Index Classifications: 1500s

Because Jacquet borrowed so extensively in his early works, musicologists may use his compositional processes as a determinant for dating his youthful compositions as well as documenting his early career. His early madrigals involve different manners of emulation. One can surmise that Altro non è il mio amor is clearly modeled after Verdelot's madrigal with the same text, as Jacquet parodied each point of imitation in the model. Cogliete delle spini from Primo libro a 4 (1555) borrows entire voices from Cipriano de Rore's Anchor che col partire. Jacquet's madrigal cycle Capriccio also employs a pastiche of popular airs. Investigation of borrowed material also may determine the authenticity of the contested Missa Altro non è il mio amor which is based on the same Verdelot madrigal mentioned above. Parody seems to be the most common trait in all of Jacquet's chansons, which are modeled after works of Certon de Villiers, Sandrin, and possibly Jannequin. The motets, on the other hand, reflect the music of earlier composers, such as Josquin and Mouton, with their use of cantus firmus and diminution.

Works: Jacquet de Berchem: Altro non è il amor (59), Cogliete delle spini (60), Capriccio (60), Missa Altro non è il amor (61), Voix de Ville, Se envieulx, et faulx rapportz (63-65), In te signis radians (63-64).

Sources: Verdelot: Altro non è il amor (59-61); Rore: Anchor che col partire (60); Sandrin: Pui que de vous (67).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

The use of prolation signatures in the L'Homme armé Mass by Busnoys (Busnois) suggests that he was the first to base a Mass on this tune. His use of a major-prolation signature in the tenor part is a device that looks backward to English composers of the Old Hall generation and to the isorhythmic motet. The transmission of mensuration signatures in various sources also establishes the Chigi Codex (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Chigiana C.VIII.234) as the most authentic reading. Busnois's mass is unified by an elaborate Pythagorean structure of durational ratios, figured by counting the total number of tempora. Throughout the Mass, it is the tactus rather than the tempus that is consistent, explaining certain notational eccentricities in the Tu Solus and Confiteor sections. At the Et incarnatus, the central point of the Mass, there are 31 tempora. There were 31 chevaliers in the Order of the Golden Fleece at its founding by Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1430. This detail, along with proportional structuring and the use of multiples of 31 found in the six anonymous masses of Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40 suggest that they were composed by Busnois. The association of Busnois with augmentational notation in tenor parts, as well as certain problems with attributions in manuscript sources, do not exclude him as the composer of "Il sera pour vous" (attributed to Robert Morton), a chanson from which the L'Homme armé tradition is thought to have sprung.

Works: Antoine Busnoys (Busnois): Missa L'Homme armé (passim); Guillaume Faugues: Missa L'Homme armé (262-63, 274); Guillaume Dufay: Missa L'Homme armé (263, 265, 267); Philippe Basiron: Missa L'Homme armé (263-64); Anonymous: Six Masses on L'Homme armé (Naples) (275-83). Related Works: Johannes Pullois: Victimae paschali (287-89).

Sources: Antoine Busnois (Busnois): Missa L'Homme armé (262-64); Robert Morton [attrib.]: Il sera pour vous conbatu (265, 273, 288-92).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Busnoys's L'Homme armé Mass is, in fact, the progenitor of the L'Homme armé tradition, and he is the composer of the chanson Il sera pour vous , as well. The number 31 links the L'Homme armé Mass to the Order of the Golden Fleece, and thus to Busnoys. Contrary to David Fallows's claim for Dufay as progenitor (1987), Dufay's Mass is by far the more complex and prolix of the two, thereby positing itself as an emulation by "the Old Man bestirring himself to put the whippersnappers in their place."

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Stravinsky downplayed the extent to which he incorporated Russian folk material in The Rite of Spring in discussions of the work following its composition. Taruskin atributes this to the composer's desire to dissociate himself from the Russian establishment, specifically the "Russian Five," who used folk materials in many of their works. In spite of Stravinsky's claims, Tarushkin demonstrates through an examination of the sketchbook for The Rite of Spring that much of the melodic material consists of reworkings of Russian folk tunes. In addition, many of the harmonic innovations of the work can be seen as derivative from the folk melodies, with the intervallic content used vertically instead of harmonically.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Despite the debate between scholars, there is sufficient musical evidence to demonstrate conclusively that Isaac’s Missa Salva Nos predates his funeral motet Quis dabit capiti meo aquam. The mass draws its cantus firmus from the antiphon Salva nos, Domine, which consists of five phrase segments. Isaac exclusively uses the last of these segments for the Kyrie II, Cum Sancto (Gloria), and Osanna II (Sanctus). This same segment appears as a cantus firmus in his motet along with musical material from the other voices in these same sections of the mass. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that Isaac extracted the motet from the mass rather than used the motet as a model for the mass. This type of musical extraction is at work in other musical genres, such as tricinim that are drawn from “tenor tacet” sections of masses.

Works: Quis dabit capiti meo aquam (82-87), Missa Quant j’ay au cor (88); Anonymous: Bassadanza (89).

Sources: Anonymous: Salva nos, Domine (83-87); Isaac: Missa Salva nos (82-87), Missa Quant j’ay au cor (88), Missa La Spagna (89).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

A thorough examination of Stravinsky's early works can show not only his early indebtedness to Russian folklore, folk music, and concert music, but also the degree to which these Russian characteristics influenced his mature works.

When Stravinsky entered the Russian musical scene in 1902 the values and surviving members of the New Russian School were being absorbed into the growing Conservatory establishment (Chapter 1). Stravinsky had strong ties to the old order, especially to the members of the New Russian School within the Belyayev circle. Stravinsky began his relationship with some of these composers when he joined Rimsky-Korsakov's circle in 1902 (his studies with Rimsky-Korsakov would begin in 1905). Works composed in these early years show a strong reliance on models, most notably works by members of the New Russian School who were active in Belyayev's circle. Stravinsky's Piano Sonata in F-sharp minor is both modeled on and quotes from numerous other piano sonatas, some of which were widely known at the time, others of which were written by some of Stravinsky's former teachers and acquaintances. Likewise, his song How the Mushrooms Mobilize for War, written in the style of an opera aria, is modeled on operatic pieces that had been in his father's repertoire as an opera singer (Chapter 2).

Stravinsky's reliance on existing works (both as generic models and for specific quotations) continued as he studied with Rimsky-Korsakov. His Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1, is dependent upon symphonic models by Glazunov, Tchaikovsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov (among others). The first work composed entirely under his teacher's guidance, The Faun and the Shepherdess, Op. 2, demonstrates a more pervasive reliance on stylistic or generic models (including non-Russians like Wagner) rather than frequent quotations from specific models (Chapter 3). More general stylistic tendencies in Stravinsky's music can also be traced through longer chains of influence. For example, the use of third relations originated in Schubert and passed through Glinka (or Liszt) to Rimsky-Korsakov to Stravinsky; likewise, more inventive approaches to harmony (such as the prominent use of tritones or octatonicism) as demonstrated by Wagner and Liszt was transferred to Stravinsky via Russians of the previous generations, most notably Rimsky-Korsakov, Musorgsky, Borodin, and Glazunov (Chapter 4).

Stravinsky's next two works, Scherzo fantastique and Fireworks, are both scherzos for orchestra modeled on similar fantastic scherzos written early in the careers of Rimsky-Korsakov, Musorgsky, and Cui; however, they also resemble orchestral works by Debussy and Ravel that Stravinsky knew, at least in terms of orchestration (which, ironically, would have been influenced by Rimsky-Korsakov's style). His early songs use other types of models; Spring (A Song of a Cloister) [Vesná (Monastïrskaya)] is an imitation Russian folk song, while Rosyanka (Khlïstovskaya), on the other hand, explores the possibilities present in the less overtly national model of Russian art songs (Chapter 5). Additionally, these songs also demonstrate the degree to which Stravinsky's friends and fellow Rimsky-Korsakov pupils, especially Maximilian Steinberg and Mikhaíl Gnesin, influenced his developing style (Chapter 6).

After Rimsky-Korsakov's death in 1908, Stravinsky joined Diaghilev and his group, Mir iskusstva, who were associated with a decadent, anti-realist, neonational style (Chapter 7). More specifically, Diaghilev and Mir iskusstva aimed to combine their version of Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk idea with a return to folk and peasant roots in balletic works for a Parisian audiences (Chapter 8). Stravinsky's music for The Firebird features frequent references to Rimsky-Korsakov's works, both for harmonic and melodic models. Likewise, Stravinsky also drew from older works by other members of the New Russian School as well as folk melodies (Chapter 9).

Stravinsky came into his own with Petrushka. Borrowing again from Russian folklore, Stravinsky delved more deeply into his repertoire of Russian folk songs, including those quoted in works by Rimsky-Korsakov; however, Stravinsky did more to preserve the folk character of these borrowed songs than his teacher, corresponding with an ethnographic trend of collecting and preserving folk songs occurring at that time (Chapter 10). After Petrushka, Stravinsky turned to vocal genres as he experimented with different combinations of cosmopolitan and traditional Russian musical idioms. His Two Poems of Balmont and the cantata Zvezdolikiy are most influenced by Scriabin's modernist musical style, while Schoenberg is the prevailing musical influence on Three Japanese Lyrics (Chapter 11).

The Rite of Spring grew out of Russian artistic and literary trends that sought a return to mankind's collective, pagan roots. As such, The Rite of Spring includes folk songs that are ethnographically correct for the subject matter (ceremonial songs tied to a specific season or time of year). Stravinsky also revisits his now customary technique of borrowing from earlier Russian works, most notably stage works by his teacher, Rimsky-Korsakov. However, both the folk songs and the previously-composed models are more thoroughly transformed and modified than they had been in previous works (Chapter 12). By the time The Rite of Spring premiered in Paris, Stravinsky had severed most of his ties to former friends and colleagues in Russia (Chapter 13). The falling out between Stravinsky and his former supporters in Russia became complete when he joined in Diaghilev's project of "restoring" Musorgsky's original Khovanshchina (Chapter 14).

Stravinsky's style underwent a major change during his "Swiss exile," a change that was primarily effected through the medium of song. Stravinsky wrote many songs during his years in exile, most of which were arranged into collections (such as Pribaoutki, Berceuses du Chat, and Quatre chants russes). These songs relied almost exclusively on Russian peasant sources of occasional songs (such as game songs, lullabies, or sooth-saying songs) rather than sources of folklore or legend. Musically these songs also attempted to depict Russian peasant roots (in a Eurasian or "Turanian" style) through the use of simple melodies, harmonies built on tetrachords, irregular barring, and, most importantly, free text accentuation (Chapter 15). These musical characteristics are further developed in Baika (Renard), in which Stravinsky presents his imagined version of a Turanian style of theater (called skazka). Similarly, L'Histoire du Soldat contains these Turanian musical elements, although they are complicated somewhat by the intrusion of what initially appears to be American jazz idioms (Chapter 16). The Turanian style reached its pinnacle in Stravinsky's next ballet, Svadebka (Les noces). In this highly formalized performance of a Russian peasant wedding, Stravinsky's only models are songs collected by ethnographers and his own previous compositions rather than works by other Russian composers (Chapter 17).

Stravinsky's instrumental works written during his years in exile are not as unified in style as the vocal works, nor do they follow his Turanian trend as overtly or consistently, although demonstrable aspects do remain. Instead, they demonstrate a more cosmopolitan and proto-neoclassical character (Chapter 18). For all that Pulcinella appears to be a thoroughly neoclassical work, it too includes aspects of Stravinsky's Turanian style whenever he departs from his source materials. Thus Stravinsky's next major stylistic shift occurred in Mavra, in which he returned in part to his old practice of borrowing from Russian masters like Tchaikovsky and Glinka. This work represents an attempt to reconnect with Europe and the "old" Russia, but does not entirely abandon Stravinsky's Turanian developments. Instead, Stravinsky quotes and uses as models the aforementioned composers along with Parisian popular tunes (including melodies heard in stylized Russian cabarets and Americanized jazz) while still borrowing from folk sources as well. Thus, Mavra represents an antimodernistic return to diatonic tonality and music for the sake of enjoyment, one that was not well received by his Parisian audiences and which ended his "Russian" stylistic period (Chapter 19). Beginning with the Octuor, Stravinsky would increasingly abandon his previous folkloristic and nationalistic musical qualities in favor of a more "universal" style. However, covert expressions of nationalism would always persist, and his basic stylistic trademarks were formed primarily by his personal development of Russian influences.

Works: Stravinsky: Scherzo for Piano (100-104), The Storm Cloud [Tucha] (104-8), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (113-16, 118-19, 120-37), How the Mushrooms Mobilize for War [Kak gribï na voynu sbiralis'] (138-39, 142-48, 149-62), Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1 (172-89, 192-222, 224-33), The Firebird (202-3, 310-12, 459-60, 481-86, 579-617, 620-25, 627-30, 632-33, 635-50), Petrushka (202, 204, 661-64, 670-73, 680-701, 705-13, 715-23, 732-41, 744-70), The Faun and the Shepherdess, Op. 2 (233-54), Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3 (315-16, 318-33, 408-11), Fireworks [Feyerverk], Op. 4 (333-45), Spring (A Song of a Cloister) [Vesná (Monastïrskaya)] (346, 348-56, 382-84), Rosyanka (Khlïstovskaya) (356-64), Pastorale (364-68, 382), Chant funèbre [Pogrebal' naya pesn'] (396, 406), The Nightingale (459, 462-86, 1087-1108, 1202-5), Deux poèmes de Verlaine, Op. 9 (651-52, 654-59), Zvezdolikiy (787, 789, 814-22), Two Poems of Balmont (799-811), Three Japanese Lyrics [Tri stikhotvorenii iz yaponskoy liriki] (822-27, 829-42, 844-45), The Rite of Spring (866-71, 873-88, 890-91, 893-95, 897-900, 904-66), Final Chorus for Khovanshchina on Themes of M. Musorgsky and Authentic Old Believers' (1054-60, 1062-68), Svadebka (Les noces) (1068-69, 1129-30, 1132, 1319-1411, 1417-40), Pribaoutki (1137-38, 1145-49, 1167-72, 1224-29), Kolïbel'nïye (Berceuses du Chat) (1137-39, 1149-50, 1172-72, 1230), Quatre chants russes (1137, 1140, 1150-52, 1160, 1162, 1189-93, 1195-98, 1221-24), Podblyudnïye (Four Russian Peasant Songs) (1136, 1139, 1152-62, 1176, 1178-82, 1211-12, 1215-20), Baika (Renard) (1136, 1139, 1162, 1237-39, 1242-1292, 1594-95), Detskiye pesenki (1137, 1140, 1174-75), Chant des bateliers du Volga (Hymne à la nouvelle Russie) (1184, 1187-88), The Rake's Progress (1233-34), L'Histoire du Soldat (1292-1307, 1310-18, 1483), Ragtime pour onze instruments (1307-1310, 1445, 1456), Three Pieces for String Quartet (1444, 1449, 1452, 1465-73), Valse des Fleurs [Tsvetochnïy val's] (1444, 1447-49), Trois pièces faciles (1444, 1447, 1449, 1451, 1473, 1475), Valse pour les enfants (1444, 1449-51), Cinq pièces faciles (1445, 1449), Étude (1445, 1452, 1455), Three Pieces for Clarinet Solo (1445, 1456, 1483-84), Piano-Rag-Music (1445, 1453, 1475, 1477, 1479-83), Concertino for String Quartet (1446, 1484-85), Symphonies d'instruments à vent (1446, 1451-52, 1459, 1461, 1483, 1486), Pulcinella (1462-65, 1501-5, 1507), Souvenir d'une marche boche (1475-76), Les cinq doigts (1517, 1519), Mavra (1537-39, 1546-73, 1575-85, 1588-1603), Octet (1600-1602, 1606-7), Le baiser de la fée (1610-18), Mass (1618-23), Scherzo à la russe (1632-34), Sonata for Two Pianos (1635-47), Requiem Canticles (1649-52, 1657-74); Maximilian Oseyevich Steinberg: Prélude symphonique, Op. 7 (401-7); Nikolai Nikolayevich Tcherepnin: Narcisse (450, 453-57), Le royaume enchanté [Zacharovannoye tsarstvo], Op. 39 (456-58); Debussy: La boîte à joujoux (771-72), Préludes (771, 773-74), Jeux (773-74), Études for Piano (775), En blanc et noir (775-76).

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Valse-Scherzo, Op. 7 (103), Scherzo humoristique, Op. 19, No. 2 (103), Six Pieces on One Theme, Op. 21 (103), Scherzo à la russe, Op. 1, No. 1 (103), Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor (103), Piano Sonata in G Major, Op. 37 (115, 117, 125-26), Symphony No. 5 in E Minor (124-25, 211, 216, 219-21), The Enchantress (157, 159-60), Symphony No. 6 in B Minor (Pathétique) (180, 184, 211), Le baiser de la fée (213), Eugene Onegin [Yevgeniy Onegin] (241, 1553-55), The Tempest [Burya] (243, 246), Romeo and Juliet (243, 245), The Nutcracker (629, 632, 720, 722), The Oprichnik (914), The Sleeping Beauty (1615), Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, Op. 41 (1619, 1620); Glinka: Ruslan und Lyudmila (103, 622, 1331, 1355, 1357. 1458, 1569, 1571), Kamarinskaya (923), A Life for the Tsar (1330, 1355-56, 1535, 1564-67, 1572-73, 1592); Rimsky-Korsakov: The Maid of Pskov [Pskovityanka] (103, 133, 135-36, 606-9), Antar (105, 602), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 72 (145, 148), May Night (152, 156), Pan Voyevoda (166-69, 197), Symphony No. 1 (216, 219), Kashchey the Deathless (216, 219, 243-44, 327, 590-91, 739), The Tsar's Bride (241, 243), The Beauty [Krasavitsa], Op.51, No. 4 (242), The Nymph [Ninfa], Op. 56, No. 1 (242), Snow Maiden [Snegurochka] (242, 244, 327, 601, 632, 636-37, 698-99, 707-8, 710, 712, 934-36, 1331), Christmas Eve (242, 311, 314), From Homer, Op. 60 (336-37), Sadko (349, 351, 401, 403, 469-70, 596-98, 602, 622-23, 739, 747, 927, 1217-18, 1331), The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia (359-61, 364, 401, 698-99, 926, 1184, 1331, 1430), Le coq d'or (403, 464-65, 470, 596, 598-99, 601, 622-23, 701, 748, 1104-5), The Nightingale, Captured by the Rose [Plenivshis' rozoy, solovey], Op. 2, No. 2 (468-69), Mlada (614-15, 629-31, 634, 934), Sinfonietta on Russian Themes (627), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 79 (628), By the Gate a Pine Tree Was Swaying To and Fro [U vorot sosna raskachalasya] (632), 100 Russian Folk Songs, No. 46 (712), Tsar Saltan (720-21, 914), Overture on Liturgical Themes [Russian Easter Overture], Op. 36 (720-21), Sheherazade (739-45, 747, 751), Ai vo polye lipin'ka (869-70), Nu-ka kumushka, mï pokumimsya (906-9), Na morye utushka kupalasya (912-14), Zvon kolokol v Yevlasheve selye (913); Iosif Wihtol: Piano Sonata, Op. 1 (115); Vasiliy Pavlovich Kalafati: Piano Sonatas, Op. 4 (115); Fyodor Stepanovich Akimenko: Sonates-fantaisies (115); Glazunov: Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 74 (115, 119, 125, 127), Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 75 (115, 118-19), Symphony No. 6 in C Minor, Op. 58 (175, 178, 187, 194), Symphony No. 8 in E-flat Major, Op. 83 (180, 182, 184, 186, 190-91, 197, 199, 205-6, 209-10, 219), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, Op.55 (202, 204-5, 213, 216-18), Symphony No. 7 in F Major, Op. 77 (202), The Seasons (241-42, 624, 626), Preludiya (Pamyati N. A. Rimskogo-Korsakova) (403), Scènes de Ballet, Op. 52 (624); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 3 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 23 (115-16, 129-132), Piano Sonata No. 4 (132, 134), Poème de l'extase (616-19), Piano Sonata No. 5 (617, 622), Prometheus (794-95, 801, 807-9, 811), Piano Sonata No. 7 (808-14, 816-17); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (125), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (1475-76), Twelve Variations on a Russian Dance from Wranitzky's "Das Waldmädchen," WoO71 (1517-18, 1520); Musorgsky: Pride [Spes'] (143-44), Picking Mushrooms [Po gribï] (145-46), Boris Godunov (150-52, 348-49, 476, 740-41, 1218, 1267, 1290, 1438), King Saul (150, 152-53), The Billy Goat [Kozyol] (243, 245), Where Art Thou, Little Star! [Gde tï, zvyozdochka] (349), Khovanshchina (359, 1054-59), The Fair at Sorochintsï (935-36), Marriage (1202-3); Borodin: Prince Igor (145, 150, 157-59, 629, 1290-92), Symphony No. 2 in B Minor (202, 213-16), Arabian Melody (753-54); Balakirev: Collection of Russian Folk Songs, No. 36 (145, 148-49), Symphony No. 1 in C Major (410), Georgian Song [Zhar-ptitsa] (624-25), Volga Boatmen's Song [Ey, ukhnem] (1184-86); Alexander Nikolayevich Serov: Judith (152, 154), The Power of the Fiend (152, 155, 692-95, 697, 701, 706, 1341); Sergey Taneyev: Symphony in C Minor, Op. 12 (186-87, 192, 194-95); Stravinsky: Symphony in E-flat Major, Op. 1 (202, 324-26), Scherzo fantastique, Op. 3 (596, 938), Fireworks, Op. 4 (596, 748-50), Petrushka (771-77, 800-801, 803, 805, 807, 827, 937, 939, 1062, 1065, 1167, 1184, 1406, 1662), Zvezdolikiy (827, 932, 937, 1065, 1100, 1205, 1662), The Firebird (937, 1065, 1338, 1668), The Faun and the Shepherdess (938), The Rite of Spring (1062, 1065, 1093, 1096, 1100, 1270, 1272, 1281-83, 1332, 1386, 1414, 1417, 1451, 1456, 1471), Three Japanese Lyrics (1104), The Nightingale (1171, 1174), Pribaoutki (1280, 1332), Berceuses du Chat (1280), Hymne à la nouvelle Russie (1280), Baika (Renard) (1332, 1347, 1388, 1431), Podblyudnïye (1332), L'Histoire du Soldat (1458), Chant funèbre [Pogrebal' naya pesn'] (1493), Svadebka (Les noces) (1650), The Rake's Progress (1650), Symphonies d'instruments à vent (1650, 1663), Octet (1662); Sibelius: Symphony No. 2 in D Major (216); Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole (310-11, 313, 614-15); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (332); Dukas: L'apprenti sorcier (338-41); Mikhaíl Fabianovich Gnesin: Snowflakes [Snezhinki] (382-84); Maximilian Oseyevich Steinberg: The Gold Star [Zolotaya zvezda] (382-84); Nikolai Nikolayevich Cherepnin: Le royaume enchanté [Zacharovannoye tsarstvo], Op. 39 (459); Debussy: Nuages (472, 474-75), Pelléas et Mélisande (655), La Mer (820); Robert Schumann: Vogel als Prophet (476, 478); Anatoliy Konstantinovich Lyadov: Eight Russian Folk Songs (632, 635); Émile-Alexis-Xavier Spencer: La jambe en Bois (696, 704, 706); E. L. Zverkov: A Wondrous Moon Plays upon the River [Chudnïy mesyats plïvyot nad rekoyu] (696, 704-5); Fyodor Istomin and Sergey Lyapunov: Song for St. John's Eve [Ivanovskaya] (696, 707-9, 867, 1167-68), Pesni russkogo naroda (904-5, 921-22, 926); Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire (824, 826-28, 830, 834-35); Anton Juszkiewicz: Melodje ludowe litewskie (895-904, 910, 917-18, 935); Izaly Zemtsovsky: Melodika kalendarnïkh pesen (919-23); Levgeniya Linyova: Trudï MEK (921-22, 1059-62, 1068); Vasiliy Pashkevich: St. Petersburg Bazaar [Sankt-peterburgskiy gostinnïy dvor] (924-25, 1330); Pashkevich and Martin y Soler: Fedul and His Children (924-25); Alexander Listopadov: Trudï MEK (1176-78); Dargomïzhsky: The Stone Guest (1202-3, 1570), Rusalka (1568-70, 1573-74); Scott Joplin: The School of Ragtime: Six Exercises for Piano (1307-8); Alexey Titov: Devichnik (or Filatka's Wedding) (1330); Nikolai Uspensky: Obraztsï drevnerusskogo pevcheskogo iskusstva (1378-82, 1418); D. I. Arakchieyev: Trudï MEK (1414-16); Alexey Verstovsky: Askold's Grave (1434); Satie: Gymnopédies (1451); Domenico Gallo: Trio Sonata No. 1 in G Major (1464), Trio Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Major (1464), Trio Sonata No. 8 in E-flat Major (1464, 1504), Trio Sonata No. 3 in C Minor (1464), Trio Sonata No. 7 in G Minor (1464), Trio Sonata No. 12 in E Major (1465, 1502-3); Pergolesi: Il flaminio (1464), Lo frate 'nnamorato (1464), Adrianna in Siria (1464), Sinfonia for Cello and Basso Continuo (1465); Unico Wilhelm Graf von Wassenaer: Concerti armonici (1464); Alessandro Parisotti: Arie antiche (1464); Carlo Ignazio Monza: Pièces modernes pour le clavecin (1464), Suite No. 3 (1464); Alexis Archangelsky, arr.: Katinka (Bailieff's Chauve-Souris) (1546-47); Daniyil Kashin, arr.: Russkiye narodnïye pesni (1559-60); Alexander Varlamov: White Sail [Beleyet parus odinokiy] (1561-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

The music of White South African composer Kevin Volans provides a case study for the deconstruction of the Western separation of art and politics. The idea that music is only a formal object is rooted in high modernism, but cultural theory can provide ways to read politics in music. After studying composition in Germany, Volans became interested in integrating Black South African musics into his work, leading to a series of compositions he called “African Paraphrases.” In his 1987 string quartet Hunting: Gathering, Volans incorporates a Hamar song from Ethiopia, Aeke gadi (“song of the ancestors”). The song is transcribed (and slightly altered) from a 1974 recording and constitutes large sections of quartet. While his use of the song can be read as musical appropriation, Volans was sensitive to the political consequences of his music and sought to elevate the status of Black South African music through international recognition. However, the primacy of the composer in Western culture tends to override such cross-cultural aims. Volans eventually shifted his opinion on the political aspects of his compositions. While he was composer-in-residence at Princeton University in 1992, Volans emphasized the formal aspects of his music, disavowing the “African paraphrase” label in favor of a “universal” musical identity. Volans’s 1987 Movement for String Quartet, written shortly before Hunting: Gathering but published after, is an example of a piece without intended political meaning. The main motive is derived from his 1986 percussion solo She Who Sleeps with a Small Blanket and is similar in character to African melodies in Hunting: Gathering. Unlike in Hunting: Gathering, Volans transforms and manipulates the motive, effectively hiding its “African” character. Volans’s change in approach can be explained in part by the renewed attitude of depoliticization under Thatcherism. The changes in Volans’s approach to music demonstrate that music is not objective, and therefore more than just objective methodologies are needed to study music’s formal, political, and personal meaning.

Works: Kevin Volans: Hunting: Gathering (512-14), Movement for String Quartet (520-22).

Sources: Traditional: Aeke gadi (512-14); Kevin Volans: She Who Sleeps with a Small Blanket (520-22).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Dozens of works by Schubert from 1816 on echo Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. Many examples are mentioned in the article. Special reference is made to the allusions to the Allegretto of the symphony. Schubert seems to associate the music with death. The main focus of the article is upon the harmonies in the trio and especially upon Schubert's appropriation of the eight-six chord on the dominant which is given such emphasis in the trio. This chord is created as a series of thirds descending over a dominant pedal. Schubert's allusions to this passage are noted and are called "unconscious reminiscences." Schubert's characteristic tendency toward interchangeability of mode is evident in these reminiscences. Schubert adopts what had been a commonplace harmony and invests it with a literary meaning. Traditional analysis is ill-equipped to identify what is significant in Romantic harmony.

Works: Schubert: Wanderers Nachtlied, D. 489 (143), Der Geistentanz, D. 494 (143), Der Tod und das Mädchen, D. 531 (143), Gesang der Geister über den Wasser, D. 538 (143), Thirteen Variations for Piano Solo, D. 576 (144), Schwanengesang, D. 744 (144), Die Liebe hat gelogen, D. 751 (144), Du liebst mich nicht, D. 756 (144), Entr'acte from Rosamunde, D. 797 (144), Wanderer Fantasy, D. 760 (144), Death and the Maiden Quartet, D. 810 (144), Quartet in A Minor, D. 804 (144), Symphony in C Major (144), Piano Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 (145), Die Götter Griechenlands, D, 677 (145), Fantaise-Sonata in G, op. 78 for piano solo, D. 894 (145), Ländler in Ab, D. 790 (149).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Although William Sterndale Bennett has often been described as an inferior derivative of Mendelssohn, most of the similarities between the two are superficial, and there are many original qualities in Bennett’s music. He was trained in the high classical tradition of Mozart, but his early piano pieces already show a unique penchant for chromaticism and unusual textures, such as placing the second subject in the tenor voice. Several early works are more akin to Schumann’s style; in fact, Schumann alluded to Bennett’s compositions in at least three of his pieces and may have been influenced by some of his stylistic traits. While many of Bennett’s shorter piano works, and even his sonata, contain resemblances to certain textures, passages, and forms of Mendelssohn’s Lieder ohne Worte, these similarities are juxtaposed with elements that are very unlike those of Mendelssohn. Some of Bennett’s unique elements include inverted pedal points, which he may have learned about from Mozart or Schubert, but not Mendelssohn; evading the resolution of a dominant seventh; and harmonic anticipation.

Works: William Sterndale Bennett: Six Studies in the Form of Capriccios, Op. 11 (178-80), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13 (180-81), Three Romances, Op. 14 (182).

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 19, No. 4 (179), Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 38, No. 6 (180-81).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Weelkes's madrigals employ a number of prominent compositional features drawn from the English style. His use of chromaticism, however, demonstrates a considerable debt to Italian musical practice. In his 1600 collection Madrigals of Five and Six Parts, especially, his use of chromaticism grew to rival that of Marenzio, having studied not only Marenzio's late chromatic works, but also Monteverdi's Il terzo libro de madrigali a cinque voci by 1600. Works by Marenzio that may have influenced Weelkes include Se la mia vita (1588) and Udite lagrimosi (1594), while Monteverdi's Rimanti in pace may have likewise had an effect on the English composer's music. However, in other ways Weelkes is indebted to the influence of other English composers like Dowland and, especially, Morley. Such influences are evident in a comparison of Weelkes's O Care though wilt despatch me with Dowland's Burst forth and Morley?s Phillis, I fain would die now. Another possible influence on Weelkes's more extreme use of chromaticism could be the keyboard and church music of Peter Philips. Thus, Weelkes's daring chromaticism can be attributed to a number of sources, the most prominent of which are the late Italian madrigalists Marenzio and Monteverdi.

Works: Thomas Weelkes: Madrigals of Five and Six Parts (2-14), O Care thou wilt despatch me (3).

Sources: Monteverdi: Il terzo libro a cinque voci (2), Rimanti in pace (11); Dowland: Burst forth (3); Thomas Morley: Phillis, I fain would die now (3); Marenzio: Se la mia vita (7), Udite lagrimosi (10).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

John Wilbye's Second Set of Madrigals from 1609 demonstrates a familiarity with two prominent Italian madrigalists at the turn of the century: Luca Marenzio and Claudio Monteverdi. More specifically, Wilbye is drawing from Marenzio's ninth book of five-voice madrigals (1599) and Monteverdi's fourth and fifth books of madrigals (1603 and 1605). The 1609 collection's tendency toward the extensive use of sequences includes two techniques that can be traced to these Italian composers. The use of a pedal sequence closely resembles Monteverd's Era l'anima mia (from the fifth book). His transposition of entire polyphonic sections recalls some of Monteverdi's music as well. Moreover, Wilbye's use of chromaticism can be traced both to the works of Monteverdi (Rimanti in pace, 1592) and to those of Marenzio (Crudele acerba, 1599; and Cruda Amarilli, 1595). Yet Wilbye's music goes beyond simple imitation in an elaboration of sequence passages and an inventive use of chromaticism that allow him to break away from his Italian models.

Works: John Wilbye: Second Set of Madrigals (1-11), Happy, O happy he (2), Change me, O heavens (3), Oft have I vowed (3), Ah, cruel Amaryllis (4).

Sources: Monteverdi: Terzo libro a cinque voci (1-2), Quarto libro a cinque voci (2), Quinto libro a cinque voci (2), Rimanti in pace (2), Era l?anima mia (2); Marenzio: Nono libro a cinque voci (2), Crudele acerba (3), Cruda Amarilli (3-4).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Bartók’s early choral works are seen as a continuum of musical growth that occurred simultaneously with a personal maturing process. Musically, this is particularly evident in three of his early choral works: Four Slovak Folk Songs, Four Hungarian Folk Songs, and Cantata Profana. Bartók generally used three methods for incorporating folk music into his compositions. First, he treated the folk element as ornamental (as in Four Slovak Folk Songs). Second, Bartók characterized the folk melody as a “motto,” using it as the main theme in the music (as in Four Hungarian Folk Songs). Finally, Bartók mixed folk and modern music (as in his Cantata Profana). Although the borrowing of folk music was criticized, Bartók defended using it because he believed it would limit him as a composer if he did not use folk music.

Works: Bartók: Four Slovak Folk Songs, Sz. 70 (33-36), Four Hungarian Folk Songs, Sz. 29 (33-36), Cantata Profana, Sz. 94 (33-36), Village Scenes, Sz. 78 (34), Twenty Hungarian Folk Songs, Sz. 92 (34-36), The Miraculous Mandarin, Sz. 73 (34), Dance Suite, Sz. 77 (34), Piano Concerto No. 1, Sz. 83 (34), String Quartet No. 3, Sz. 85 (34), String Quartet No. 4, Sz. 91 (34), From Olden Times, Sz. 104 (36).

Sources: Anonymous: Parlando melodies (34), Tempo Giusto melodies (34).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General

The idea of chivalry, constructed in a Wagnerian mold as self-denying idealism through which society can be regenerated, is central to Edward Elgar’s conception of English music. In his Symphony No. 1 in A-flat Major, Op. 55, and symphonic study Falstaff, Elgar engages with Wagnerian chivalry and reaffirms its idealism. The opening theme of Elgar’s First Symphony (marked nobilmente in the score) recalls the Prelude to Parsifal as well as the opening of Elgar’s oratorio The Apostles, which draws heavily on Parsifal. The third movement of Elgar’s symphony also strongly resembles Elgar’s The Dream of Gerontius, which in turn resembles the Good Friday music of Parsifal in melodic contour. The allusions to Parsifal in Elgar’s symphony represent an application of Parsifal’s transcendent idea. While English critics early on did not note the connection to Parsifal, they did understand Elgar’s symphony to be an optimistic and idealist work of English imperial nationalism, casting Elgar as a redeemer of English music. Elgar further reaffirms the ideals of chivalry in Falstaff, especially when compared to Richard Strauss’s Don Quixote. Strauss effectively undermines the chivalric ideal in Don Quixote and presents the idea of Wagnerian nobility to be anachronistic in modern Germany. Despite this shift in the German reception of Wagner’s ideas, Elgar still modeled his chivalrous works on Wagner and championed a noble English music ideal.

Works: Edward Elgar: Symphony No. 1 in A-flat Major, Op. 55 (261-67), The Apostles (261-62), The Dream of Gerontius (261-62)

Sources: Wagner: Parsifal (261-67); Edward Elgar: The Apostles (261-62), The Dream of Gerontius (261-62)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Arrangements of large-scale vocal works for instrumental chamber ensembles in early nineteenth-century Vienna inspired their performers’ inner senses through physical engagement with a piece of music, superseding the moral meaning of the text. The many versions of Haydn’s The Creation, including several variations linked to Haydn himself, demonstrate the fluidity of the oratorio. Anton Wranitzky’s arrangement for string quintet (published in 1800) sets The Creation in its entirety, including recitatives. Each performer “recites” the text of the oratorio instrumentally; the recitative text is printed in the parts to assist in phrasing and tone (the arias are printed without text). The quintet arrangement also foregrounds the engagement of mind and body in realizing the intricacies of chamber performance. This understanding of the function of musical arrangements is contextualized by the philosophy of Gottfried van Swieten, librettist for The Creation and President of the Court Commission on Education. Van Swieten advocated for a system of empirical learning with important texts (music included) taught partly via “pleasurable repetition.” To this end, the adaptability of art was essential, and van Swieten regularly held salons that included Bach arrangements, theater pantomime games, and tableaux vivants. Considered in this context, chamber arrangements of large-scale musical works become an essential tool in the establishment of an enlightened society.

Works: Anton Wranitzky: Die Schöpfung: Ein musikalisches Oratorium von Herrn Joseph Haydn übersetzt in Quintetten (350-60)

Sources: Joseph Haydn: The Creation (350-60)

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Arnold Bax figures importantly in Ralph Vaughan Williams's Piano Concerto (1931). The end of its final solo cadenza quotes the Epilogue to the Third Symphony of Bax. The matter is confused by the fact that the quotation is implicitly anticipated in the Concerto's Romanza, composed in 1926, three years before the Bax symphony's composition (1929) and four before its first performance (1930). The fuga of the concerto also foreshadows the Symphony No. 4 in F Minor, dedicated to Bax by Vaughan Williams.

Works: Bax: Symphony No. 3 (237); Vaughan Williams: Piano Concerto (237); Romanza (238); Symphony No. 4 in F Minor (238).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Despite the complex personal and professional relationship between Elliott Carter and Charles Ives—especially Carter’s frequent disparaging of his mentor’s use of musical borrowing—Carter borrows from Ives’s music on several occasions. Carter stylistically borrows from Ives in works such as the song View of the Capitol from the Library of Congress, which shares textural and programmatic similarities with Ives’s Putnam’s Camp, Redding, Connecticut. In other pieces (including his First String Quartet), Carter borrows motivic material from Ives’s music. When discussing this borrowing, Carter distances himself from Ives in describing the purpose of the borrowing as “homage,” distinct from the conspicuous borrowing of Ives. Upon analysis, however, Carter’s borrowing technique in the quartet is far more structural and sophisticated than he admits. In Figment No. 2, which is dedicated to Ives, Carter pays tribute to the life and music of Ives through both stylistic and motivic borrowing of Ives’s Concord Sonata and Hallowe’en. Figment contains many Ivesian stylistic elements, including a hymn section and general humorous tone. A more direct reference to Ives comes in the final section of Figment, where Carter quotes what he calls the “walking theme” ostinato from the Thoreau movement of the Concord Sonata. Although Carter asserts a preference for originality in his writings, his use of borrowing reveals a deep familiarity with Ives’s compositional technique and an indebtedness to the music of the past that complicates his musical aesthetic.

Works: Elliott Carter: View of the Capitol from the Library of Congress from A Mirror on Which to Dwell (103-5), String Quartet No. 1 (105-10), Statement—Remembering Aaron (111), Figment No. 2 (111-20)

Sources: Charles Ives: Putnam’s Camp, Redding, Connecticut from Three Places in New England (103-5), Violin Sonata No. 1 (105-10), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord Mass., 1840-1860 (111-14, 117-20), Hallowe’en (111-17); Conlon Nancarrow: Rhythm Study No. 1 (105); Aaron Copland: Ukulele Serenade (111), Statement (111)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A distinct patriotic style of musical borrowing should be included in discussions of Charles Ives’s stylistic heterogeneity, and the extramusical meanings behind borrowings of Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean help reveal Ives’s patriotic beliefs. Columbia, written in 1843, is one of the tunes most frequently borrowed in Ives’s work and, significantly, Ives uses only the verse, not the chorus. Uses of Columbia can be broadly characterized in three ways: understated, developing, or climactic. An example of understated borrowing, in which Columbia appears in short snippets with several other patriotic quotations, is found in Ives’s song Lincoln, the Great Commoner. The textual meaning of Columbia underscores the textual meaning of the Edwin Markham poem Lincoln that Ives sets, reverently evoking Abraham Lincoln and the American ideals he represents. An example of developing borrowing comes from Ives’s String Quartet No. 2. While the quartet is not overtly patriotic, it does include quotations of Columbia and other patriotic tunes that are developed in a kind of “learned” style. Columbia is used first to parody a heated political discussion, then it appears as a melodic basis for contrapuntal development. Climactic Columbia borrowings place the quotation after a large build-up and in a celebratory manner. Ives also uses climactic borrowing of Columbia in Waltz-Rondo, a piece with no explicit nationalist references. This example demonstrates that patriotic style is a distinct style among the romantic piano, ragtime, modernist, and waltz styles present in the piece. The Fourth of July exhibits a fusion of the above categories of borrowing with regard to Columbia. In developing a theory for the patriotic topic, extramusical association should be considered as a criterion for identification.

Works: Charles Ives: They Are There (46-47), Lincoln, the Great Commoner (53-58), String Quartet No. 2 (58-66), The Fourth of July (67-69, 73-75), Waltz-Rondo (69-73)

Sources: David T. Shaw (or Thomas A’Becket): Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (47-75)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Unstylized dances, marches, and songs are conspicious in the music of Charles Ives, giving his symphonies an unruly appearance when compared with their European counterparts. Ives uses collage technique to combine such material (normally considered "foreign" to the symphonic domain) with more "acceptable" symphonic material. Mozart's Don Giovanni, Carl Maria von Weber's Concerto in F Minor for Piano and Orchestra, Beethoven's Missa Solemnis, and Mahler's symphonies reveal different methods of incorporating such functional "music in music." In these cases, however, the quoted music is absorbed into the character of the composition in which it finds itself to a greater extent than it is in the music of Ives, where it maintains its identity and is thus an equal partner. In addition, in Ives's music, the quoted material becomes, through collage technique, a "principle of form."

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis; Berg: Wozzeck; Ives: Holidays Symphony; Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 4; Mozart: Don Giovanni; Weber: Concerto in F Minor for piano and orchestra.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Mahler uses material from his own songs, especially those from his song-cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, in his symphonies in three general ways: (1) as the basis of an entire movement, as in the first movement of his Symphony No. 1 (based on "Ging heut' morgen übers Feld") and the Scherzo movement of his Symphonies No. 2 and No. 3; (2) as episodes with a symphonic movement, especially as "Lindenbaum" relates to the third movement of his Symphony No. 1, second movement of his Symphony No. 2, and the third movement of his Symphony No. 5; (3) as the source of melodic elements, taken over in the symphony through emulation, direct quotation, or motivic transformation. The last section of this monograph provides a contiguous chronology of Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen and the Symphony No. 1.

Works: Mahler: Symphonies Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: John Andrew Johnson

Aaron Copland's use of quotation, harmony, and rhythm in Mood for Piano no. 3, "Jazzy," written before he departed Brooklyn for Paris, reveals important features of his aesthetics. The piece, though obscure, represents Copland's ability to blend popular and classical styles. The opening of the first theme of "Jazzy" resembles openings in Tin Pan Alley hits such as Alexander's Ragtime Band and Oh Joe, With Your Fiddle and Bow, with "slangy lyrics" and ragtime rhythms. The second theme in "Jazzy" quotes the tune My Buddy, popular in the World War I era. Copland paraphrased the tune in "Jazzy" and changed the meter from triple to duple. He retained the chromaticism of the original, found in the melody and the harmony. In addition to these quotations and allusions, Copland may have used Leo Ornstein's Three Moods for Piano as a structural model for "Jazzy." Some of Copland's sonorities resemble Scriabin's "mystic chord." He also uses the chromatic shifts present in the bridge of Zez Confrey's Kitten on the Keys as a basis for his more dramatic chromaticism. Overall, Copland uses parody to satirize popular songs, to use jazz rhythms in a new way, and to borrow modern harmonies and make them accessible.

Works: Copland: Mood for Piano no. 3, "Jazzy" (277-82, 289-93).

Sources: Berlin: Alexander's Ragtime Band (282); Walter Donaldson: Oh, Joe, With Your Fiddle and Bow (You Stole My Heart Away) (282); Gus Kahn and Walter Donaldson: My Buddy (283-89, 292); Ornstein: Three Moods for Piano (290); Confrey: Kitten on the Keys (291).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications:

Samples of Nina Simone in hip-hop in the 2000s and 2010s enable artists to access her sonic black radicalism, revealing the possibilities and limits of Simone’s contemporary resurgence as a civil rights icon and complicating debates about black women’s role in hip-hop. In 2007, producer Devon “Devo Springsteen” Harris created an instrumental track that sampled Simone’s 1965 recording of Strange Fruit, written by Abel Meeropol in 1936 and made famous by Billy Holiday, that was used in both an unreleased track by Common and in Celebrate by Cassidy. Harris selected Simone’s recording over Holiday’s for the “rawness” of her voice, emphasized by her sparse arrangement revising Franz Schubert’s Der Doppelgänger. Common pairs the Strange Fruit sample with politically engaged lyrics about global black suffering, aligning with Simone’s political black radicalism. Cassidy pairs Simone’s Strange Fruit with a personal narrative of self-reflection and redemption, emphasizing the paradoxical desperation and celebration at the heart of hip-hop. Celebrate was inspired by Get By, a 2002 track by Talib Kweli produced by Kayne West that samples Simone’s 1965 recording of Sinnerman. West extracts three sections from Sinnerman: Simone’s lyrical shout, unmeasured vocalizing, and a portion of her piano solo. These relatively obscure extracts highlight the sound of Simone’s voice and pianism over her lyrical interpretation, drawing on the musical experimentation of Simone’s sonic black radicalism. West also samples Simone in several of his own tracks, which leads to tension between Simone’s political legacy and West’s often sexist lyrics. In Blood on the Leaves, West pairs a pitch-shifted sample of Strange Fruit with deep ambivalence toward women’s sexuality and motherhood. In effect, West uses Strange Fruit to decry his exploitation at the hands of women he hooks up with, not his exploitation by racist institutions. Simone’s musical legacy of radical genre mixing is more relevant to West’s project than her politics. While the practice of sampling Nina Simone by male hip-hop artists risks being read as appropriative, it can also introduce Simone’s radical politics to a new generation of listeners and place her voice at the center of the ongoing struggle for black freedom.

Works: Cassidy, Devon Harris (producer): Celebrate (122, 124-27); Common, Devon Harris (producer): [untitled, unreleased track] (122, 124-26); Abel Meerepol (as Lewis Allen, songwriter), Nina Simone (performer): Strange Fruit (123); Talib Kweli, Kanye West (producer): Get By (128-30); Kanye West: Bad News (129), Blood on the Leaves (129-32); Kayne West and Jaz-Z: New Day (129); Busta Rhymes, Jay-Z, Kweli, Mos Def, Kanye West (producer): Get By (remix) (132-33); Lauryn Hill: Black Rage (133-34)

Sources: Abel Meerepol (as Lewis Allen, songwriter), Nina Simone (performer): Strange Fruit (122-27, 130-32); Franz Schubert: Der Doppelgänger (123); Traditional, Nina Simone (arranger, performer): Sinnerman (128-30, 132-33), See-Line Woman (129); Love: Doggone (128); Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein: My Favorite Things (133-34)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

As a composer working within the ideological constraints of socialist realism, Paul Dessau brought together classical models (from Bach, Beethoven, and others) and modernist compositional techniques (from Schoenberg and Webern) in two important works from the 1960s: Bach Variations (1963) and Orchestermusik No. 3, “Lenin” (1969). Within these pieces, Dessau employs a mixture of styles, musical quotations, and both tonal and atonal musical languages. During his exile in France and then the United States during World War II, Dessau formed significant aspects of his compositional style, including a deep interest in the works of Schoenberg and other modernist composers. After the war and his return to the socialist state of East Germany, an ideological tension emerged in the peripheries of cold-war politics regarding German musical heritage. Especially in East Germany, questions of elitism, utility, and a true adherence to the “classics” complicated the adoption of modernist techniques in contemporary composition. Whereas figures like Hans Eisler preferred to keep the modern and the classical separate in composition, Dessau blended them for a variety of musical, political, and aesthetic reasons, making him a unique figure in the dialectic of past and present in post-war German music.

Works: Paul Dessau: Symphonic Mozart Adaptation after the Quintet KV 614 (186-87), In Memoriam Anton Webern (187), Bach Variations (188-89), Orchestermusik No. 3, “Lenin” (190-91).

Sources: Mozart: String Quintet No. 6 in E-flat Major, K.614 (187); Johann Sebastian Bach: The Musical Offering, BWV 1079 (187), “Musette,” BWV Anh. 126, from Notenbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach (189); C. P. E. Bach: Peasant’s Dance (188-89); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 23 in F Minor, Op. 57 (“Appassionata”) (190-91); Paul Dessau: Grabschrift für Lenin (190), Appell der Arbeiterklasse (191).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Molly Covington

In the Missa L'homme armé, Missa De tous bien plaine, Missa Fortuna desperata, and Missa Petrus Apostolus, Jacob Obrecht presents the cantus firmus in retrograde, inversion, or a combination of the two. On occasion, Obrecht also uses the original or a derivative form of the cantus firmus in transposition, apparent in his Missa Graecorum, which requires adjustments to the cantus firmus to accommodate Obrecht's canonic inscription. In other masses, Obrecht manipulates the cantus firmus through his segmentation technique witnessed in masses such as Maria zart, De tous bien plaine, Malheur me bat, Rose playsante, Je ne demande, and Si dedero. Obrecht's use of predetermined formal elements shows a great consideration for unity and cyclic structure in his works. The fascination with strict "serial-like" cantus firmus procedures, however, finds precedent in the masses of other fifteenth century composers. Retrograde can be found in thirteenth- and fourteenth-century manuscripts, and retrograde-inversion appears in an anonymous Gloria from the "Fountains Fragment" and in the more famous Dunstable isorhythmic motet, Veni sancte spiritus et emitte. Busnois makes use of these techniques in more than one work, including his L'homme armé mass, which contains an inversion in the Agnus Dei according to a canonic rule written under the vocal part, and in his motet In Hydraulis, which derives its tenor from a three-note figure that may be interpreted as a large-scale palindrome. A close musical relationship might exist between Busnois and Obrecht, particularly between their L'homme armé masses. Obrecht's mass is indebted to Busnois in using the techniques of retrograde and inversion during sections of the mass where Busnois had also incorporated those procedures. A striking deviation occurs during the Agnus Dei, where Obrecht uses retrograde-inversion in contrast to Busnois's use of inversion. In Obrecht's Missa De tous bien plaine, an even more radical transformation of the cantus firmus takes place in which he orders the borrowed pitches in terms of their rhythmic value from the longest to the shortest. Furthermore, his Missa Graecorum involves rhythmic reordering of the cantus firmi, inversion, and retrograde-inversion. These masses thus demonstrate Obrecht's affinity for systematic and "serial" cantus firmus organization and associate him with Busnois, who employed similar compositional tools.

Works: Obrecht: Missa Graecorum (51-52, 66-69), Missa L'homme armé (51, 56-57), Missa De tous bien plaine (51-52, 5860), Missa Fortuna desperata (51, 61-62), Missa Petrus Apostolus (51, 64-65), Missa Maria zart (52), Missa Malheur me bat (52), Missa Rose playsante (52), Missa Je ne demande (52), Missa Si dedero (52), Missa Salve diva parens (63-64); Dunstable: Veni sancte spiritus et emitte (53-54); Busnois: Missa L'homme armé (55), In hydraulis (55), Conditor alme siderum (55), J'ai pris amours tout au rebours (55).

Sources: Busnois: Missa L'homme armé (56-57), Fortuna desperata (61-62); Hayne van Ghizeghem: De tous bien plaine (58-60); Antiphon: Petrus Apostolus (64-65).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

In the process of reconstructing an outline of the evolution of Mendelssohn’s Six Preludes and Fugues, Op. 35, from independent fugues to a cyclic collection of preludes and fugues, the issues of influence and genre surface. The influence of J. S. Bach (especially his Well-Tempered Clavier), Beethoven, and the nineteenth-century virtuosic pianism of Thalberg is apparent. Mendelssohn’s decision to change the title for Op. 35 from “Etudes and Fugues” to “Preludes and Fugues” further illustrates both the influence of Bach and the nineteenth-century virtuoso in Mendelssohn’s compositional process. Moreover, a close study of the fugue in E Minor from Op. 35, No. 1, reveals the programmatic implication of “struggle,” an extramusical meaning often applied to fugues in the nineteenth century.

Works: Felix Mendelssohn: Prelude and Fugue in D major, Op. 35, No. 2 (172), Prelude and Fugue in A-flat major, Op. 35, No. 4 (173).

Sources: J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude and Fugue in D Major, BWV 850 (172); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A-flat, Op. 110 (173).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Many of William Sterndale Bennett’s piano pieces contain allusions to Mendelssohn’s music, which serve both to situate Bennett within a certain style, and also to provide intertextual meaning. His cantata Woman of Samaria is modeled on Mendelssohn’s Elijah. Many of his short piano pieces, such as the Impromptus and Romanzas, borrow from Mendelssohn’s Lieder ohne Worte. The Impromptu, Op. 12, No. 2, for example, reflects the opening texture of Mendelssohn’s Caprice, Op. 16, No. 3: both containing a flowing soprano melody with alto accompaniment in the right hand, while the left hand has slower-moving tenor and bass parts. The rising melody in the second phrase of the piece is also a reworking of a melody from Mendelssohn’s String Quartet No. 2, Op. 14. Bennett’s Romanza, Op. 14, No. 2 clearly borrows many textural, melodic, harmonic, and formal elements from Mendelssohn’s Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 38, No. 6, including a passage with duet texture. Bennett’s piano sonata, which is dedicated to Mendelssohn and was written on the occasion of his wedding to Cecile, contains many allusions to the Lieder ohne Worte and other pieces. It includes alternations of major and minor passages, and several duet passages reminiscent of Mendelssohn’s Op. 38, No. 6. It also features a reworking of the melody from Mendelssohn’s Op. 19, No. 5 in the finale. The romantic connotations evoked by these allusions create a personalized love song through the sonata.

Works: William Sterndale Bennett: Woman of Samaria (101), Three Impromptus, Op. 12 (102-3), Romanzas, Op. 14 (103-6), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13 (107-16).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Elijah (101), Lieder ohne Worte, Op 19, No. 2 (102), String Quartet No. 2 in A Minor, Op. 14 (103), Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 30, No. 1 (104), Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 38, No. 6 (105-6, 110-113), Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 30, No. 2 (114), Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 19, No. 5 (114), Overture, Op. 32 (115-117).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Scholars and critics have long recognized that Robert Schumann’s music contains a multitude of quotations, allusions, and extramusical ideas. Although some of these borrowings are clearly heard, others are only apparent, and still others are conjectural and may not exist at all. Additionally, even when instances of borrowing or allusion can be proven, there is often much uncertainty over what these borrowings mean and how they function within each piece.

However, a loose typology, consisting of three categories, can help to illuminate the types of materials Schumann borrowed, and what these borrowings signify in their new contexts. First, Schumann’s historical interests led him to allude to composers of the past, especially Bach and Beethoven. Second, Schumann referenced contemporary composers as a means of praising or critiquing them, and thus promoting high musical standards while criticizing “shallow” composers. Finally, Schumann alluded to his own music, critically reinterpreting previous material in new and unexpected ways.

Works: Robert Schumann: Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26 (81); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann, Op. 9 (82-84); Robert Schumann: Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (84-86), Papillons, Op. 2 (84-86), Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (86-87), Impromptus, Op. 5 (86-87), Intermezzos, Op. 4 (87-89), Kreisleriana, Op. 16 (88-91, 104-5), Fantasie in C, Op. 17 (92-95), Konzert-Allegro mit Introduktion, Op. 134 (96-97), Kerner Gedichte, Op. 35 (97-98), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 97 (98-99), Noveletten, Op. 21 (101-2), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (102-3), Klavierstücke, Op. 32 (104-5), Andante and Variations, Op. 46 (105-8).

Sources: Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (81); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 31, No. 3 (81); Robert Schumann: Carnaval: Scènes Mignonnes sur Quatre Notes, Op. 9 (82-83); Anonymous: Groβvater-Tanz (84-91); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (92-94); Schubert: Fantasie in C Major, D.760 (94), An die Musik, D.547 (94); Carl Maria von Weber: Konzert-Allegro mit Introduktion, Op. 134 (96-97); Clara Schumann: Notturno, Op. 6, No. 2 (101-2); Johann Wenzel Kalliwoda: Symphony No. 1, Op. 7 (102-3); Robert Schumann: Kreisleriana, Op. 16 (104-5), Frauenliebe und -leben, Op. 42 (106-8).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Monteverdi's "via naturale alla immitatione" can be traced throughout his dramatic works as well as in some of his madrigal books. His musical realization of Rinuccini's L'Arianna can be seen as the culmination of that philosophy. Instances in which he does not reach that goal can be attributed to the inadequacy of his librettists, rather than to his own inability to extract the highest dramatic elements from a text. His 1607 opera Orfeo, for example, demonstrates a great debt to the compositional style of Jacopo Peri in his L'Euridice. A comparison of the two operas demonstrates striking similarities in musical language in a number of key aspects: (1) the low tessitura of the Underworld choruses; (2) the characterization of Orpheus and Pluto by tonal and melodic means; and (3) the borrowed structural outlines from large musical units in L'Euridice. Moments of musical similarity are, however, generally preceded by a correspondence in text between Striggio's and Rinuccini's librettos. Monteverdi's response to Striggio's libretto, therefore, mirrors Peri's to Rinuccini's especially in the moments when the two coincide: for example, in the messenger's narration of Eurydice's death and in Orpheus's subsequent reaction to this news. In these examples, specifically, Monteverdi's debt to Peri's stile recitativo is most prominent. Thus, it is evident that Monteverdi's musical style relies heavily on the quality of the text, and Striggio's inadequacies in borrowing from Rinuccini are reflected in the composer's realization of the libretto. Such problems can be found in Monteverdi's later Venetian operas as well, preventing the composer from duplicating the dramatic success present in his 1608 masterwork, L'Arianna.

Works: Monteverdi, Orfeo (60-108).

Sources: Jacopo Peri, L'Euridice (60-108).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

[See chapter 2.]

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Dubbing treats music more as modeling clay than copyrightable material, rendering no mix original, as it extracts bits from existing music and places it in new contexts. Dub is both a genre of music and a technique that removes the vocal track away from its backing track. The remaining accompaniment track is then altered by the artist with a variety of methods, including drop-out, extreme equalisation, long and short delay, space echo, reverb, flange, phase, noise, gates, echo feedback, shotgun snare drums, rubber bass, zipping highs, and cavernous lows. These effects are generally used to enhance the existing track, but when they are deployed by a dubmaster they have the potential to create new moods and moments. In this way, the dubmaster is like a sculptor, as he directly manipulates existing material. Dub also anticipated the later remix culture in the 1970s with version albums such as Rupie Edwards’s Yamaha Skank, demonstrating that dub was more than a style but was a new way of thinking about music and creativity.

Works: William Gibson: Neuromancer (356); Joe Gibbs: African Dub All-Mighty; Augustus Pablo: King Tubbys Meets Rockers Uptown (356), Africa Must Be Free By 1983 (356), East of the River Nile (357); Lee Perry: Super Ape (357); Rupie Edwards: Yamaha Skank (357); Anonymous: My Conversation.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Since the public premiere of Ernesto Halffter’s Sinfonietta, critics and scholars alike have sought to trace the influence of Halffter’s teacher, Manuel de Falla, on the work, as the piece bears striking similarities to various pieces by Falla. Although Halffter had studied previously with Falla, a thorough examination of correspondence between the two composers shows that despite attempts by Halffter to show the piece to Falla, the latter did not become acquainted with the Sinfonietta until after a first version was premiered. From 1926 to 1927 Halffter received advice from Falla about revisions to the work, but it is unclear what suggestions Falla made. In any case, it is clear that Halffter emulated his teacher in the Sinfonietta. Halffter modeled the work on the music of Falla, particularly on Falla’s Concerto for Harpsichord and El sombrero de tres picos. A comparison of passages from the Sinfonietta with these pieces by Falla shows that Halffter borrowed and reworked melodic outlines, accompanimental textures, ostinato rhythms, cadential chord progressions, rhythmic motives, and meters. Subtle allusions to El sombrero de tres picos can also be found in the Sinfonietta. Due to Halffter’s great familiarity with the music of Falla, the striking resemblances between the Sinfonietta and the music of Falla were undoubtedly intentional.

Works: Ernesto Halffter: Sinfonietta.

Sources: Manuel de Falla: Concerto for Harpsichord (158-62, 165), El retablo de maese Pedro (162-65), El sombrero de tres picos (165-66).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 2 "Lobgesang" is a ceremonial work composed for the 400th anniversary celebration of Gutenberg's invention of moveable type. It is a mixture of vocal and instrumental music, a fusion of different forms and textures of cantata, oratorio, opera and symphony. In the past, it suffered unjust criticism as a result of incorrect comparison to Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. A general resemblance to Beethoven's Ninth, as well as the nineteenth-century anxiety toward the work, points to Beethoven's Ninth Symphony as Mendelssohn's paradigm. But the real models for Mendelssohn are the cantatas and passions of Bach, and the anthems and oratorios of Handel. The "Lobgesang" consists of two parts: the instrumental part, labeled as "Sinfonia," succeeded by a cantata. The cantata contains a diversity of styles. A closer examination of the aria "Stricke des Todes hatten uns umfangen" from No. 6, the so-called "Watchman scene," shows how Mendelssohn uses sonata principle to serve as an essential part of the drama and in total compliance to the text. In the chorus "Die Nacht ist vergangen" from the same number, Mendelssohn uses a mixture of homophonic and fugal writing; the climax is reached through repetition, elaboration, and variation of thematic materials, producing a coherent form.

Works: Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 2, Op. 52, Lobgesang.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Index Classifications: 1900s

The fundamental distinguishing characteristics of the Andalusian folk tradition are the use of guitar with its unique rhythmic and harmonic possibilities, the use of the cante jondo, especially its la, sol, fa, mi cadential figure, and the use of an internal pedal. Falla, following Debussy's example, imbedded these traits within the fabric of his music to create works which expressed fully the spirit of southern Spain. Falla acknowledged his debt to Debussy by quoting from his piano works in Homenajes.

Works: Falla: Homenajes (149).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

By the late 1840s, Liszt essentially turned away from virtuoso performance and began to refashion himself as a serious-minded composer, likely in response to harsh criticisms of his compositional skills (and of virtuosity in general) in the French and German press. Nevertheless, the 20-year compositional history of his “Dante” Sonata reveals that Liszt’s virtuoso pianism and improvisational skills continued to deeply inform his compositional process. Early sketches of the work can be understood as written-out “Phantasieren” on single motives and themes, and these procedures of motivic and thematic transformation show the influence of pedagogical works such as the Systematische Anleitung zum Fantasieren auf dem Pianoforte by Liszt’s teacher, Carl Czerny. Liszt’s designation of his “Dante” Sonata as a “Fantasia quasi Sonata” also suggests that he envisioned this piece as an inversion of Beethoven’s two “quasi una Fantasia” Sonatas, Op. 27: whereas Beethoven composed sonatas that had the character of fantasy-like improvisations, Liszt created fantasy-like improvisations and passages at the piano that eventually formed the building blocks of a written sonata. Additionally, the “Dante” Sonata’s manuscripts and the correspondence surrounding the work’s development reveal that Liszt easily moved back and forth between improvisation at the piano (either in private or in public) and composition “at the desk.” Liszt experimented with and gradually refined different fragments of the Sonata in both contexts, but “Phantasieren” was essential to the genesis, reworking, and transformation of the musical ideas that he would later organize into a more unified, polished composition.

Works: Liszt: Après une lecture du Dante. Fantasia quasi Sonata, S.161/7 (“Dante” Sonata) (54-60, 65-66, 70-93).

Sources: Czerny: Systematische Anleitung zum Fantasieren auf dem Pianoforte, Op. 200 (63-65, 70-75); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 13 in E-flat Major, Op. 27, No. 1 (“Sonata quasi una Fantasia”) (75-77), Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (“Sonata quasi una Fantasia”/“Moonlight”) (75-77).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

In his score for The Lion King (1994), Hans Zimmer fully integrates the Dies irae melody, giving it structural importance to the film’s narrative and circle-of-life theme. By doing so, Zimmer reclaims some of the spiritual cachet of the melody against simplistic uses of the melody in other film scores. As quotations of Dies irae became popular in nineteenth- and twentieth-century concert music, the chant began to lose its sacred and medieval associations in favor of secular connotations of death. This trend continued as film composers, including Hans Zimmer, used the Dies irae motif in a similar manner, leading to a simplistic association between the motif and death, menace, or creepiness. Zimmer’s use of Dies irae in The Lion King is distinctive in its pervasive and varied use throughout the score as well as its impact on the film’s spiritual symbolism. There are two scenes in which the obvious Dies irae death motif is evoked: first when Scar orders the hyenas to kill young Simba after the stampede, and second during the climax when adult Simba fights Scar to reclaim the throne. Of greater importance however are the approximately forty separate occurrences of the exact or modified chant melody that occur throughout the score. Of the seven principal themes, three contain the Dies irae motif in some form. These three themes are related to Mufasa, his spiritual presence after his death, and his seat of power at Pride Rock. Significantly, the Dies irae motif in these themes is heard well before Mufasa’s death in scenes setting up Simba’s relationship with his father and the burden of power. Zimmer also borrows Mozart’s Eucharistic hymn Ave verum corpus, K. 618, in three pivotal scenes related to Mufasa’s death and Simba’s painful memory of it, further supporting the religiosity of the film’s themes and imagery. Thus, Zimmer’s use of Dies irae in The Lion King functions as part of the spiritual aspects of the film, transcending the chant’s common secular associations.

Works: Hans Zimmer: score to The Lion King (38, 46-56), score to Crimson Tide (45), score to The Rock (45-46), score to The Road to El Dorado (45), score to The Ring (46), score to The Da Vinci Code (46); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (40); Liszt: Totentanz (40); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (40-41); Wendy Carlos and Rachel Elkind: score to The Shining (42); Danny Elfman: score to The Nightmare Before Christmas (42); Bernard Herrmann: score to Citizen Kane (42); Dimitri Tiomkin: score to It’s A Wonderful Life (42); John Williams: score to Star Wars (42)

Sources: attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (38-55); Mozart: Ave verum corpus, K. 618 (54-56)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although Ellington's compositional practices tend to support his statements about composing at the end of a deadline, often composing an entire piece in one night, new research shows that the ideas of Black, Brown, and Beige can actually be found twelve years earlier with Ellington's unproduced opera Boola. The plot of Boola deals with the history of the African-Americans, beginning in Egypt and continuing through Africa and the Deep South until they found their place in present-day Harlem. In Black, Brown, and Beige, Ellington takes the overall diagram of Boola and shrinks the subject matter into a forty-five minute extended work for his band. Ellington also borrows from his own previous compositions in Black, Brown and Beige through quotation and recomposition.

Works: Ellington: Black, Brown and Beige.

Sources: Ellington: Symphony in Black (73-74), Jump for Joy (74-82), East St. Louis Toodle-Oo (82), Riding on a Blue Note (82), Bitches' Ball (82).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Thelonious Monk’s 1955 album Thelonious Monk Plays Duke Ellington demonstrates both a fluid definition of the “mainstream ” as it emerged in the mid-1950s, as well as some of the ways Monk responded musically to its commercializing forces. During this decade, musicians and critics alike were formulating a new definition of the jazz mainstream that accounted for styles that fell between traditional swing and modern bebop styles. Monk’s producers, Orrin Keepnews and Bill Grauer Jr., were sensitive to the new commercial pressures of mainstream appeal, and Monk’s “Ellington album” was a tool for drawing a wider audience to an artist whose reputation for difficulty was well-known. The result, however, was not an ideal synthesis of old and new styles. There are moments of musical interest, as in the clever harmonies in the introduction to “Mood Indigo” and the impressive double-time solo on “I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart.” In general, however, Monk plays with the detachment of someone who, as Keepnews suggested, had never seen the pieces before. This can be interpreted as a simple lack of familiarity with the music (however unlikely, since the songs were chosen for their popularity), or else as an expression of protest to commercializing forces. Although the Ellington album—by admission of the producers—was an attempt to bring Monk’s music to a mainstream audience, the lack of any drastic stylistic evolution between prior and subsequent albums Monk recorded with Prestige and Riverside indicates that it is not Monk’s music that changes over the course of the 1950s, but rather its critical reception and the definition of the jazz “mainstream.”

Works: Thelonious Monk (performer): These Foolish Things [1952 version] (235), Black and Tan Fantasy [1955 version] (237), It Don’t Mean a Thing [1955 version] (238-9), Mood Indigo [1955 version] (238), I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart [1955 version] (238-9), Solitude [1955 version] (239), Sophisticated Lady [1955 version] (239).

Sources: Duke Ellington: Sophisticated Lady (228), I Got It Bad (and That Ain’t Good) (228), Mood Indigo (228), It Don’t Mean a Thing If It Ain’t Got That Swing (228), I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart (228), Caravan (229), Black and Tan Fantasy (228).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Luther's powerful Ein feste Burg has important historical properties that apply to the analysis of its melody as it appears in twentieth-century band literature. Composers who set the tune were attracted to its religious message as well as the opportunity to reset the melody into a new genre. Warren Benson's The Leaves Are Falling, inspired by a poem from Rainer Maria Rilke, resembles an orchestral tone poem in its instrumentation. Benson composed the piece after the assassination of John F. Kennedy. He parodies Ein feste Burg throughout in order to give the listener a simultaneous sense of austerity, in the presence of the tune, and loss, in its fragmentation. John Zdechlik's Psalm 46 and James Curnow's Rejouissance quote short portions of the tune in variation and save a complete quotation for the end of the piece. Gordon Jacob's Tribute to Canterbury uses the tune to pay homage to the Kings School in Canterbury and likens Luther's struggle to Canterbury's "ability to survive and grow in times of religious turbulence." In his three-movement cyclical setting, Jacob uses the theme as a unifying element and incorporates it into each movement. Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night, composed by Elliot Del Borgo, never quotes the entirety of the hymn but rather relies on the familiarity of the first phrase throughout. Del Borgo evokes the spirit of the hymn as a tribute to "comfort against the dark force of death." Vaclav Nelhybel's Festive Adorations uses paraphrase of three hymns, one of which is Ein feste Burg, within a collage setting. Each composer borrows Ein feste Burg because of its strong religious associations, but all use different compositional and expressive means.

Works: Warren Benson: The Leaves Are Falling (55-72); John Zdechlik: Psalm 46 (73-89); Gordon Jacob: Tribute to Canterbury (90-110); Elliot Del Borgo: Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night (111-23); James Curnow: Rejouissance (124-43); Vaclav Nelhybel: Festive Adorations (144-55).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (1, 3-4, 12-26, 49-50).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

There are melodic similarities between Bach's Freut euch und jubiliert and the setting of the same text in an earlier motet by Calvisius. In conjunction with other evidence, this suggests that Kuhnau was not the only source for Bach's interpolations.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Schumann achieves coherence in song cycles by relating the songs musically as well as poetically. Musical means of providing unity in three cycles, Liederkreis, Op. 39, Frauenliebe und -Leben, Op. 42, and Dichterliebe, Op. 48, includes relating the songs tonally and motivically. Quotation of part of an earlier song in the closing piano postlude is heard in Frauenliebe und -Leben (song 1) and Dichterliebe (song 12). There is melodic quotation between songs in Liederkreis.

Works: Schumann: Liederkreis, Op. 39, Frauenliebe und -Leben, Op. 42, Dichterliebe, Op. 48.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

In 1678, Lully made revisions to Psyché, his tragédie-ballet of 1671, and transformed the work into a tragédie en musique, or opera. A significant amount of material from the original tragédie-ballet was unaffected by the change, as the 1671 version of Psyché was similar to opera in a number of respects. Lully was able to adopt a number of forms from his pre-operatic days in the divertissements of the new tragédies en musique, for example. While some material from the original version may seem redundant or out of place in the 1678 opera, they serve as reminders of and highlight Lully's evolutionary process. Ultimately, the metamorphosis from tragédie-ballet to tragédie en musique is successful, but the operatic Psyché is unable to avoid the shadow of its former self.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Index Classifications: 1700s

Instances of borrowing in two works by Mozart raise the question whether he failed to acknowledge the sources from which he borrowed. The melody in the second minuet in Mozart's Divertimento in D Major, K. 251 is similar to the Provençal melody of a minuet for piano by Angela Diller and Elizabeth Quaile (published in 1919 by G. Schirmer, New York: Second Solo Book for the Piano). Did Mozart borrow from a Provençal source also tapped by Diller and Quaile? Tracing the source and establishing its date of origin can resolve that question. Another case: the ending of the quintet in the first act of Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (No. 5) is reminiscent of a song by Johann Baptist Henneberg. The latter was published in a book of songs called Frühlingslieder (1791) that also contains three songs by Mozart. Did Mozart borrow that melody from Henneberg (say, to please Schikaneder's Kapellmeister) or did both composers use a popular Viennese tune?

Works: Mozart: Divertimento in D Major, K. 251 (126-27), Die Zauberflöte (127).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter