Mozart did not create music wholly anew for every work, but in some cases reused material in various genres. Die Zauberflöte is especially marked by affinities with the works of Mozart's own past. Pamina's aria, "Ach, ich fühl's," is related to the Trennungslied, K. 519, the String Quintet in G Minor K. 516, and the Piano Concerto K. 466. The melody in the Adagio introduction to Act II Scene 28 and its variant in the final chorus (Act II Scene 30) are related to some seventeen other works by Mozart. The two complexes of related melodies are most likely the result of Mozart's conscious practice of "the technique of composing and arranging melodic units with formular intent."

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Liszt’s large output of piano transcriptions reflects the demands of his virtuoso career as well as his lifelong interest in other composers’ music. When transcribing various marches by Franz Schubert, Liszt, in keeping with his usual practice, made several modifications in his adaptations. He often moved beyond the simple ternary forms of the originals, usually by adding large-scale codas based on the theme from the marches’ trio sections. Additionally, Liszt frequently added new thematic material in his arrangements, sometimes borrowed from other Schubert marches, other times newly composed. Several movements from Schuberts Märsche, orchestriert v. Liszt, R. 449/S. 363—later arranged for piano four-hands as Vier Märsche von F. Schubert, R. 354/S. 632—are especially notable, as they contain newly-composed transitions that enhance the latent “Hungarian” quality of Schubert’s original pieces, while also linking the large sections of a march together to create a more organically unified piece.

Works: Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert, R. 250/S. 425 (135, 137, 140-41), Schuberts Märsche für das Pianoforte Solo, R. 251/S. 426 (135-39, 142-44), Schuberts Märsche, orchestriert v. Liszt, R. 449/S. 363 [Vier Märsche von F. Schubert R. 354/S. 632] (135-37, 142-45).

Sources: Schubert: Divertissement à la hongroise, D. 818 (135, 145), Six Grandes Marches, D. 819 (135, 142-43), Deux marches caractérisques, D. 886/D. 968b (135, 142-43), Grande Marche Funèbre, D. 859 (135, 142).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Many of Mahler's motives and themes remind us of preexisting musical phrases. They sound familiar already at their first appearance. The musicologist makes it his task to locate these allusions. It is, however, impossible or at least misleading to attempt this. These seemingly borrowed excerpts are rather Mahler's attempt to evoke a "colloquial" sound (umgangssprachlicher Ton) or the impression of déjà vu. The use of military fanfares and posthorns should not be interpreted as quotation, even if Mahler consciously quoted one. What is important is the meaning of the fanfare or the posthorn according to the context in which it is found, not as a quotation but as an event. Eggebrecht, however, also discusses the obvious reuses of material such as "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" (from the Wunderhorn-Lieder) in the Second Symphony and "Oft denk' ich, sie sind nur ausgegangen" (from the Kindertotenlieder) in the Ninth. All three aspects are of importance for the interpretation and understanding of Mahler's works and enable the author to explain their meaning.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1500s

[Notes thematic resemblances between works. Challenged by Jan LaRue, "Significant and Coincidental Resemblance Between Classical Themes," Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (Summer 1961): 224-34.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

In a full-length discussion of Schubert's life and music, the author mentions numerous examples of the composer's borrowing, both from works of other composers and from his own previous works. As might be expected, Schubert's early years of compositional development contain the most instances of formal and thematic modeling of the music of others; perhaps surprisingly, Mozart seems to have been a more pervasive source than Schubert's immediate predecessor Beethoven. In his mature works, Schubert borrows less from others, while placing greater emphasis on the reuse of his own material, particularly the songs. Yet borrowing formal procedures from other composers (particularly Beethoven) continues to be an important practice of Schubert until the end of his life and can be seen even in such late works as the last three piano sonatas.

Works: Schubert: Fantasia for Four Hands, 1811 (29), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (36), Der Teufels Lustchloss (50), Mass in F Major (56, Rondo in D Major for Violin and Piano, Op. 70 (76, 275), Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major (86), Symphony No. 4 in C Minor ("Tragic") (108), Fantasia in C Major ("Wanderer") (143), Fugue for Four Hands, 1828 (152), Rondo in D Major for Four Hands, 1818 (153), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 29 (167, 214), Impromptu, Op.90 (173), Impromptu, Op.142 (214), Suleika I D. 720 (193), Divertissement à la Hongroise, D 818 (242), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 845 (247), Piano Sonata in D Major, D. 850 (250), String Quartet in D Minor, D. 810 (254), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (256), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (286), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D. 960 (287), Mass in E-flat Major (298).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

The Italian madrigal developed during the sixteenth century as generations of composers contributed layers of innovation, beginning with its earliest manifestation as the frottola and culminating in its final form, the madrigale concertato. Composers utilized various methods of musical borrowing and reworking, including crafting arrangements, creating intabulations, parodying pre-existing works (sometimes for comedic purposes), modeling upon other compositions and styles, and quoting from other pieces. Musicians converted the madrigal into a piece for solo voice with accompaniment, such as Francesco Bossinensis’s arrangements for voice and lute. Similarly, intabulations were adaptations of madrigals for solo keyboard or lute. Most parodies were crafted for humorous reasons, such as Antonfrancesco Doni’s Il bianco e dolce cigno, which incorporated into its parody of Arcadelt’s madrigal by the same name a hundred segments of melody from madrigals by numerous composers, including Arcadelt, Verdelot, and Festa. Certain composers, such as Gesualdo and Monteverdi, modeled compositions upon the works or the style of their predecessors and peers, and their compositions, in turn, served as models for others. Quotations connected new compositions to previous ones for several reasons: (1) honoring the original composer, (2) establishing a rivalry, or (3) preserving street, folk, and popular songs within the newly-composed madrigal. Musical borrowing and reworking, then, unified the developing madrigal art form as it matured in the hands of many diverse composers.

Works: Anonymous: Che debb’io far che mi consigli Amore in MS. Magl. XIX, 164-167 (National Library in Florence), No. XXXVI (106); Francesco Bossinensis: Che debb’io far che mi consigli Amore in Tenori e contrabassi (106), Tenori e contrabassi intabulati col sopran in canto figurato per cantar e sonar col lauto, Libro primo and Libro secundo (106-7, 128); Willaert: Quanto sia liet’ il giorno (250-52); Andrea Gabrieli: Anchor che col partire (374); Cambio Perissone: Canzone Villanesche alla napolitana (443); Palestrina: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (591-92); Jacopo da Nola: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (591); Giovanni Francesco Capuano: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (591); Marenzio: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (592), Dolorosi martir, fieri tormenti (615), La rete fu di queste fila d’oro (643), Due rose fresche (643-44), Basciami, mille volte (644); Giovanni Ferretti: Hor va, canzone mia, non dubitare (595-96); Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck: Liquide perle Amor (614-15); Benedetto Pallavicino: Liquide perle Amor in Quinto libro a cinque (615); Antonio Barrè, “aria” of Bradamante from Orlando furioso in Il primo libro delle Muse: Madrigali ariosi di Antonio Barrè et altri (645); Ghiselino Danckerts: heroine’s oath of fidelity from Orlando furioso in Il primo libro delle Muse: Madrigali ariosi di Antonio Barrè et altri (645); Giordano Passetto: Audi bone persone in Villotta alla padoana con quatro parte (750); Girolamo Belli d’Argenta: I furti (754-56); Monteverdi: Cruda Amarilli (852).

Sources: Tromboncino: Che debb’io far che mi consigli Amore (105); Verdelot: Quanto sia liet’ il giorno (250-52); Domenico Ferrabosco: Baciami vita mia in De diversi autori il quarto libro de madrigali a 4 voci a note bianche (311); Cipriano de Rore: Anchor che col partire (374); Adrian Willaert: Canzone Villanesche alla napolitana (443); Anonymous: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (591); Palestrina: Io son ferito e chi mi punse il core (591-92, 643); Anonymous: Hor va, canzone mia, non dubitare in Quattro libri delle Villotte (595-96); Marenzio: Liquide perle Amor (614-15), Cruda Amarilli (852); Marc’Antonio Ingegneri: Dolorosi martir fieri tormenti in Il terzo libro de madrigali . . . con due canzoni francese (615); Andrea Gabrieli: Due rose fresche (643-44); Anonymous, folk arias to Ariosto’s verses from Orlando furioso (645); Stefano Rossetto: Il lamento di Olimpia (645); Anonymous: Voltate in qua e do bella Rosina, Damene un poco de quella fugacina (750); Anonymous [Guglielmo Gonzaga]: Villotte mantovane (753); Benedetto Pallavicino: Cruda Amarilli (853).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Gregorian chant was a rich source of inspiration for Josquin. About half of his motets (ca. 50 pieces) incorporate traditional Gregorian melodies. The chants used most often are antiphons and sequences. Eighteen different antiphons can be found in Josquin's antiphon motets, including the four great Marian antiphons, of which he uses Ave Maria three times and the others each twice. He incorporates nine sequences wholly or in part, using two of them twice, Inviolata and Victimae paschali laudes. The motets may be classed in six groups: groups I and II comprise motets in which the chant is clearly recognizable because its text differs from that of the motet and because it is treated as a cantus firmus in long note values (sometimes treated canonically as well); groups III through V comprise motets in which the text in all voices is that of the chant, whether it is treated canonically, as a migrant cantus firmus, or as a paraphrase; and group VI consists of fifteen motets which do not fit into any of the preceding groups.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

The musical funeral lament is a genre that is prone to the use of musical symbolism. Musical signs can take one of three forms. They can be icons, musical objects that have a close relationship with their meaning (such as word painting); indices, musical objects that are more removed from their meaning; or symbols, musical objects that must be decoded to comprehend. The most common type of musical index in funeral dirges is a quotation from another musical source. Most of these works draw on the Mass for the Dead through the use of various chants, like Requiem aeternam or Dies irae. Often composers transposed these chant segments into the Phrygian mode so as to reflect the character of the work. In so doing, composers reveal that these works are not only laments for the deceased but also prayers on their behalf. In addition, some composers borrow from non-chant sources in a gesture of homage. Josquin’s Absolve, quaesumus Domine, for example, borrows from Obrecht’s Missa Fortuna desperata and was perhaps composed to honor Obrecht at his death.

Works: Josquin: Absolve, quaesumus Domine (39), Nymphes des bois (39); Gombert: Musae Jovis (39); Obrecht: Mille quingentis (40); Isaac: Quis dabit capiti meo aquam (40-41).

Sources: Obrecht: Missa Fortuna desperata (39, 43); Ockeghem: Missa Cuiusvis toni (39); Josquin: Domine, exaudi orationem meam (39); Anonymous: Requiem aeternam (40); Anonymous: Dies irae (40); Anonymous: Salva nos, Domine (40).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

An evolutionary view of the development of the imitation mass should be revised in favor of an approach that accounts for particular techniques a composer used and how his incorporation of new and borrowed material contributed to his own style. In the mid-sixteenth-century chanson masses of Nicolas Gombert, Clemens non Papa, Thomas Crecquillon, and Pierre de Manchicourt, compositional techniques such as cantus firmus, ostinato, and paraphrase methods were not novel in themselves but were interwoven in ways that transformed older conventions. Instead of controlling the entire structure through one particular approach, composers used cantus firmus and paraphrase technique as short-term procedures within the imitation mass. The following techniques are representative of compositional borrowing within chanson masses of the period: cantus firmus, ostinato and derived techniques, motivic rescaffolding, partial scaffolding, block structuring, block restructuring, block manipulation, block interpolation, and varied block reiteration. Of these techniques, cantus firmus, block interpolation, partial scaffolding, and varied block reiteration provide new insights into the compositional procedure. With cantus firmus technique, composers such as Gombert and Manchicourt integrated the borrowed material into the contrapuntal fabric and accommodated material written in any fashion from any style of model. Crecquillon utilized several structural methods for variety: (1) block interpolation, inserting sections of chanson material throughout the mass; (2) partial scaffolding, in which he fragmented a segment of the chanson, rearranged its parts, and wrote points of imitation around various components; and (3) varied block reiteration, rearranging blocks of chanson material without adding additional counterpoint. These examples illustrate the need for analysis based on compositional process, one that accounts for the difference in composer styles. A comparison of Palestrina's and Gombert's masses based on Je suis desheritée shows the stylistic preferences of both composers: Palestrina declaimed the text clearly and constructed a counter-theme equal in weight to the main borrowed theme; Gombert adhered more literally to the chanson and retained its original rhythms. This example suggests that the next stage in research on borrowing procedures may be to focus on the role of the text and how it determined stylistic decisions. Codifying diverse compositional techniques will help us understand how the same borrowed passages can be transformed and how a particular setting of a chanson is emblematic of a composer's style.

Works: Gombert: Missa Je suis desheritée (154-57, 171-76), Missa Sur tous regrets (154), Missa Fors seulement (153-54, 157-59); Crecquillon: Missa Doulce memoire (161-65), Missa Mort m'a privé (165-67), Missa D'amours me plains (165-70); Palestrina: Missa Je suis desheritée (171-76).

Sources: Pipelare: Fors seulement (154, 157-59); Cadéac: Je suis desheritée (154-57, 171-72); Févin: Fors seulement (154, 157); Richafort: Sur tous regrets (154); Sandrin: Doulce memoire (161-65); Crecquillon: Mort m'a privé (165-66); Pathie: D'amours me plains (165-70); Gombert: Missa Je suis desheritée (175-76).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The Josquin attribution and the proposed Richafort authorship of the Missa Quem dicunt homines are reexamined by means of a comparison of the formal features and imitative techniques of the imitation Masses of Josquin and Richafort with those of the Missa Quem dicunt homines. Aspects of the Elevation motet inserted within the Mass suggest Févin as yet another possibility. The examination reveals, however, that Josquin, Richafort, and Févin are not viable candidates for authorship. The Mass was probably composed before 1518 and was perhaps written by a member of the French court chapel of Louis XII, Anne de Bretagne, or Francis I.

Works: Attributed to Josquin: Missa Quem dicunt homines; Josquin: Missa D'ung aultre amer (90-91), Missa Malheur me bat (88, 90-91), Missa Fortuna desperate (90-91), Missa Mater Patris (90-91); Richafort: Missa O Genitrix (93-95), Missa Veni Sponsa Christi (93-95); Févin: Missa Parva (97-99), Missa Dictes moy toutes voz pensées (102), Missa Ave Maria (102), Missa Mente tota (102), Missa Sancta Trinitas (102).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

Index Classifications: 1700s

In Petrushka (1911), Renard (1915-16), and The Soldier's Tale (1917-18), Stravinsky uses abstraction and parody to create new dramaturgical forms and musical meanings. The use of abstraction and the view of musical forms (such as ragtime) as archetypes not only affected Stravinsky's style in the 1914-17 period but also paved the way toward his neoclassical style, where it was transformed from mere irony to stylization of the musical material.

Works: Stravinsky: Petrushka,Renard,The Soldier's Tale.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

The myth that the black spiritual was completely derived from white folk hymns is one of the most pervasive in the literature about black folk music. Early studies of black folk music such as Richard Wallaschek's Primitive Music (1893) and George Pullen Jackson's White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands (1933) relied solely on transcriptions, a process which does not account for performative and aural contexts of folk music. In effect, these studies mistakenly equated transcriptions with the music as it was performed and thus tacitly assumed that any deviation from the diatonic scale was due to a performer's misinterpretation of music of white origins. These analyses do not account for the process of syncretism which had to have taken place between African- and European-derived musical elements in the development of the black spiritual.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Index Classifications: 1800s

Mozart's concertos-pastiches K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, and K. 41 were viewed as original compositions until 1908 when Wyzewa and Saint-Foix discovered that they borrowed from sonatas by "Parisian" clavichordists such as Raupach, Schobert, Hannauer, Eckard, and C. P. E. Bach. Since then they have been excluded from the canon of Mozart's original works. The notion of plagiarism in the eighteenth century was not clearly based on the ownership of a text, and composers shared the same musical language and style. Mozart's imitations are a natural procedure during his apprenticeship years, and a gradual development from straight arrangement, through more elaborate reworking, and finally to relative autonomy is exemplified in the three sets of piano concertos examined.

Works: Mozart: 3 Piano Concertos K. 107 (118-121), Piano Concertos K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, K. 41 (121-32), Piano Concerto K. 175 (132-38).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Donizetti’s turn toward gothic opera subjects in the late 1830s included a spate of self-borrowing, a compositional practice that resembles gothic concepts of corporeality and reanimation of the dead. Two operas from 1838, Maria de Rudenz and Gabriella di Vergy, exemplify this gothic attitude as both plots deal with the hidden or supernatural forces that animate our bodies. In the finale of Maria de Rudenz, after being stabbed, the title character appears to her rival as (he assumes) a ghost, accompanied by eerie musical signifiers of the supernatural. As she reveals herself to be alive and exacts her revenge, Donezetti uses the unusual technique of rewriting (reanimating) the cantabile melody in the cabaletta, blurring the lines between life and death, love and revenge. Gabriella, written in about a month after a cool reception to Maria, repurposes musical material from the earlier opera, including Maria’s cabaletta from the finale. In the final scene of Gabriella, the titular heroine discovers the still-warm heart of her lover in his funeral urn and sings a reworking of Maria’s cabaletta. In contrast to Maria embodying the supernatural, Gabriella is placed in a dialogue with the supernatural. Supernatural elements resonate throughout the finale with echoes of earlier music in addition to the resurrected cabaletta from Maria. The gothic trope of echoes and repetition becomes a way to understand Donizetti’s self-borrowing outside of a purely utilitarian framework.

Works: Donizetti: Gabriella di Vergy (99-106)

Sources: Donizetti: Maria de Rudenz (99-106)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Understanding the logic behind the refrain cento, which is the combination of frequently unrelated texts in succession in all the voices of a motet, has long evaded scholars. Finding a relationship between texts or a reason for their use has been difficult. Often, texts are combined that have no narrative relation to each other. Examining the motet Qui amours veut maintenir/ Li dous pensers/ Cis, a cui provides evidence that the refrain cento in fact acted as a structural and unifying device through lexical repetitions and phonetic patterns, even when no apparent narrative logic exists. The tenor is created through these techniques. Then, the upper voices are generated based on the linguistic sounds produced in this lowest voice. Since this piece behaves in a manner common to the majority of French motets utilizing the refrain cento, it can be said that this technique is used to create the structure of the piece and unify all aspects of it.

Works: Motet: Qui amours veut maintenir/Li dous pensers/Cis, a cui (187-97).

Sources: Chansons: Salut d'Amours, Renart le Nouvel, Suite Anonyme de la 'Court d'Amours' (189).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

After Tchaikovsky's death the famous choreographer Marius Petipa rearranged the numbers of the composer's ballet Swan Lake for a revival performance. He felt that some additional numbers were necessary and borrowed them from Tchaikovsky's Piano Pieces, Op. 72, namely "L'Espiègle" (no. 12), "Valse Bluette" (no. 11), and "Un poco di Chopin" (no. 15). These pieces were probably orchestrated by Riccardo Drigo, the conductor of the performances at the Marynsky Theater in 1894 (Act II only) and 1895.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Swan Lake (192f.).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Evidence suggests that the trope evolved independently of the prosa and other additions to the liturgy. For example, the existence of poetic trope texts suggests that they were new compositions, both in text and music, while the prosa is created by adding words to an existing melody, and is inevitably in prose. This challenges the "St. Gall theory" of the origin of troping, which argues that the trope, like the prosa, arose through the process of supplying texts to melismatic additions that had previously been made to the official chant. This theory fails on three counts: (1) it is based only on three St. Gall tropers, and does not consider all of the earliest tropers; (2) it suggests four stages of development, but traces of the "intermediate steps" are lacking in all but the St. Gall tropers; and (3) it assumes that trope lines must be extensions of lines of chant, whereas the evidence, such as the use of connective expressions or striking melodic figures, suggests that they developed as introductions. The precise date and place of the origin of troping are uncertain, but since the earliest tropers give evidence of a primitive trope repertory, it must have received considerable development in the ninth century.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Due to his formal musical training and informal musical upbringing, Billy Joel was equally adept at incorporating both classical and popular styles in his songs depending on the expressive context of the lyrics. Many of his songs deliberately quote popular tunes, while others are either modeled after specific songs, especially by the Beatles, or are modeled after the general style of different popular artists (as shown in the appendix). Likewise, Joel was known to quote classical works in some of his songs, and many other songs exhibit a harmonic or contrapuntal language reminiscent either of classical style in general or of specific classical composers, especially Chopin. These learned and vernacular styles are exemplified particularly in two songs, James (1976) for the learned style and Laura (1983) for the vernacular style, and the personae of these two titular characters reflect the expressive correlations of their particular musical styles.

Works: Billy Joel: Storm Front (106), Lullabye (Goodnight, My Angel) (106), Modern Woman (106), All You Wanna Do Is Dance (106), C'etait toi (You Were the One) (106), Laura (106, 122-24), The Great Suburban Showdown (106), Uptown Girl (106), Captain Jack (107), Scandinavian Skies (107), A Room of Our Own (107), Just the Way You Are (107), Attila (album) (107), Why Judy Why (107), If I Only Had the Words (To Tell You) (107), 52nd Street (album) (107), This Night (110), Leningrad (110), Souvenir (110), The Ballad of Billy the Kid (111), She's Got a Way (111), James (119-22).

Sources: Harold Arlen: Stormy Weather (106); Duke Ellington: Mood Indigo (106); Ethelbert Nevin: Mighty Lak' a Rose (106); John Lennon and Paul McCartney (songwriters), The Beatles (performers): Rubber Soul (album) (106), Here, There, and Everywhere (106), Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds (107), I Am the Walrus (107), Glass Onion (107), I Will (107), Birthday (107), Her Majesty (107); George Harrison (songwriter), The Beatles (performers): Something (107); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (110); Robert Schumann: Piano Concerto in A Minor, Op. 54 (110); Chopin: Prelude in D-flat Major, Op. 28, No. 15 (110), Prelude in E Minor, Op. 28, No. 4 (111-12); Copland: Appalachian Spring (111).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

György Ligeti’s only opera, Le Grand Macabre (1977, revised 1996), an example of grotesque realism, uses many techniques of parody and collage, though such techniques resist categorization because of the vast array of incorporated procedures. An analysis of Le Grand Macabre works to unveil the work’s narrative and meta-musical implications in relation to these techniques of musical borrowing and the relevant source material, suggesting that the work is governed by two different narrative trajectories. Ligeti’s uses of operatic conventions in this opera are related to specific sources and techniques; such conventions suggest that Ligeti assigns distinctive stylistic or timbral idioms to typecast main characters. For example, a parodic strategy via troping of stylistic types from the lover’s duet (Scene 1), which draws on Monteverdi’s L’incoronazione di Poppea; a second example is Piet the Pot’s “drunken” aria (Scene 1), exemplifies the technique of troping incongruous stylistic topics through abrupt shifts in musical discourses, while drawing on Berg’s Wozzeck. All three scenes in the opera share a parallel construction which culminates in a polymetric or polytemporal collage. In each scene, a trope of chaos and deconstruction is established through these collages, which is offset by either buffa elements or pastoral topics. The expressive states of ludicrousness and horror are explored in tandem, culminating in the third movement where the distinction between these two expressive states becomes increasingly blurred. Le Grand Macabre is in some ways an “anti-opera,” because of its overall narrative of ambivalence, which comes about primarily due to the blurring of expressive states. Thus, the aesthetic of this work is not “postmodern” but is better defined as “oppositional” postmodernism, which is concerned with a critical deconstruction of tradition.

Works: Ligeti: Le Grand Macabre.

Sources: Verdi: Falstaff (34-35); Monteverdi: L’incoronazione di Poppea (36); Berg: Wozzeck (36-37); Gluck: Alceste (43); Stravinsky: l’Histoire du Soldat (43).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Defining the term "conductus" in a manner that works for the entire genre has been elusive. However, this task becomes more manageable by breaking down the conducti into smaller sections and carefully examining the application of their borrowed sections. Two major types of text setting appearing in conducti are musica cum littera and musica sine littera. In the former, most of the text is declaimed, and the music is explainable in terms of the rhythmic modes. Construction of parts in the latter is determined by strictly musical concerns, and only sometimes is the music modal rhythmically. Conducti draw their sources primarily from organum and motets. Notation of musica sine littera sections, as exhibited by Ego reus confiteor, is measured and presented modally and includes a large number of ligatures. This particular conductus consists of three parts, and draws its lowest two parts from three sources from earlier in the thirteenth century. Polyphony flows seamlessly until the musica cum littera section. At this point, notation becomes fully rhythmic and utilizes the first rhythmic mode. This rhythmic change is the main difference between the new work and its borrowed source. Other differences include a high number of elisions and extensions into longa perfectas.

Works: Conductus: Sursum corda (141), Premii dilatio (141), Ego reus confiteor (141, 144, 147-54).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Of all the refrains Friedrich Gennrich and Nico van den Boogaard label as centos only three "can reasonably be considered" as such: La bele m'ocit, Dieus!, Cele m'a s'amour donée, and Cis a cui je sui amie. These centos, however, fulfill completely different functions in the motets connected with them: La bele m'ocit appears as a motetus over the tenor fragment In seculum; Cele m'a s'amour donée appears as a motetus over an almost complete Alleluia and verse Alleluia: Hodie Maria virgo celos ascendit; and Cis a cui je sui amie functions itself as a tenor. For this reason the refrain cento is not to be considered a separate genre--comparable, for example, to the motet enté--but a technique, which can appear in various genres. Some examples of unequivocal intertextuality exist between La bele m'ocit, Dieus and a group of motets from the Montpellier manuscript, and between Cele m'a s'amour donée and the motet Nus ne sait mes maus/Regnat from F-Pn fr. 12615. From these unique examples of intertextuality may be deduced a "self-referential mode of composition."

Works: Works: Centos: Amoureusement mi tient li maus que j'ai,Tout leis enmi les prés,Ja pour longue demourée,La bele m'ocit, Dieus!,Brunete, a cui j'ai mon cuer doné,J'ai les biens d'Amours,Hé! cuer joli,Endurés, endurés les maus d'amer,Amors vaint tout fors,Ja ne mi marierai,Cele m'a s'amour doné,Renvoisiement i vois a mon ami,J'ai fait ami a mon chois,Nus ne sait mes maus s'il n'aime,A vous pens, bele, douce amie,Ne puet faillir a honour,Hé monnier, pourrai ja moudre?,Cis a cui je sui amie,Je l'avrai ou j'i morrai.

Sources: Motets: Hé, Amours, morrai je por celi/Omnes (179-80); En son service amourous/Tant est plaisant/In seculum (184); Nus ne sait mes maus/Regnat (185-86).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The literature that considers the development of the genre of French polyphonic song around 1300 overlooks a collection of motets built on French tenors in the Montpellier Codex (F-MOf H 196), the Turin motet book (I-Tr vari 42), and the Roman de Fauvel (F-Pn fr. 146). Rather than following the style of polyphonic chanson by composers like Adam de la Halle, which includes the near homophonic setting of a single text in all voices, composers of these motets took their ideas from the compositional practices of the early motet, including the conventional treatment of overlapping musical phrases and a polytextual setting. In addition to these features, the upper voices of these motets mirror the structure of their borrowed tenors in a variety of ways and to varying degrees. Throughout this body of motets, two techniques are prominent. The first includes the adopting of the repetitive structure of the tenor in the upper voices, both musically and textually. The second prominent technique composers use to reflect the structure of the tenor in the upper voices is to retain the conventional overlapping of phrases between voices while creating song structures in all three parts.

Works: Anonymous: Tout solas et toute joie/Bone amour/Ne me blasmes (374-80); Anonymous: Dame bele et avenant/Fi, mari/Nus n’iert (380); Anonymous: Par une matinee/O clemencie/D’un joli dart (381-82); Anonymous: Entre Copin et Bourgeois/Je me cuidoie/Bele Ysabelos (382-85); Anonymous: Amours m’a pris/Bien me maine/Riens de vous vaut (382-86); Anonymous: En mai, quant rosier/L’autre jour/Hé, revelle toi (386-87); Anonymous: Au cuer ai un mal/Ja ne m’en repentiray/Jolietement (387-90); Anonymous: Au tans nouvel/Chele m’a tollu ma joie/J’ai fait tout nouvelement (391-93); Anonymous: S’on me regarde/Prennés i garde/Hé, mi enfant (391-98); Anonymous: Je voi douleur/Fauvel nous a fait present/Autant (398-400).

Sources: Anonymous: Ne me blasmes (374-80); Adam de la Halle: Fi, mari (380); Anonymous: O clemencie (381-82); Anonymous: Bele Ysabelos (382-85); Anonymous: Riens de vous vaut (383-86); Anonymous: Hé, revelle toi (386-87); Anonymous: Jolietement (387-90); Anonymous: J’ai fait tout nouvelement (391-93); Anonymous: Hé, mi enfant (391-98).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

The history of the motet is in itself a history of musical borrowing. Many more implications surround this borrowing that go beyond simply comparing the motet with its source. Two of these are historical and musical considerations. In the early twelfth century, clausulae developed into motets in varied manners. With the addition of words, the rhythm, and sometimes the melody, underwent transformations. As poems were inserted into these melodies, words and even entire phrases were altered, as in the motet Doceas hac die/Docebit. Poetic and musical forms did not always share the same form. One form of the motet that utilized a very specific kind of borrowing is the refrain cento. Since the end of the nineteenth century, musicologists studying the thirteenth-century French motet have arrived at widely disparate definitions of the term refrain cento. Some view this procedure as an entire genre while others see it only as a technique within the broader genre of the motet. Examining motets that have been studied by musicologists since the late 1800s reveals the way in which the definition of this term has changed. Upon reevaluation, some pieces recently have been deemed not to embody the characteristics of a refrain cento, while others have been determined to indeed exhibit these traits. The term refrain cento has gone from denoting a genre in which pieces use at least one refrain from an outside source in conjunction with other text and music, to a technique within the genre of the motet which utilizes various refrains from many different sources. In the latter definition, the musical and poetic characteristics contained within the refrain cento are so disparate that they can only constitute a technique, and not a genre.

Works: Motets: Doceas hac die/Docebit (20-24), Nostrum est impletum/Nostrum (28), Salve salus hominum (35-38), Ypocrite pseudopontifices/Velut stella/Et gaudebit (39-40), Veni doctor previe/Veni sancta spiritus (41), Quant revient et fuelle/L'autrier joer/Flos filius eius (43-47), Navrés sui au cuer/Navrés sui pres du cuer/Veritatem (79-81), Méliacin or Le Conte du Cheval de Fust (82), J'ai les biens d'amours/Que ferni, biau sire Dieus?/In speculum (105), Li jalous par tout sunt fustat/Tuit cil qui sunt enamourat/Veritatem (106), Ci mi tient li maus d'amer/Haro! Je n'í puis durer/Omnes (106-7), Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare (107), Ne m'oubliez mie/Domino (108), Ne puet faillir (111-12), Brunete, a cui j'ai mon cuer done (111-12), Hé! monnier (114), Je l'avrai ou j'i morrai (114), Endurez, endurez (114), Renvoisiement i vois a mon ami (114), Tout leis enmi (115-16), La bele mócit, Dieus! (120-22), Cele m'a s'amour donée (120-22), Cis a cui je (120-22), Nus ne sait mes maus (124).

Sources: Clausula: Nostrum (28); Tenor: Flos filius eius (43-47); Refrain: C'est la fin, la fin, que que nus die, j'amerai (66-68), Se j'ai servi longuement/Trop longuement/Pro patribus (68); Motet: En mai, que neist/Domine (68), Ne m'oubliez mie/Domino (69), C'est la jus en la roi/Pro patribus (101), Cele m'a s'amour donée/Qui mon cue, et mon cors a (101-104).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Supernatural metaphors are often used to describe the practice of phonographic sampling in hip-hop music in both complimentary and critical ways. By studying magic as performance by stage magicians (such as Penn and Teller) rather than as supernatural phenomena, new parallels emerge between how the two practices create their effect. Both hip-hop musicians and stage magicians rely heavily on the manipulation of time to command the attention of their audiences. The structure of an effective magic trick and hip-hop sampling are also similar in how they turn ordinary materials into something extraordinary. For example, several tracks by acclaimed producers J Dilla and Madlib introduce a relatively unmodified sample before demonstrating their skill in manipulating the sample. Exerting control over music recordings (which in turn exert a kind of magical control over sound) is recognized by hip-hop producers and audiences alike as a kind of “magical” effect. Stage magic scholars categorize subgenres based on the relationship between methods (materials), effects, frames, and the contract with the audience. Hip-hip sampling can be similarly categorized, particularly when considering the affordances of different sampling technologies. Phonographs allow for “real” documentary capture of sounds, multitrack recordings allow for “hyper-real” sonic illusions, and sampling technologies allow for “meta-real” juxtapositions of illusions. Examples of “meta-real” practice include tracks that create the illusion of live turntablism, which in turn creates illusions by juxtaposing “hyper-real” music recordings. It is perhaps the creation of impossible soundscapes through sampling that makes hip-hop so moving. The experience of conflict between rational belief and experiential “alief” (to use Szabo Gendler’s term) is crucial to the magical quality of hip-hop music.

Works: Gang Starr (producer DJ Premier): Code of the Streets (36), Deadly Habitz (36); J Dilla: Lightworks (37); Madlib (as The Beat Konductah): Filthy (Untouched) (37); KRS-One and Marley Marl: Musika (43-44)

Sources: Melvin Bliss: Synthetic Substitution (36); Monk Higgins: Little Green Apples (36); Beside: Change the Beat (36); Steve Gray: Beverly Hills (36); Raymond Scott: Lightworks (37); Vivien Goldman: Launderette (37); Thom Bell: A Theme for L.A.’s Team (43-44)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet