György Ligeti includes in his opera Le Grand Macabre all the stylistic achievements of his earlier orchestral and chamber music works. Some passages that Ligeti himself calls reflections, not quotations allude to Monteverdi, Mozart, Stravinsky, Rossini, Verdi, or Beethoven. They are not inserted as collage-like citations, but represent a reflective retrospection on the operatic genre.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The five-note theme from Josquin's 1502 Missa La sol fa re mi was borrowed by subsequent composers and used in vocal and instrumental compositions at least until 1626. Examples include vihuelist Diego Pisador's 1552 Fantasia del quarto tono sobre la sol fa re mi, lutenist Albert de Rippe's 1555 Fantasie XVII, Neapolitan composer Rocco Rodio's 1579 Quinta Ricercata, and Girolamo Frescobaldi's 1624 Capriccio sopra la, sol, fa, re, mi. The Bordeney Codex (ca. 1581), an anthology containing instrumental music from the middle of the sixteenth century, contains several anonymous ricercares, one of which uses the Josquin theme. Although the 1581 copy of the Codex does not name the composer of these ricercares, a previously unstudied nineteenth-century copy (Uppsala) attributes them to Neapolitan composer and lutenist Fabrizio Dentice. The case for attributing this ricercare to Dentice is strengthened by the fact that, although the piece is copied in score form (instead of lute tablature), it can be transcribed for lute without adjustment.

Works: Rippe: Fantasie XVII (42-43); Rodio: Quinta Ricercata (42-43); Dentice: Ricercare (37-40, 44-47).

Sources: Josquin: Missa La sol fa re mi (37, 40, 45).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Index Classifications: 1900s

The St. Victor repertory of polyphonic conductus, while peripheral to the Notre Dame manuscripts, may in fact predate them. Instances of alternate texts to the same music, voice exchange in the three-part pieces, and treatment of melismas point to interrelationships between the two schools. Clausulae are borrowed from liturgical texts for use in para-liturgical compositions based on assonance. Using this evidence, the St. Victor manuscript can be assumed to have been compiled from sometime before 1209 to around 1244.

Works: Stella serena (313-17); Veri solis presentia (316); Deduc syon (317, 321); O felix bituria (321, 324-25); Naturas deus regulis (323).

Sources: Ave Maria (313-17); Mater patris (316); Benedicamus domino (317-26).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The term "parody" has a venerable history, going back to Quintilian's Institutio oratoria where it is defined, in Book VI, as an alteration of the text with the intent to alter its meaning. Beginning in Germany in the late seventeenth century, "parody" was generally applied to the alteration or substitution of a song text, usually from a secular to a sacred sense. French usage of the term, beginning with Henri Estienne (1531-1588), began to carry with it musical implications. This broader French definition was also used to draw attention to the original musical models. Generally speaking, the prepositions "post" and "super" were more commonly applied to the use of a musical, as opposed to a textual, model.

The term "contrafactum" originates in post-Classical Latin and has as its nearest English cognate the word "counterfeit." The word is found as a rubric in the Reformation-era Pfullinger Liederhandschrift. Kurt Hennig, in his 1909 book on these songs, uses the term "contrafactum" to describe the recasting of a secular poem as a sacred one. Friedrich Gennrich, writing a decade later, expanded the word to mean "conscious use of any model," and from this point the meaning has broadened to a general category, of which parody, travesty, and the like are sub-categories.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Philip the Chancellor composed two Latin songs, Nitimur in vetitum and Pater sancte, dictus Lotharius using music from two vernacular songs. An analysis of musical borrowing between the songs reveals two French-Latin groups; these are Complex I, Nitimur in vetitum and Quant li rossignols iolis; and Complex II, Pater sancte, dictus Lotharius and Brulé’s trouvère song Douce dame, gres et graces vous rent. While there are no textual connections between the two complexes, and at first glance any relationship seems remote, a musical analysis reveals subtle musical relationships between the four songs. The term “contrafactum” does not convey the nature of musical borrowing between the four songs, because Philip the Chancellor does not substitute one text for another over the same melody. “Parody” is a more appropriate term for Philip’s compositional technique. However, the motivation for composing parodies of his own songs is not clear from this musical analysis. Conscious parody, occasional resemblance, or common practice melodic formulae and formal principles are all possible explanations for the musical similarities between the four songs.

Works: Philip the Chancellor: Nitimur in vetitum (92-97), Pater sancte, dictus Lotharius (95).

Sources: Anonymous: Quant li rossignols iolis (85-86, 90-92); Gace Brulé: Douce dame, gres et graces vous rent (85-92).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

Among the various works in his oeuvre, composer Robin Holloway has both affirmed and denied certain instances of musical borrowing, yet Holloway may use more instances of borrowing then he openly acknowledges. For example, he often uses melodic tags, which are short quotations. When melodic tags share similarities, Holloway can play upon the similarities to make the tags more ambiguous. This technique, which can alter meaning, is called "punning." Another technique, "suppressed vocalization," involves setting poetry to melodic lines and then transferring the melodic lines, without words, to instruments. As listeners we are often unaware of such transferences and can only become aware of them if Holloway admits to using the procedure. These two techniques should also be considered in light of Holloway's narrative and extramusical subjects. For instance, the loose narrative base of William Langland's poem Piers Plowman, an allegory of the world as a working field, in the Fourth Concerto for Orchestra led to Holloway's quotation of Eric Coates's song Calling All Workers. Although quotations of Sheherazade and Daphnis et Chloé in the Fourth Concerto do not share themes with Langland's poem, they are favored works of the concerto's commissioner, Michael Tilson Thomas. Investigating relationships such as these, along with Holloway's various borrowing techniques, will help uncover the multiple layers of and connections between his works.

Works: Robin Holloway: Second Concerto for Orchestra (2-5), Fourth Concerto for Orchestra (2, 6-9), Symphony (3-7).

Sources: Hubert Parry: Jerusalem (3-4); Eduardo di Capua: O sole mio (3); Renato Rascel: Arrivederci Roma (3); Sibelius: Symphony No. 4 in A Minor (3); Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D Major (3-4); Ravel: Daphnis et Chloé (3-4); Richard Strauss: Salome (3-4), Elektra (3-4); Elgar: "Nimrod," Enigma Variations (3-4); Scriabin: Poem of Ecstasy (3-4); Debussy: Jeux (3-4), La Mer (3-4); Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 7 (3-4); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (3-4); Robin Holloway: First Concerto for Orchestra (5), En Blanc et Noir (6); Rimsky-Korsakov, Sheherazade (6); Eric Coates, Calling All Workers (6).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Dufay's L'Homme armé Mass more than likely predates Busnoys's setting, contrary to Richard Taruskin's conclusion (1984). The view of Busnoys as emulator is supported by the fact that his Mass is the more complex of the two, a trait common in emulations. Busnoys's inversion canon runs through the whole of Agnus I and III. In addition, he puts his inversion in the bass, adding another degree of complexity which points to emulation.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

[Includes lists of quotations and allusions.]

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

The dominance of rhythmic texts in the twelfth-century sequence, conductus, versus, and related genres imposed a structural framework on their musical settings which was crucial to the development of "rhythm" in Notre-Dame polyphony. In the sequence repertory, it was not uncommon to borrow the text and melody from another source and use them as a basis for the composition at hand. The high level of sophistication possible using this technique is illustrated by the use of the hymn Ave maris stella as both a textual and melodic source for the sequence O Maria stella maris, where the music of the sequence is a theme with variations upon the original hymn melody.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Index Classifications: 1900s

Italian composer Bruno Maderna was one of the many composers who joined Darmstadt’s Summer Schools in the Castle of Kranichstein, where his music was programmed for public performances. Two of Maderna’s piano works for four hands are of major interest in this context: Concerto per due pianoforte e strumenti, and Fantasia per due pianoforte (B. A. C. H. Variationen für zwei klaviere). Although the Concerto was performed first, there are indications that the Fantasia was composed before the Concerto. Nonetheless, both are derived from the same model: Bartók’s Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion. The Concerto features percussive idioms, suggesting a relationship to Bartók’s work, which was known in Italy during this time. The Fantasia exhibits an ostinato figure derived from the B-A-C-H. motif, which is reminiscent of Bartók’s use of ostinato.

Works: Bruno Maderna: Concerto per due pianoforte e strumenti (15-18), Fantasia per due pianoforte (B. A. C. H. Variationen für zwei Klavier) (15-20).

Sources: Bartók: Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion, Sz. 110 (18); Johann Sebastian Bach: Vor deinen Thron tret’ ich hiermit, BWV 668 (20).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

The music of Luigi Dallapiccola has been shaped by his many political, musical, and poetic experiences as a young composer in the northeastern corner of Italy and later in Florence during the two world wars, the most tumultuous years of the twentieth century for western Europe. His compositions are full of textual and musical allusions to the past both distant and recent. His music includes allusions to Wagner, Webern, Schoenberg, Bach, Monteverdi, and Berg among many others. Yet his practice of self-borrowing is prevalent as well, especially later in his career. The greatest example of this is his full-length opera Ulisse (1968), which makes reference to at least six of his previous works in addition to its use of compositional techniques typical of Monteverdi, Wagner, and Bach. Preceding this work is a companion instrumental piece entitled Three Questions with Two Answers (1962-63), which introduces the opera's fundamental tone rows and foreshadows some of its most prevalent musical and philosophical themes. The rapport between Dallapiccola's music and that of his predecessors as well as his practice of self-borrowing imply a theme of constant retrospection and self-analysis in his artistic career.

Works: Dallapiccola: Tre laudi (33-45, 242-45), Volo di notte (38-49, 242-45), An Mathilde (193-97, 242-45), Three Questions with Two Answers (224-31), Ulisse (224-52), Il prigioniero (239-45), Cinque canti (242-45), Canti di liberazione (242-45).

Sources: J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier (14, 158), The Art of Fugue (157); Dallapiccola: Tre laudi (33-45, 242-45), Volo di notte (38-49, 242-45), Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (72-73, 232-35), An Mathilde (193-97, 242-45), Three Questions with Two Answers (224-31), Il prigioniero (239-45), Cinque canti (242-45), Canti di liberazione (242-45); Monteverdi: Orfeo (245-47).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Deliberate reuse of earlier material is rare in Haydn. Similarities of later works to his earlier compositions do occur but they are apparently due to unconscious borrowing or to different realizations of the same musical idea. Some similarities are better explained as usage of the common archetypal musical vocabulary rather than as plain quotations. Self-borrowing in Haydn usually goes beyond mere repetition of the borrowed material, involving a transformation of the borrowed material or an elucidation of its expressive meaning.

Works: Haydn: Chorus "Su cantiamo" (186), L'Anima del Filosofo (186), Piano Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI:39 (187), The Creation (187, 192-93), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI:10 (187), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:125 (188), L'Isola Disabitata (188), Symphony No. 100 in G Major (188-90), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:102 (189-90), Armida (189, 192-93), Baryton Trio in G Major Hob. XI:124, (190), Symphony No. 85 in B flat Major (191-92), Symphony No. 45 in F sharp Minor (192), Cello Concerto in C Major, Hob. VIIb:1 (193), Seven Last Words (194).

Sources: Haydn: Orlando Paladino (186), Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Hob. XVI:36 (187), Concerto for Lira, Hob. VIIh:2 (187), Piano Sonata Hob. XVII:D1 (187), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:123 (188), Hymnus de Venerabili, No. 4 (188), Symphony No. 61 in G Major (188-90), Baryton Trio in D Major, Hob. XI:91 (189-90), Symphony No. 75 in D Major (189), String Quartet in D Minor, Hob. III:22 (190), Symphony No. 45 in F sharp Minor (191-92), Symphony No. 60 in C Major (192), Symphony No. 68 in B flat Major (192-93), Cantata Destatevi (193), Il Ritorno di Tobia (194).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

J. S. Bach's arrangement of Palestrina's Missa sine nomine reflects many of the practices of the eighteenth century. Instruments were added, playing colla parte, and a basso continuo realized for the lowest part. Sometimes a new basso continuo part was created, independent of the voice parts. The use of the breve as tactus was not understood. The original notation was not halved to retain the tactus; rather, the measures themselves were cut in half. Text underlay was altered to keep melismas to a minimum and to make declamation conform to the meter, especially in the bass. The use of accidentals and leading tones emphasized tonality but destroyed the cross-relations and major-minor shifts characteristic of 16th-century music. Bach, however, did not always alter the older model, but tried as much as he could to internalize the old Palestrina style.

Works: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, arr. Johann Sebastian Bach: Missa sine nomine.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Ottavio Durante's Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare are unique examples of what may be called a "parody cantata." These pieces use Alessandro Scarlatti's solo cantatas as models, but use only the recitatives, not the arias. Durante composed extended introductions, and added a number of devices (including imitation, echo, transpositions, modulations, sequences, variations, and original interpolations) to the original. The version of Durante's Duetti da Camera preserved in Rome, Academy of Santa Cecilia, G. Mss. 302, contains written-out vocal embellishments and figured bass realizations that give a good picture of the performance practices of the day.

Works: Ottavio Durante: Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

George Gershwin’s opera Porgy and Bess exists as a concert piece in several arrangements, but the most popular is Robert Russell Bennett’s Symphonic Picture, composed under the direction of Fritz Reiner and shaped by his involvement in the project. Gershwin’s own five-movement Suite from Porgy and Bess was prepared and performed between 1936 and 1937 to promote upcoming productions of the opera. However, Gershwin’s Suite was virtually unknown between in 1937 and 1959, when it was “rediscovered” and renamed Catfish Row. Symphonic Picture on the other hand was a project developed by Reiner, who selected the excerpts and order of the medley and engaged Bennett, a work-for-hire arranger and long-time Gershwin associate, to orchestrate Picture in 1942. In its orchestration, Picture presents an arrangement more agreeable to symphonic standards, with Bennett removing the instrumental doubling associated with commercial orchestration. Bennett also adds significantly more transition material between sections than Gershwin’s Suite contains. Furthermore, Picture was arranged with recording specifically in mind; Reiner’s outline specified a duration of twenty-four minutes to fit on three twelve-inch 78-rpm discs. The popularity of Picture over the Suite is also apparent in the performance, recording, and reception histories of each piece.

Works: George Gershwin: Suite from Porgy and Bess / Catfish Row (104-10); Robert Russell Bennett (arranger): Symphonic Picture (104-7, 110-21)

Sources: George Gershwin: Porgy and Bess (104-21)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In his Opus 59 string quartets, Beethoven juxtaposes learned styles and Russian folk styles in a self-conscious critique of highbrow Viennese music. This reading is informed by the German reception of Russian folksongs and Count Andreas Razumovsky’s cosmopolitan persona. The common argument that Beethoven parodies Russian folk music by misrepresenting the lament Ah, Whether It’s My Luck, Such Luck is less clear-cut than it is often presented. Beethoven’s use of the Russian tune as a fugue subject in the finale of Op. 59, No. 1 suggests a playful juxtaposition of high and low art while the coda presents the tune as the ultimate goal of the movement and quartet. Many critics read the quasi-fugal setting of the hymn tune Slava in Op. 59, No. 2 similarly as a parody of Russian music. However, the dissonant counterpoint can be read as referencing the sublime in the manner of Mozart’s “Jupiter” symphony. Thus, Beethoven’s use of folk music as the basis for strict counterpoint calls attention to the artifice of counterpoint itself. Furthermore, given Russia’s political position at the turn of the nineteenth century, the inclusion of specifically Russian folk music should be understood as a political act. Beethoven’s setting reflects the persona of his patron Razumovsky, a “European Russian” who negotiated between two cultural worlds: old Russia and cosmopolitan Vienna. Op. 59, No. 3 is unlike the other two quartets in the set as it does not contain a marked thème russe, posing the question of whether a folk song is included. A possible Russian folk song source for the Andante movement of Op. 59, No. 3 is an arrangement of Ty wospoi, wospoi, mlad Shaworontscheck printed in a July 1804 issue of Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (translated as Singe, sing’ein Lied). The movement shares its key, meter, and tempo with the printed arrangement and the opening bars of the movement paraphrase the opening melody and bass line. This rendition of Ty wospoi continues the work of the first two quartets in engaging with a cosmopolitan blend of Russian folk music with learned styles.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet No. 7 in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 (78-80, 81-92), String Quartet No. 8 in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (79, 92-112), String Quartet No. 9 in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (112-16)

Sources: Traditional: As, Whether It’s My Luck, Such Luck (78-80, 81-92), Slava (Uzh kak slava Tebe Bozhe) (79, 92-112), Ty wospoi, wospoi, mlad Shaworontscheck (Singe, sing’ein Lied) (112-16)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Das himmlische Leben, a Wunderhorn text-setting from Mahler's Fourth Symphony, provides much of the material for that work, and portions of it were incorporated into the first and third movements of the Third Symphony. It was originally to be included in the Third Symphony as its final movement, and, later, as its second movement, though Mahler ultimately changed his mind about both ideas. The fifth, choral movement of the Third Symphony was originally to be part of the Fourth. These changes of mind and heart show the composer's inspiration coming from a single source that resulted in two very different symphonies.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 in D Minor (90-102), Symphony No. 4 (95-96, 99-100), Symphony No. 5 in C sharp Minor (102, 107), Symphony No. 10 (102), Symphony No. 9 (103).

Sources: Mahler: Des Knaben Wunderhorn (90-107).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

ORCH5, a digital sample of a single chord from Igor Stravinksy's Firebird created on the Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument, became one of the first recognized samples used in popular music. It was used as a sample in some eclectic electronic music in the early 1980s, but gained fame as the orchestral sound that began Afrika Bambaataa's seminal 1982 song Planet Rock. This song also prominently samples music from the German electronic group Kraftwerk, including a chromatic Weltschmerz theme from their song Trans Europe Express. Taken together, these two samples--a digital orchestral sound and a melody with intentional commentary on the decay of German music--create some unintended resonances of the decline of classical music in the Western world. While the use of ORCH5 in Planet Rock signals the decay of classical music in popular culture, the sample is also given new life by being appropriated into both the Afro-futurist movement and especially the early stages of hip-hop sampling, where it is used in the same capacity as a DJ's vinyl scratch.

Works: Kate Bush: The Dreaming (343); The Art of Noise: Close (to the Edit) (343); Afrika Bambaataa &the Soulsonic Force with Arthur Baker and John Robie: Planet Rock (343-54).

Sources: Stravinsky: The Firebird (341-54); Kraftwerk: Trans Europe Express (344-54), Numbers (344-54).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Chopin’s Etudes—Op. 10, Op. 25, and the three Nouvelles etudes—are a unique synthesis of musical style and performance technique, and they are examples of the genre in its pristine form. Music critics since Chopin's day have recognized a certain intuitiveness and ingenuity of these works in terms of both musical conception and keyboard technique that cannot be adequately explained by invoking antecedents. However, one can trace a variety of precedents for the musical and technical features of Chopin’s etudes by comparing examples from a group of didactic and non-didactic works. Chopin’s detailed harmonic structures and elaborate chromatic embroidery also point to a strong connection to J. S. Bach. In particular, Bach’s influence on Chopin’s harmonic language is best demonstrated in the contrapuntal tension between the linear, horizontal aspects of the piano figures and the underlying harmonic ground-work that is characteristic of Chopin’s etudes.

Works: Chopin: Etude in C-sharp Minor, Op. 10, No. 4 (54), Etude in A Minor, Op. 25, No. 11 (55), Prelude in F-sharp Minor, Op. 28, No. 8 (62), Etude in C Major, Op. 10, No. 1 (62-65, 69-71), Etude No. 3 from Nouvelles etudes (66-67), Etude in F Major, Op. 10, No. 8 (67-68), Etude in A-flat Major, Op. 10, No. 10 (68-69), Etude in E-flat Major, Op. 10, No. 6 (71-74), Etude in F Major, Op. 25, No. 3 (74-76).

Sources: Hummel: Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Minor, Op. 85 (54), Etude in C Major, Op. 125, No. 1 (63-65); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 12 in A-flat Major, Op. 26 (55), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (55); J. B. Cramer: 84 Studies (55, 61-62); John Field: Piano Concerto No. 2 in A-flat Major (55); Kalkbrenner: Etude in E-flat Major, Op. 20, No. 7 (55): Ludwig Berger: Etude in C Major, Op. 12, No. 1 (63-65); J. C. Kessler: Etude in C Major, Op. 20, No. 1 (63-65); Moscheles: Etude No. 9 in A-flat Major, from Studies for the Perfection of Already Advanced Players, Op. 70 (66-67); Maria Szymanowska: 20 Exercises and Preludes (67-68); J. H. Müller: Preludes and Exercises (68-69); Johann Sebastian Bach: Prelude in C Major, BWV 846, from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I (69-71).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

This article was written to accompany a Deutsche Grammophon set of records on the symphony. It discusses Brahms's symphonies in the style of liner notes for a general audience. Brahms's Symphony No. 3, cited as being influenced by Schumann, includes a "near quotation allusion of the principal theme of the first movement [of Schumann's Rhenish Symphony]."

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

The reception during Mahler's lifetime of his songs based on the Wunderhorn texts was unusually varied. As explanation for this, Mahler's use of the texts may be linked with a debate, which began with the publication of the texts of Des Knaben Wunderhorn in 1805-8 and spanned the nineteenth century, between those who wished to preserve the German folk heritage in its purest form and those who saw it as a malleable commodity for a politico-cultural end. Art, too, exhibited this tension between "folk" and "folk-like" material, and Mahler's Wunderhorn songs, which manipulate pre-existing folk material in a "high-art" setting, fall on the latter side of the debate. It was sensitivity to his place within that tension that informed the reception of the songs by contemporary critics.

Works: Mahler: Lieder aus des Knaben Wunderhorn.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

Barry Manilow and Adrienne Anderson wrote two versions of the 1975 hit "Could it be Magic." The first version was intended for the LP and FM radio airplay, while a substantially shortened second version was intended for a 45 single and AM radio airplay. "Could it be Magic" quotes intact a substantial amount of Chopin's Prelude Op. 28, No. 20 in C minor; the first version of the song begins with measures one through eight of the prelude and ends with measures nine through thirteen of the prelude. There are several possible reasons for quoting Chopin: this could be simply another example of the growing number of rock musicians who quote classical music; the composers seem to share a fascination for modal ambiguity with Chopin; Chopin's preludes have become part of a narrow canon of classical music known to composers of all musical genres; and the constant demand for novelty in the popular music industry has encouraged popular music artists to draw from other styles to ensure quick composition. The two versions of Manilow's song allow us to examine how a popular artist responds to the demands of different media.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Index Classifications: 1700s

Bartolomeo di Bononia and Antonio Zacara da Teramo based some Mass movements on their ballate. Bartolomeo's ballata Vince con lena makes up the middle section of the corresponding Gloria. Since the composer of the Mass changed hardly anything in the source, which he incorporated as a whole, this is a case of contrafactum. Zacara, however, segmented and rearranged his ballate Rosetta che non cançi, Un fior gentil, and Deus deorum horizontally, using some of their melodic material also in the free sections. The contratenor (probably not by Zacara) may have been added later. Thus Zacara's technique denotes a transitional stage from contrafactum to the parody Masses of Ockeghem, Faugues, and Bedingham.

Works: Salve mater Jesu (45); Est illa (45); Dilectus meus misit (45); Virgo beata (45); "Kyrie" (Munich, Bayrische Staatsbibl., mus. 3232 a, fol. 58v-59) (46); motet Beatum incendium (46); Bartolomeo di Bononia: Et in terra (Oxford, Bodl. Can. misc. 213, no. 317) (47); Zacara: Et in terra Rosetta (Bologna, Conservatorio di Musica G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 56) (47), Et in terra Fior gentil (Bologna, Conservatorio G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 58) (47), Patrem Deus deorum (Bologna, conservatorio G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 59) (47).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Ives's Concord Sonata is probably modeled on monumental piano sonatas by Beethoven and Liszt. More specifically, Ives borrowed a motive from Brahms's Second Piano Sonata, Op.2, perhaps intentionally. In its basic form the motive consists of a three-note scale fragment followed by a downward leap of a fifth. William S. Newman has remarked that the Brahms motive reduces to this same basic motive. Ives may have borrowed intentionally, since his teacher Horatio Parker idolized Brahms and since Brahms themes and influences occur in other works by Ives. Also, Ives called the Concord Sonata his second even though he had already written two (he wrote the Three-Page Sonata in 1905).

Works: Ives: Second Piano Sonata ("Concord")

Sources: Brahms: Second Piano Sonata, Op.2.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: 1900s

While Franz Schubert's Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (1828) clearly quotes the theme from Beethoven's Variations in C Minor, WoO 80, Schubert inserts music that disrupts the momentum in a very un-Beethovenian manner. These disruptive passages seem to suggest a musical memory, recalling numerous earlier works by Schubert including several allusions to songs from his song cycle Winterreise. The theme of death in the songs might be one reason for the allusion to Beethoven, who had died the previous year. Ghostly echoes of Winterreise themes from "Erstarrung" and "Der Lindenbaum" might suggest the ghost of Beethoven haunting Schubert. Yet the theme of exile in Winterreise resonates more with Schubert's personal life at the time he wrote this sonata. The chromatically distant B section, which echoes many previous works of Schubert including his Moment Musical in A-flat, supports this reading by equating harmonic distance and emotional or physical exile.

Works: Schubert: Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (635-53).

Sources: Beethoven: Variations in C Minor, WoO 80 (635-36), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (641-42); Schubert: Winterreise (639-43, 647, 652), Moment Musical No. 2 in A-flat Major, D. 780 (645-46).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1700s

Although Agricola's sacred music has been understudied in comparison to other contemporary composers, an analysis of his cantus firmus masses reveals a highly particularized approach to such compositional procedures, especially in relation to composers such as Josquin and Obrecht. In Agricola's four masses based on secular models, the prevalent technique is isomelism: the tenor retains the song's pitches but the durations are substantially manipulated, thereby removing the model from its metrical context. An extreme example can be found in Missa Malheur me bat, where in a run of semiminums some are augmented up to sixteen times their original value. Agricola's mass on Je ne demande stands apart from the other masses in its predominant use of the paraphrase type and ornamentation within the outline of the model. A predilection for using free and cantus firmus passages is visible in Missa In minen sin, a technique also reminiscent of Ockeghem, who blurred the boundaries between quotation and free melody. Agricola, in contrast to Ockeghem, incorporates more exact quotations alternating with free passages. Other types of borrowing procedures include strict tenor statements situated late in a mass as a culmination device and a restricted use of polyphonic quotations. The multiple and varied approaches to cantus firmus treatment within Agricola's masses has posed a problem for scholars who have taken "classicizing" or systematic approaches to the music of Josquin and Obrecht. Because Agricola's music does not exhibit a systematic taxonomy, it may be more useful to use the framework of the rhizome developed by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, which provides a useful theory of asystematic tendencies incorporated into an organicist approach.

Works: Alexander Agricola: Missa Malheur me bat (70-72, 74-76, 78-80), Missa Le serviteur (72, 75-77), Missa Je ne demande (71, 77), Missa In minen sin (72-73, 76-83).

Sources: Malcourt (?): Malheur me bat (70-72, 74-76, 78-80); Dufay: Le serviteur (72, 75-77); Busnois: Je ne demande (71, 77); Anonymous: In minen sin (72-73, 76-83).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Due to the lack of primary sources regarding Bartolomé de Escobedo, relatively little research has been published about him or his works. A close inspection of the Missa Philippus Rex Hispanie, however, leads one to believe that the composition was modeled after Josquin's Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie. Escobedo may have come across the work in a Spanish manuscript or while serving as a member of the Papal Chapel. The most obvious connection between the Masses is the use of a soggetto cavato, which is a theme based on the vowels of the name of the addressee of the Mass. Escobedo also follows Josquin in that the soggetto is usually presented in the second tenor, points of imitation generally occur in ascending order, and Escobedo transposes the soggetto by the same intervals as Josquin. The formal divisions of each movement also mirror those of the Josquin Mass. Escobedo also employs an unusual mensurational trick in the Agnus Dei that is also found in Josquin's Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales.

Works: Bartolomé de Escobedo: Missa Philippus Rex Hispanie (50-62).

Sources: Josquin des Prez: Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie (54-62), Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales (61).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Although the parody mass never attained the same importance in England as it did elsewhere in Europe, English composers of the early sixteenth century were aware of parody techniques. Three masses in the Peterhouse part-books, Missa O bone Jesu by Robert Fayrfax, Missa Salve intemerata by Thomas Tallis, and Missa Mater Christi by John Taverner, each borrow polyphonic material from a votive antiphon by the composer of the mass. The use of parody technique, rather than being motivated by liturgical considerations, may have been prompted by a desire to be free of the demands of specific liturgical connections. Contrary to their Continental colleagues, Tudor composers tended to transfer borrowed material more or less intact, making only those rhythmic alterations necessary for the declamation of another text. In Tavener's mass, however, the reworking is more extensive than has been thought. More than half of it is freshly composed, while only about a quarter of Tallis's mass is new material. Since Fayrfax, Taverner, and Tallis based these masses on models of their own composition, their choice of models was not motivated by the desire to pay homage to another composer. Taverner's influence, on the other hand, was manifested in works by composers who followed him, even as late as William Byrd, through the employment of compositional techniques that Taverner had used in his parody masses.

Works: Rasar: Missa Christe Jesu; Fayrfax: Missa O bone Jesu; Tallis: Missa salve intemerata,Strene Mass; Taverner: Missa Mater Christi, Western Wind Mass, Small Devotion Mass (or Sancte Wilhelme Mass), Meane Mass, Playnsong Mass; Tye: Western Wind Mass, Enge bone Mass, Meane Mass; Shepperd: Western Wind Mass, Frances Mass.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Index Classifications: 1600s

Index Classifications: 1900s

The score to Edgar G. Ulmer's 1945 film Detour exemplifies the duplicitous portrayal of women through the employment of music that strongly evokes nostalgia and longing. Detour belongs to the 1940s detective film genre known as film noir, which often uses music to support references to the past. Flashback narrative structures are commonly used in film noir to explain the present or the film as a whole. Women are often portrayed in this genre as either the good and wholesome virgin-mother or as the undermining villainous beauty. The song "I Can't Believe That You're in Love with Me," by Jimmy McHugh, becomes a reoccurring leitmotif for nostalgic references to the character's past throughout the film, played on the jukebox and later scored off-screen by blending from the song to a Brahms lullaby. "I Can't Believe That You're in Love with Me" is especially effective at evoking nostalgia as a 1927 Tin Pan Alley song, performed by Count Basie, Earl Hines, Ella Fitzgerald, and Bing Crosby; the 1945 filmgoers recognized the tune not as a current hit, but one of the past. Brahms's Waltz in A flat, Op. 39, No.15, is used to signify the intensification of the obsession with nostalgia as the villainous heroine abandons the detective. Home Sweet Home is later used to reinforce the sense of nostalgia as the detective is reunited with the heroine.

Works: Leo Erdody: score to Detour (19).

Sources: Jimmy McHugh: I Can't Believe That You're in Love with Me (20); Brahms: Waltz in A flat, Op. 39, No. 15 (23); Henry R. Bishop: Home Sweet Home (23).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Quotation in Bruckner's music allows a deep view into his compositional method, psyche, and spiritual state. Bruckner cited his own masses in his symphonies along with quotations from Haydn, Liszt, and Wagner. Long thought to be "absolute" music, Bruckner's compositions carry significant semantic meaning when the composer desired.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1800s

The final movement of Bruckner's Ninth Symphony is not "absolute music," since it contains religious symbols and allusions to the composer's approaching death. This conclusion is supported by taking into account not only sketches, structural analysis, and Bruckner's own hermeneutic statements, but also interpretations of borrowed material. In his opening theme, for example, Bruckner strongly alludes to his Fifth Symphony, the Sehnsuchtsmotiv from Wagner's Tristan, and the "Dresden Amen" from Parsifal. The following climax (or Klangfläche) quotes Liszt's "symbol of the cross" from the Graner Messe, and the second theme (letter C) presents and develops a motive ("miserere") taken from the D Minor Mass. Several other self-quotations (from the Benedictus of the Mass in F Minor and the Seventh and Eighth Symphonies) reinforce the impression of the look back suggested by Bruckner himself for the passage at letter B ("Abschied vom Leben," mm. 29-44).

Works: Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (90), Symphony No. 9, Mass in D Minor (90).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This book is the result of Floros's intensive study of Mahler, during which he found hitherto undiscovered clues to the interpretation of Brahms's and Bruckner's works. Most of the borrowings discussed confirm differences between the two composers in both ideologies and musical heritage. A comparison of the German Requiem by Brahms and the F Minor Mass by Bruckner shows that the corresponding excerpts from the Credo use different models. Brahms used Bach's cantata Wer weiss wie nahe mir mein Ende BWV 27, whereas Bruckner borrowed from Liszt's Graner Messe (41-51). The indebtedness of Brahms to Mendelssohn (64f.) and Schumann (124-143) and of Bruckner to Wagner (159f., 171-78 and 211-13) and Liszt (159f., 167-70) is underlined with many musical examples. That Bruckner modeled the second movement of his Fourth Symphony on Berlioz's March of the Pilgrims from Harold en Italie is the clue to his program (Lied, Gebeth, Ständchen), since the same sequence of sections is found in Berlioz's work. Movements or whole symphonies by Bruckner can beinterpreted by a comparison with Wagner's operas. Thematic concordances with the monologue of The Flying Dutchman (Act I, Scene II) lead to a psycho-programmatic interpretation of the Eighth Symphony, an interpretation that extends Bruckner's own vague explanations. Even if the two composers borrow from the same piece, they emphasize different aspects. Both of them emulated aspects of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Brahms's interest (First Symphony, last movement) lies in the Freudenmelodie and the recitative character of the introduction to the last movement, whereas Bruckner imitates the flash-backs, the rondo-like adagio and the original opening of the first movement (55-60).

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 (56f.), Symphony No. 4 (64f.), Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (124-51), Ein Deutsches Requiem (41-47); Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (51, 159, 168-70), Symphony No. 4 (159, 178-81), Symphony No. 8 (159f., 186-88, 21113), Symphony No. 9 (51, 168-70), Mass in F Minor (41-44, 50), Mass in D Minor (44, 51), Mass in E Minor (168-70), Helgoland (168-70), Tota pulchra es (168-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros discusses three main elements of Mahler's music with the aim of a philosophical or programmatic interpretation: form and formal procedures; the use of specific genres such as chorale, pastorale, march, scherzo, and dancelike movements; and interpretation of symbols. All the elements are interpreted in the context of other composers, especially Berlioz, Liszt, and Bruckner. In interpreting the first two categories, Floros focuses on Mahler's position in the history of music. But in the third category, by locating the same musical symbols (e.g. the tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes in Liszt and Bruckner; see also Floros, Gustav Mahler III: Die Symphonien, 1985) in works of other composers where the meaning is clear, Floros can offer interpretations that would otherwise be impossible. Without the interpretation of symbols, no real progress in musicology is possible.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros's study of Mahler's music is an attempt to interpret it comprehensively, taking into account especially Mahler's intellectual background. In these semantic analyses, the author discusses borrowings and quotations of all sorts: (1) quotations of tunes and their integration into compositions (e.g. Bruder Martin in the First Symphony), (2) borrowings of complete sections (e.g. in the Second Symphony), (3) reuse of whole songs (e.g. Urlicht in the Second Symphony), and (4) quotation of short motives (such as the beginning of Dies irae or Liszt's tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes ["sounding" symbol of the cross]) to symbolize titles or programs. Decoding these borrowings is one of the most important steps in finding the program that is the basis even of the purely instrumental symphonies. Above all, some passages can be interpreted by comparison to similar passages from works by Richard Strauss where their meaning is clear. These comparisons may throw light on composition dates, for instance that of the Scherzo of the Sixth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Among several devices mentioned in this article which have been used for humorous effect in music is quotation. Various means of achieving humor through quotation are by paradox, pun, parody, and exploiting the historical significance of the music quoted, all of which assume previous knowledge on the part of the listeners of the music being referred to.

Works: Beethoven: Es war einmal ein König, der hatt' einen grossen Floh (693); Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (692); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake Walk," from Children's Corner (691); Falla: The Three-Cornered Hat (692); Saint-Saëns: Le Carnaval des Animaux (690); Satie: Sonatine bureaucratique (695).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: General

Mahler scholarship occasionally invokes the term “Kapellmeistermusik” to describe the eclecticism and variety in the composer’s music. This eclecticism, which resulted in part due to Mahler’s background as a conductor, is commonly assumed to be intentional, implying that Mahler deliberately quoted other works for listeners to identify and interpret. But Mahler’s eclecticism, and the relationships between his own music and existing works, can be far more complicated than is often assumed. Some of the parallels between Mahler’s works and those of other composers may have been coincidental, and in other cases Mahler may have “unconsciously” referenced an existing piece because he was familiar with it. Although one can identify several correspondences and quotations from other works in Mahler’s music, some are more likely to be intentional (either consciously or unconsciously) than others. Additionally, a case for borrowing in Mahler’s works cannot be made based on musical analysis alone, as other kinds of supplemental evidence can either reinforce or undercut the possibility of a connection between pieces. One can argue, for example, that Mahler could have borrowed a melody from Liszt’s Piano Concerto in E-Flat Major for his Sixth Symphony, given the close similarities between the two themes and the strong likelihood that Mahler knew Liszt’s concerto as both a pianist and conductor. On the other hand, the parallels between Schubert’s song Mainacht, D. 194, and the first song of Mahler’s Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen are likely coincidental, as Mainacht was first published posthumously in 1894, almost a decade after Mahler composed his song cycle. Some possible borrowings from works by Berlioz, Chabrier, and Bizet require further research but may be significant.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 4 in G Major (10), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor (10), Symphony No. 6 in A Minor (“Tragic”) (10-11), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (“Titan”) (11), Das klagende Lied (11, 13), Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (11-12), Symphony No. 7 (13), Symphony No. 10 (13), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (“Resurrection”) (13-14), Symphony No. 9 (13, 15-16), Symphony No. 5 (16).

Sources: Schubert: Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, D. 568 (10), Piano Sonata in D Major, D. 850 (10), Liszt: Spanish Rhapsody, S. 254 (10); Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (10); Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 (10); Liszt: Piano Concerto No. 1 in E-flat Major, S. 124 (10-11); Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (11); Chopin: Ballade in G Minor, Op. 23 (11); Schubert: Mainacht, D. 194 (11-12); Mozart: Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425 (“Linz”) (12); Weber: “Schreckensschwur” Aria from Oberon (12); Wagner: Siegfried (13), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (13); Bruckner: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (13); Berlioz: Les francs-juges, H 23 (13-14); Chabrier: Gwendoline (13, 15-16); Bizet: L’Arlésienne (16).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

African-American music has continually used the troping of texts in blues, jazz, and other popular traditions. Two examples of troping occur in the use of the spiritual "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" and the riding train. Troping of the spiritual has occurred on the textual and musical level. Furry Lewis tropes the idea of a motherless child in his piece "Big Chief Blues." Washington "Bukka" White also creates his trope relating to the motherless child in "Panama Limited" while singing about being far from home. Musical troping can be found in George Gershwin's repetition of the tune of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" in the piece "Summertime" from the opera Porgy and Bess. Gershwin tropes the spiritual's intervallic structure, rhythm, melodic structures, and beat structure throughout "Summertime." David Baker and Olly Wilson also trope the music and text of "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child." The train trope deals in the sounds created by a passenger train throughout the United States. Duke Ellington's composition "Happy-Go-Lucky-Local" tropes the passenger train through its use of chugging rhythms, whistles, and sounds of steam locomotives through orchestration. These tropes display an evolution in African-American music through repetition and revision of texts and music.

Works: Traditional: Big Chief Blues as performed by Furry Lewis (36-37); White: Panama Limited (37); Gershwin: "Summertime" from Porgy and Bess (37-43); Baker: Through This Vale of Tears (43-44); Wilson: Sometimes (44-45); Ellington: Happy-Go-Lucky-Local (46-47); Logan: Runagate Runagate (47-50).

Sources: Traditional: Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child (35-45).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Both musical and literary quotations are present in Berio's work. In Laborintus II, quotations are drawn from Dante, Pound, the Bible, Eliot, and Sanguineti; furthermore, an added text recalls a work by Isidore of Seville. The texts are presented in collage technique. In Sinfonia, musical and literary collage is involved. The third section is primarily based on Mahler's scherzo of the Second Symphony for the musical and on writings of Beckett for the textual continuity. The fifth section presents a collage of elements from the previous sections. Another work in which musical and textual collage is present is Recital I (for Cathy).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Forte mentions the relationship between the second song of the Kindertotenlieder and the Adagietto of the Fifth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Tempi in the Variationen über ein Thema von Joseph Haydn are determined by rhythmic figures which are in turn dictated by melodic patterns present in the theme. Although the analysis of this composition and its rhythmic elements is not Schenkerian, the terminology derives from Schenker's system. The discussion of the background, middleground, and foreground demonstrates at three levels how the melody provides inherent patterns through individual note groupings, tonal values, and recurring pitch accents. The interrelation of these areas can be described as either subdivisions or shifting of rhythmic units, and all of the rhythmic constructions stem from these techniques. The exact tempi derive from correlations between the variations; in order to maintain the perception of proper stress and accent (as dictated by the analysis), it becomes necessary to stay within the confines of a narrow range of tempo.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

In composing his serialist works, Messiaen suffered from an anxiety of Viennese influence, manifested as a strong desire to show how his serial methods can produce a totally different music from that of the Second Viennese School. However, certain aspects of Messiaen’s serial music are modeled on famous Viennese dodecaphonic works, as both similarities to and distinctive differences from these works may prove. Livre d’orgue, a set of seven pieces for organ, provides a good case study for these modeling procedures. For example, a significant difference from the Second Viennese School in the first movement is that his serial permutations are not the four “classic” order transformations (prime, inversion, retrograde, and retrograde inversion); instead, Messiaen uses other permutations which do not necessarily include the whole row, permutations that are unique to his work. This demonstrates that Messiaen was going out of his way to avoid serial techniques of the past, which is confirmed in excerpts from Messiaen’s writings. An example of a similarity to Viennese dodecaphonic music can also be found in the first movement. Several trichords and hexachords, as well as their permutations, specifically evoke the music of Bartók and Webern. Furthermore, certain large-scale permutations evoke the first section of Berg’s Wozzeck as well as the second movement of Webern’s Symphony, Op. 21. This demonstrates that Messiaen was still influenced by the music of these composers, which he knew well.

Works: Messiaen: Livre d’orgue (5-29).

Sources: Berg: Wozzeck (23); Webern: Symphony, Op. 21 (23).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

In an interview Foss discusses his Phorion (Greek for "stolen goods") as a "controlled chance" composition based on the prelude from J. S. Bach's Partita for Solo Violin in E. Designed so that each performance is unique, the work incorporates Morse code and instructs performers to "race" each other through technically challenging passages of Bach's music. Foss also discusses critical reaction, including a German orchestra that took a vote on whether to perform the "desecration" of Bach, prompting Foss to observe that "the Germans are a very tender and sensitive people." (Foss, a Jew, left Germany as a refugee in 1933.) Bach is not harmed by Phorion; his music exists intact independently of its treatment in this work. If audiences are uncertain how to respond, that is Foss's intent. Violence in art, such as Foss is committing here, in fact communicates a message of non-violence.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Nicholas Racot de Grandval (c. 1676-1753) wrote two cantatas parodying the successful cantatas of Louis-Nicholas Clérambault, Orphée and Léandre et Héro. A third cantata by Grandval, Rien du tout, is a pasticcio on arias by Clerambault and others. Grandval wrote his own texts, quoting and paraphrasing parts of Clerambault's texts for comic effect. (Allez, Orphée, allez, allez becomes Allez, Orphée, allez au Diable.) Grandval incorporated two brief musical quotations from Clérambault in each parody. He used popular tunes of the time as additional musical material.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: 1500s

Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana is integrated into The Godfather Part III in complex ways. Coppola uses music from Cavalleria rusticana in a scene in which the opera is attended in addition to exploiting traits of opera on other levels. The opera appears in three levels within the narrative of the film: a literal level, a cultural level, and a dramatic level. The literal level is achieved through the usage of the diegetic, staged opera within the film. At this level, Coppola uses the opera aurally and rearranges it for cinematic effect. The Preghiera develops multiple meanings within the context of the film, from a contrast of faith/harmony with murder to religious ceremony in opera. The themes of ritualism and violence in the opera also parallel the film. The cultural level depicts opera as a cultural artifact that permeates life, an example of which is the arrangement of "Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate" from Verdi's Nabucco, which functions as a cultural icon of Sicily as well as a portrayal of the character Michael's relationship with Sicily. The dramatic level adapts operatic structure, appearance, and narrative to the film as a whole.

Works: Francis Ford Coppola (director): Sound track to The Godfather Part III.

Sources: Pietro Mascagni: Cavalleria rusticana (31-45); Verdi: Nabucco (37-39).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

As the sixteenth century progressed, imitation technique moved away from the restructuring of motivic complexes toward a manipulation of texture and sonority built increasingly on the bass part. Borrowed voices are freely manipulated, and may appear in different registers and order. Borrowing of multiple voices may be taken from well within, rather than at the beginning of, points of imitation, thus de-emphasizing the polyphonic origins of the borrowing. An increasing polarization is seen toward the outer voices. The concern of the composer shifts from the horizontal line to the vertical intervallic structure, with added emphasis on vocal orchestration and tonal contrast. This suggests an additional category of mass settings derived from polyphonic sources: "imitation masses emphasizing vertical structures, governed by a structural bass."

Works: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa Tu es Petrus (12-16), Missa Laudate Dominum (16-18), Missa Ascendo ad Patrem (19-21); Phillipp de Monte: Missa La dolce vista (22-26); Orlando de Lassus: Missa Osculetur me osculo (26-30); Costanzo Porta: Missa Descendit angelus (30-31).

Sources: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Tu es Petrus (12-16), Laudate Dominum (16-18), Ascendo ad Patrem (19-21); Phillipp de Monte: La dolce vista (22-26); Orlando de Lassus: Osculetur me osculo (26-30); Hilaire Penet: Descendit angelus (30-31).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Isadora Duncan’s dances set to the music of Beethoven and other German composers greatly dismayed the German musical press, who saw her appropriation of classical music as threatening the barriers between high musical art and common vaudeville entertainment. When Duncan performed in Germany from 1902 to 1904, she achieved great public success and enthusiasm for her barefoot dancing style. Duncan’s aim of elevating the art of dance was often met with derision in certain press circles who framed her work as pretentious. Theater composer Oscar Straus’s contribution to the vaudeville dance-satire Die Tugendglocke lampoons Duncan’s intrusion into classical music spheres. His parody became so popular that he created a piano arrangement of the scene, titled Isadora Duncan: Musikalische Parodie. Several famous themes from great (mostly German) composers are deformed and combined with a simplistic “eins, zwei, drei” dance theme. The understanding of this parody necessitates the audience knowing of Duncan’s dances as well as the backlash she received in critical circles. Duncan was particularly vilified in the German classical music press—among her harshest critics was composer Max Reger—for her use of Beethoven’s music, often described in the sexist terms of “corrupting” the masculine ideal of German high art. This reaction underscores the transgressive nature of Duncan’s dance.

Works: Edmond Diet, Julius Einödshofer, Curt Goldmann, Max Schmidt, O. Translateur, and Oscar Straus: Die Tugendglocke (90); Oscar Straus: Isadora Duncan: Musikalische Parodie, Op. 135 (90-99)

Sources: Edmond Diet, Julius Einödshofer, Curt Goldmann, Max Schmidt, O. Translateur, and Oscar Straus: Die Tugendglocke (90); Wagner: Tannhäuser (93-99); Gluck: Orfeo (93-99); Chopin: Polonaise in A-flat Major, Op. 53 (93-99); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (“Moonlight”) (93-99); Johann Strauss: On the Beautiful Blue Danube (93-99)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

The finale to the second act of Don Giovanni includes the famous (and identified) quotations of Martin y Soler's Una cosa rara ("O quanto un si bel giubilo," from the last part of the finale of Act I), Giuseppe Sarti's Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode ("Come un' agnello," from Act I, scene 7), and Mozart's own Figaro "Non più andrai"). These quotations are from the operatic "smash hits" of the 1780's. The overall scene is modelled upon the analogous scene in the Gazzaniga-Bertasi version of Don Giovanni. The use of a wind octet (with cello), combined with the quotations, alludes to the common practice of arranging popular operas for wind ensembles. The melody of "Non più andrai" returns in the last year of Mozart's life in the first contra-dance of K. 609. The practice of quotation and self-quotation is as old as composition itself although each age uses the borrowed material to its own ends.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Frei traces a history of the cantus firmus from its beginnings in the ninth century through the early seventeenth century, adding a comparison of its contemporary application. The cantus firmus in sacred compositions of the early Middle Ages expresses belief in the absolute. Only through submission to its laws does man become free to participate in the essential. In secular motets, the tenor still stands for the primacy of the sacred reference, which increasingly loses its importance in the Renaissance (secular tenors) and experiences a short revival in the form of the German chorale. Contemporary composers may resort to sacred cantus firmi for two reasons, either a false escape from religious and musical insecurity or an expression of the consciousness of what we have lost.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Brahms's influence on the composers of the succeeding generation has often been slighted or eclipsed by the "white heat" of Wagner's effect on the same artists. Traces of Brahms are apparent in many late-nineteenth-century composers ranging from Herzogenberg, who plagiarized his oeuvre, to Reger and Schoenberg, who were both indebted to him for pianistic models.

Works: Herzogenberg: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (2); Reger: Resignation (3).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Max Reger developed an aesthetic of historicist modernism that placed J. S. Bach as the primary model. With the introduction of the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft and similar events around 1900, the nineteenth-century trend viewing Bach as the embodiment of the German musical spirit intensified. Part of this trend included emphasizing Bach’s melodic art, which was held to be more useful to modern composers than his counterpoint. Reger was an active participant in this trend of Bach discourse in several areas, including producing many arrangements of Bach’s music. Reger’s form of modernist historicism also manifests in his prolific composition of organ works and avoidance of symphonic poems and music dramas. Reger’s 1895 First Organ Suite, Op. 16, dedicated to the memory of J. S. Bach, draws on several historical models. Most notably, Reger borrows several chorales famously set by Bach, but he alludes to Brahms’s Fourth Symphony and Joseph Rheinberger’s Organ Sonata No. 8 as well. Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Bach, Op. 81 (1904), offers a more complex form of historicism, but one still rooted in the music of Bach. For its theme, Reger uses the opening ritornello of the aria “Sein’ Almacht zu ergründen” from Bach’s Cantata Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein, BWV 128. Throughout the fourteen variations, Reger develops the theme in two styles: strict–past and free–present with the fugue combining these styles. The work represents Reger’s nuanced awareness of historical time and documents his historicist modernism.

Works: Reger: Suite for Organ in E Minor, Op. 16 (301-307), Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Bach, Op. 81 (308-12)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 582 (303), O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde gross, BWV 622 (303), Aus tiefer Not from Clavierübung, BWV 686 (305), Auf Christi Himmelfahrt allein, BWV 128 (308-12); Rheinberger: Organ Sonata No. 8, Op. 132 (307); Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (307)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

[Addresses sampling and other recent borrowing issues.]

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

There is no straightforward way to assign operas as “nationalist” or “non-nationalist” when considering the categorization of Russian operas, and methods that attempt to do so are unreliable or based on mystification. Instead, the older concept of “local color” should be revived in scholarly discourse. There are six categories of assigning Russianness in music: by intention, by reception, by interpretation, by association, by blood or culture, or by school. Assigning Russianness by culture or by school can lead to conflicting claims about many operas as well as scholarly misconceptions. An example of this is Rosa Newmarch’s misreading of the Minstrel’s Song from Tchaikovsky’s Maid of Orleans as a Ukrainian tune that would be incongruous to the French setting, rather than the French song it actually is. To nineteenth-century Russian opera composers like Rimsky-Korsakov, the concept of local color was both familiar and important to the construction of their work. Operas taking place outside of Russia or dealing with universal themes often avoided Russian coloring. Tchaikovsky in particular developed a sophisticated sense of period coloring in The Queen of Spades, quoting appropriate French and Russian anthems. Approaching Russian opera through the lens of local color, disparate “nationalist,” “non-nationalist,” and “symbolist” operas can be compared side-by-side.

Works: Tchaikovsky: The Maid of Orleans (117-18), The Queen of Spades (129)

Sources: Anonymous: Les belles amourettes (117-18); André Grétry: Richard Coeur-de-lion (129); Eustache de Caurroy: Vive le Roi Henri IV (129); Osip Kozlovsky: Grom pobedy razdavaysya (129)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The practice of quoting a chant melody in passing within a larger work, known as chant citation, occurred within motets of the sixteenth century. Although it was not written in the vocal part, the text of the borrowed chant melody had a semantic relationship with the words being sung at that moment in the motet. Chant citation normally conveyed meaning to the professional singers and composers who had extensive training and knew the repertory well enough to identify the theme and remember its original text. In mid-sixteenth-century motets, chant citations typically exhibited the following characteristics: the citation was prominently displayed at the beginning of a composition or a new section; about nine consecutive notes of the chant were presented; the citation spanned one statement of a syntactically complete unit of the polyphonic text; if the borrowed melody was liturgical, it would have been sung regularly during the church year or was associated with important feasts; the borrowed melody circulated widely or in areas where the composer worked. A major criticism of reading melodic units as chant citations is the possibility that a reference may actually be coincidental to the contrapuntal procedure. If this is the case, then citations should be found throughout the literature as a ubiquitous part of the texture. In sampling and closely analyzing nineteen motet settings on the text Congratulamini mihi omnes, it is clear that only two by Willaert and one by Festa utilize a chant melody. Having now established that chant citations exist, it is possible to explicate possible meanings and relationships by comparing different citations of the well-known Marian antiphon Salve Regina that conveyed different meanings through different associations. In several settings the antiphon is used to invoke other "Salve" texts: in Willaert's Germinavit radix, the antiphon is connected with "Salvatorem" (the Savior) rather than "Salve" (Hail), and in still other settings, the Marian antiphon invokes the Virgin Mary as comforter and protectress. This example and others demonstrate that chant citations acquire meaning in relation to the words of the motet and allow composers an opportunity for textual expression.

Works: Verdelot: In te Domine speravi (180-84); Willaert: Verbum iniquum et dolosum (180-84), Confitebor tibi Domine (185), Congratulamini mihi . . . quia quem quarebam (191), Germinavit radix (199); Festa: Congratulamini mihi omnes (188-91); Morales: Andreas Christi famulus (199); Guerrero: Ave Virgo sanctissima (199); Palestrina: Missa Salve Regina (199); Gombert: Sancta Maria succure miseris (199-200); Layolle: Domine, exaudi orationem meam (200).

Sources: Hymn: Te Deum laudamus (180); Responsory: Judas Mercator pessimus (180); Tromboncino: Ostinato vo' seguire (185); Antiphon: Descendi, in hortum nucum (188), Ecce quam bonum (191-92), Salve Regina mater misericordia (194-201)

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Following Howard Mayer Brown (1982), one can draw increasingly fruitful connections between the rhetorical technique of imitatio prescribed by fifteenth-century rhetoriticians and the compositional borrowing procedures espoused by the composers of the time. Defining formal divisions using Zarlino's five types of cadences (Istitutione harmoniche 1558), the musicologist can then compare settings of the same text for indications of "structural modelling." Five types include (1) imitation of the existing opening; (2) imitation of the existing closing; (3) imitation of the existing contrapuntal elisions and connecting passages; (4) borrowing the number of breves for the setting of each textual section; and (5) borrowing the number of breves for the setting of each textual section, with systematic, proportional expansion or diminution. The concealed, and fairly tenuous, fashion in which these connections often reveal themselves raises the question of the purpose of the borrowing. One possible answer lies in the schooling of the sixteenth-century composer, which would have included Latin rhetoric (taught usingimitatio ), thereby making tbe technique of modeling a natural part of a composer's intellectual background. They would draw on this training as a compositional resource, in addition to wishing simply to pay homage to a respected master.

Works: Croce: O Sacrum Convivium; Gabrieli: O Sacrum Convivium; Lassus: O Sacrum Convivium; Luzzaschi: O Sacrum Convivium; Marenzio: O Sacrum Convivium; Merulo: O Sacrum Convivium; Pallavicino: O Sacrum Convivium; Porta: O Sacrum Convivium; Victoria: O Sacrum Convivium; Wert: O Sacrum Convivium; Vecchi: Quem Vidis Pastores; Victoria: Quem Vidis Pastores; Marenzio: Veni Sponsa Christi; Palestrina: Veni Sponsa Christi.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

In July of 1824, the English Opera House staged its first production of Carl Maria von Weber’s Der Freischütz, and within a few months, seven other London theaters had produced their own versions. All of these productions, however, changed Weber’s original score and text to some degree, and these changes reflected the many practical and aesthetic issues of London’s opera business in the 1820s. Some productions added numerous speaking parts and ballads to conform to audience tastes and English theater conventions, while others amplified the opera’s melodramatic, comic, and supernatural elements so that it conformed more to their usual repertoire. Although many adaptations were heavily modified, some retained most of Weber’s original score, and these less modified versions were soon favored by audiences and critics alike. The numerous London versions of Der Freischütz ultimately reflect an increasing vogue for foreign opera in the city, as well as the aesthetic and cultural issues of transplanting a foreign opera onto an English stage in the nineteenth century.

Works: Weber: Der Freischütz (115-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

One of the most striking elements in Debussy's wartime compositions, including the piano sonata En blanc et noir and the song Noël des enfants qui n'ont plus de maison, among other pieces, is his tendency to politicize his music. He wrote during a time in which the French government had great control over cultural products, and his musical language reflects this. Accompanying this polemic are notable instances of borrowing in En blanc et noir and Noël des enfants. Debussy dedicated the second movement of En blanc et noir, "Lent et sombre," to his friend Lt. Jacques Charlot, who was killed in World War I. In order to create a solemn character, Debussy used nonfunctional and static harmonies, evoking a "funeral drone." In doing so, he stylistically alluded to the Renaissance tombeau, a piece to mourn the dead, often used by Clément Janequin. Further, he used Luther's hymn Ein feste Burg within a discordant setting, deliberately removing it of its triumphal qualities. In Noël des enfants, Debussy also used stylistic allusion, in this case to Schubert, by recalling the "menacing" and "ironic" character of Erlkönig. He evoked the spirit of Schubert's song by using a child as the subject of the song and by composing a fast-paced, vigorous accompaniment. In addition, Debussy employed structural modeling by basing the song on a Lied. His instances of borrowing serve a larger role within the political framework of the French republic.

Works: Debussy: En blanc et noir (216-20); Noël des enfants qui n'ont plus de maison (220).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (218-19); Schubert: Erlkönig (220).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

The legality of sampling in hip-hop and other musical genres has been understood through two models of copyright law: the “pure market substitute” model and the “market enhancement” model, which better serves the goal of copyright law. Sampling case law in US federal courts hinges on the applicability of fair use, the right to use copyrighted material without permission, which in turn is decided primarily by looking at market harm and transformative use. In hip-hop, the cultural importance of sampling as signifying is at odds with copyright law and the system of licensing, both of which favor copyright holders. Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music (1994) applied a transformative use test to rap group 2 Live Crew’s parody of Roy Orbison’s Oh, Pretty Woman and found it to be fair use. Since then, some courts have used the pure market substitute model, ruling that fragments of sound recordings are protectable derivative elements. Other cases have taken a broader view on fair use, ruling that audiences for different musical genres (hip-hop and jazz in the case of Abilene Music v. Sony Music Entertainment, 2003) are distinct enough that market harm is mitigated. The market enhancement model shifts away from this framework. Some courts have ruled that sampling can enhance the marketability of the original work by exposing it to a new audience. A broader adoption of the market enhancement model would relax strict copyright laws for musicians and other media producers who frequently borrow material. Potential drawbacks of expanded fair use include misuse by large corporations at the expense of artists and minimizing an artist’s ability to claim moral harm. Despite these imperfections, the market enhancement model would help achieve a legal balance between expressive freedom and commercial incentives.

Works: 2 Live Crew: Pretty Woman (600-601); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (602); LMFAO: Party Rock Anthem (609, 612); Ghostface Killah, Raekwon the Chef, and the Alchemist: The Forest (610).

Sources: Roy Orbison: Oh, Pretty Woman (600-601); Rick Ross: Hustlin’ (609, 612); Bob Thiele (as George Douglas) and George David Weiss (songwriters), Louis Armstrong (performer): What a Wonderful World (610).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1300s

The contents of the chansonnier Bologna Q16 probably originate in instrumental music from the fifteenth century. Two pieces in particular undoubtedly stem from instrumental practice. La bassa castiglia is the earliest known polyphonic setting of the basse danse and is built around the familiar tune La Spagna. The second is an arrangement of the upper voice of Dufay’s Le servitor with an additional florid tenor attributed to Hanart. In each of these settings a newly composed voice is far more elaborate than the borrowed tune. Another piece, Vostre amor, may also belong to this group, though the source of the borrowed tune is unidentified.

Works: Anonymous: La bassa castiglya (94); Hanart: Le servitor (94); Anonymous: Vostre amour (95).

Sources: Anonymous: La Spagna (94); Dufay: Le servitor (94).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Index Classifications: 1900s