5-7, 13-17); Tibaut: Le roman de la poire (5-7, 21).

Sources: Refrain: Hareu, li maus d'amer m'ochist! (5-17).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Borrowed refrains play a central role in the Roman de Fauvel. As pieces borrow from one another, old pieces are transformed from one genre to another and are given new verbal and musical coloring. Amour don't tele est la puissance is essentially a dit á refrains on the model of Jacquemart Giélée's Renart le Nouvel, and in fact borrows three entire refrains from this source. Han Diex ou pourrai je trouvei is made up of the fourteen-line motetus split into fragments from Nevelon d'Amieus's Dit d'Amour. A surprising amount of both refrain music and text contributed significantly to this manuscript, as is illustrated by a complete catalogue.

Works: Ballade: Douce dame debonaire (106), Ay amours tant me dure (106), Amour don't tele est la puissance (110), Han Diex ou pourrai je trouvei (111-12), La Complainte Douteuse (125-26).

Sources: Roman de Fauvel (110-31); Jacquemart Giélée: Renart le Nouvel (110-11); Nevelon d'Amiens: Dit d'Amour (111-12).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley