In his book Palimpsestes: la littérature au second degree, Gérard Genette addresses intertextual and hypertextual relationships between texts utilizing a theoretical framework that could be enlightening if applied to recorded popular music. Genette defines intertextuality as the "actual presence of a text within another." Thus, the techniques of quotation and allusion fall into this category. Genette goes on to define hypertextuality as the modeling of a new text (the hypertext) on a previous text (the hypotext). Parody, which is defined as the alteration of subject matter while retaining style characteristics, and its converse travesty, in which the subject matter is retained but the style is altered, fall under this category. Also, included in the category of hypertextuality are pastiche, covering, copy, translation, instrumental cover, and various types of remixes. An additional distinction in the categorization of intertextual relationships is the differentiation between borrowings with a "sameness of spelling" or autosonic borrowing (e.g., sampling) and those with a "sameness of sounding" or allosonic borrowings (e.g., a performed allusion or quotation).

Works: John Bonham, Puff Daddy (Sean Combs), Mark Curry, Jimmy Page, and Robert Plant: Come With Me (39-40); Kurt Cobain, Nirvana, and Weird Al Yancovic: Smells Like Nirvana (41-42); Noel Gallagher: Wonderwall as performed by Mike Flowers (42); Arthur 'Big Boy' Crudup: That's All Right as performed by Elvis Presley (46).

Sources: John Bonham, Jimmy Page, and Robert Plant [Led Zeppelin]: Kashmir (40); Kurt Cobain and Nirvana: Smells Like Teen Spirit (41-42); Noel Gallagher [Oasis]: Wonderwall (42); Arthur 'Big Boy' Crudup: That's All Right (46).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Piano Sonata, Op. 106, and String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130, demonstrate close connections to one another. The first movements of both works feature marked juxtapositions of contrasting ideas: two contrasting musical motives in the sonata, and two contrasting tempos in the quartet. Additionally, Beethoven’s original fugal finale for Op. 130, which ultimately appeared as the Grosse Fuge, Op. 133, demonstrates numerous similarities to the final movement of the Hammerklavier Sonata. Nevertheless, the very musical elements which articulate classical unity and organized structure in the sonata serve to create discord and disjunction in the quartet. Beethoven’s Op. 130 may represent a commentary on Op. 106, as the composer revisited older material and transformed it to accentuate his own stylistic and aesthetic development. A similar relationship may also exist between the Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110, and the String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (436-71), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 (468-69).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (436-71), Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (468-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Haydn's Symphony No. 26 in D minor--the Sinfonia Lamentatione--was not composed for the Nativity, as a title given later, the "Christmas Symphony," falsely indicates. The title 'Passio et Lamentatio' on the oldest manuscript (at the Abbey of Herzogenburg) shows that the work was composed for the Easter week of 1766. For the first movement, Haydn took as a model an old drama of Passion music whose "Christus" motif is in turn based on an ancient Lamentation chant. This "Christus" melody from Passion music occurs in the second subject of the first movement exposition, given to the second violin and the first oboe. The second movement is thematically linked to the first by using the same "Christus" Lamentation chant, also in the second violin and the first oboe, this time as the principal subject in the form of a chorale prelude. The Passion music that Haydn used in this symphony was well known to his audience, and the purpose of the symphony must have been apparent.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 26 in D Minor, Sinfonia Lamentatione (287-93).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Musical self-borrowing was a popular method of scoring in America's Universal Pictures, which during the 1940s and 1950s often scored entire films (Erle C. Kenton: House of Dracula, Jack Arnold: Revenge of the Creature) with little more than tracked cues from their music library. Nevertheless, Hammer only sporadically reused their music tracks; fewer than a dozen Hammer films contain credited reused cues. Choosing to reuse music often arose from deadline pressures and budgetary pressures.

Works: Humphrey Searle: score to The Abominable Snowman of the Himalayas (15); Benjamin Frankel: score to The Curse of the Werewolf (15).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Jazz pianist Dave McKenna's recording of Rodgers and Hart's Have You Met Miss Jones? reveals clever improvisational strategies, procedures, and devices. For instance, throughout the multiple improvised choruses McKenna slowly expands in register, creating a sense of large-scale unity. In one instance, McKenna also borrows melodic material from the song How to Handle a Woman by Lerner and Loewe. McKenna also uses a "polymetric riff" and when returning to the "head," his restatement of the melody recollects salient features from the improvisation. McKenna's insertions of fragments of the melody within his improvised choruses reveal that in this case, the performer does not improvise simply over harmonic changes, but also keeps the original tune in mind.

Works: Rodgers/Hart: Have You Met Miss Jones? as performed by Dave McKenna.

Sources: Rodgers/Hart: Have You Met Miss Jones?; Lerner/Loewe: How to Handle a Woman (293).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Paul Wranitzky is one of the only eighteenth-century symphonists to compose a symphony based on Haydn's concept of diminishing returns in his "Farewell" symphony. His Symphony in D not only includes Haydn's concept in the final movement, but also presents its reverse, starting the first movement by bringing players in one at a time. Wranitzky's symphony is even more exceptional because of its third movement, subtitled "Ein Quodlibet." This movement borrows from eleven melodies, which are all named in the score. Many are treated as a theme for variations. Wranitzky uses folk songs commonly used as themes for variations by composers of his generation. Most of the melodies are from popular opera arias performed frequently at that time. He often keeps much of the orchestration of the original aria, while changing the vocal line to an instrument. Occasionally he changes instrumentation to be ironic.

Works: Paul Wranitzky: Symphony in D Major (250, 252-58).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp Minor ("Farewell") (250, 257); Anonymous: A Schlüsserl und a Reindl (253-54), Mama mia non mi gridate (254); Giovanni Paisiello: "Nel cor piu non mi sento" from La Molinara (255); Mozart: "Non piu andra" from Le Nozze di Figaro (255), Die Zauberflöte (255-56); André Ernest Modeste Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (255); Antonio Salieri: Palmira (256); Joseph Weigl: "Pria ch'io l'impegno" from L?amor marinaro (256); Simon Mayr: "Contento il cor nel seno" from Lodoiska (256); Jakob Heibel: Le nozze disturbate (256-57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The stylistic homogeneity of 18th-century music poses difficulties when one tries to assert resemblances between themes. Unless we can demonstrate that the composer expressly intended for there to be a specific thematic connection between his music and another piece, our claims of a definite resemblance between two Classical themes are usually greeted with considerable skepticism. When faced with a lack of concrete biographical evidence, we should therefore subject the themes to a rigorous screening process before we can reasonably assert that one theme consciously resembles another. The first criterion is statistical background: while the resemblance between two themes A and B might be striking, if it can be shown that there are also several other themes that equally resemble A and B then the significance of the original relationship is greatly reduced. The second criterion is structural similarity, which must consider at least three aspects: (1) melodic contour; (2) rhythmic function; and (3) tonal and harmonic background. This screening process is put to the test in works by J. S. Bach, J. C. Bach and Haydn, proving that seeming thematic resemblances between works or between movements of the same work are coincidental. The article concludes with examples from two symphonies--one by Rosetti (DTB XII/I) and Haydn's Symphony No. 103--in which a thematic resemblance between a slow introduction and the following fast movement is strong enough to assert a definite intent on the part of the composer.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 103 (234); Francesco Antonio Rosetti: Sinfonia in Dis (234).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

During the first decade of Calvin’s Reform of Geneva, the Consistory ecclesiastical court targeted indecent singing, reflecting the Reformed belief in the power of song to influence behavior. The Consistory and the Genevan Small Council repeatedly issued proclamations and ordinances against illicit singing. Court records show over one hundred cases involving illicit singing in Calvinist Geneva. Some cases were solely about singing indecent songs, while others connected musical crimes to other crimes such as dancing and gambling. Many people charged with illicit singing defended themselves by claiming they were singing a different, legal song, often a patriotic song or a devotional contrafact of a would-be illicit tune. One of the biggest cases involving illicit song was brought against Jerome Bolsec, a former Carmelite who publicly argued against Calvin’s doctrine of predestination. During his imprisonment, Bolsec composed a contrafactum on Marot’s Psalm 23 in the Geneva Psalter that quickly made its way into the popular song repertoire. In making his theological argument in the song, Bolsec carefully preserves the poetic meter of the original and makes intertextual references to “David” and “lambs” from the psalm. A supporter of Bolsec, Jean de Cortean, was charged with (among other crimes including fornication) singing Bolsec’s contrafactum, for which Cortean was imprisoned. For the Calvinists, singing indecent songs was an attack on the Reformed social body and as such required strict disciplining through the Consistory.

Works: Jerome Bolsec: Complainte de Hierome Bolsec en prison en Geneve sur le chant du psalme: Mon Dieu me paist soubz sa puissance haulte (31-38)

Sources: Clement Marot: Mon Dieu me paist, Psalm 23 (31-38)

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The convenient label of East-West fusion in describing the recent rise of Chinese-inspired new works by Chinese-born American composers like Bright Sheng, Chen Yi, Zhou Long, and Ge Ganru demands reinterpretation. There is no fundamental connection between one’s ethnicity and one’s music; the borrowing of Chinese tunes, timbres or other musical devices merely reflects a matter of compositional choice and aesthetic preference instead of one’s own ethnicity. The composers’ reliance on Chinese materials to evoke a specific form of “Chinese” accent recalls the eighteenth-century artistic practice of chinoiserie, but the nature and perception of current hybrid compositions have totally transformed. Musical encounters between the East and West traces back to the Baroque era when Couperin composed his famous keyboard work “Les Chinois,” but it reveals Europeans’ false impressions of Chinese music. It was not until the turn of the twentieth century when the adoption of European musical tradition took root as a practice in China. According to Western evolutionary conception of music, Chinese music’s monophonic and heterophonic styles are inferior to the complexities of European music, and this attitude persisted into the nineteenth century, when Europeans started visiting China more frequently. The relationship between music and ethnicity is an artificial construct, as these composers employ various extramusical signifying techniques to forge a connection between sound and ideas. They self-consciously make references to China, Chinese ideology and philosophy through their program notes and descriptive titles, evoking a sense of “sonic Chineseness.” Bright Sheng’s Nanking! Nanking! resembles Béla Bartók synthesis procedure whereby he alludes to folk song without direct quotation. A close look at this work reveals that the only instrument that represents China is the pipa, a Chinese instrument.

Works: Bright Sheng: Nanking! Nanking! (277-78).

Sources: Anonymous: Ambush from All Sides (278), The Tyrant Removes His Armor (278).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Index Classifications: 1400s

Jazz performers and composers adopted the chord structure of George Gershwin's 1930 song I Got Rhythm both as a useful improvisational vehicle and as supporting harmony for newly composed melodies. Gershwin's chord structure, known as "the Rhythm Changes," was subjected to a variety of harmonic alterations by subsequent users, including adding chords between two original chords, changing minor chords into major, and substituting new chords for selected originals. The resulting variety of versions of "the Rhythm Changes" is so great that there is no "standard" version used by a large number of jazz performers or arrangers. Sonny Rollins's Oleo, and J. J. Johnson's Turnpike (both included here in notated versions) are two frequently played examples of the many new melodies composed to "the Rhythm Changes." They include extensive alterations to Gershwin's original chords. A partial list of other compositions based on "the Rhythm Changes" is included, as well as a list of recordings of these compositions.

Works: Johnson: Turnpike (216-17); Rollins: Oleo (217-18).

Sources: Gershwin: I Got Rhythm (203-19).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Index Classifications: 1700s

The contrafacta of popular war songs printed in the Girls Scouts of the USA magazine Rally during World War I reflected two narratives of wartime girlhood: one connecting girls to common domestic feminine roles and another placing girls at the center of the narrative as soldiers. Music, including creating parodies of Girl Scout songs, has been a part of the Girls Scouts program since its founding in 1912 even though the specific uses of music are difficult to pin down in extant sources. Contrary to other early-twentieth-century girls’ clubs and lingering ideas of womanhood, Girl Scouts of the USA embraced equality with men. In the contrafact Scouts Yankee Doodle, domestic actions (cooking, growing food, making bandages) are framed in a military call to action (“the stars and stripes bugle call”). Anna Nelson’s contrafact of George M. Cohan’s Over There calls on fellow Girl Scouts to join in and do their parts “over here,” directly paralleling the heroic rhetoric of Cohan’s lyrics. The Rally contrafact of I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier subverts the pacifist sentiment of the original in the manner of other response songs such as America, Here’s My Boy, asserting that the Girl Scouts are “ready to do or die.” These Scout songs exist within the context of contrafacta as a means of organized protest music, a practice common in the Temperance, Suffragist, and Labor movements of the time. Contrafacta of Civil War tunes are particularly meaningful in turn-of-the-century American protest movements, and the Girl Scouts participate in this tradition as well. Adding to their protest nature, the rhetoric of active militarism in the Girl Scouts songs run counter to the passive “angel of the house” trope of girlhood present in published war music. Through these contrafacta, the women and girls in the Girl Scouts engage in a safe form of protest, recasting themselves as active agents in the home front of the war in opposition to their prescribed domestic roles.

Works: Unattributed (lyricist): Scouts’ Yankee Doodle (376, 380-82); Anna Nelson (lyricist): Over Here (Over There) (380, 382-84); Unattributed (lyricist): Why Don’t You Raise Your Girl to Be a Girl Scout (I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier) (384-85); Lois Henderson (lyricist): We’ll Do Our Bit for Our Country (Marching Through Georgia) (380, 389); Henry W. Roby: Marching Together (Marching Through Georgia) (391-92), Woman’s Rights in Dixie (397-98); Minnie B. Horning: Contest Song (392-93); Antoinette Arnold Hawley: Under the Star Spangled Banner (393-94); L. May Wheeler: November Twenty-Two, 1883 (394); Lillian Sunden (lyricist): And Thus We Stand United (Dixie) (394-96)

Sources: Anonymous: Yankee Doodle; George M. Cohan: Over There (382); Alfred Bryan and Al Piantadosi: I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier (384-85); Arthur Lange and Andrew B. Sterling: American, Here’s My Boy (384-85); Henry Clay Work: Marching Through Georgia (389-94); Dan Emmett: Dixie (394-98)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The authors raise questions about the textual and melodic adaptation of troubadour melodies by German Minnesingers. Hardly any German melodies survive, and since several texts seem to be based on Occitan models in terms of overall sense, scansion, rhyme scheme, and sound of the syllables (correspondances phonématiques), it may be assumed that the texts were sung to the corresponding melodies. However, the number of syllables does not always fit the number of notes, and it is often difficult to decide which of the musical variants should be chosen.

Works: Friedrich von Hausen: Si darf mich des zihen niet (19-21); Heinrich von Morungen: Lange bin ich geweset verdaht (26); Ulrich von Gutenberg: Ich horte ein merlikin wol singen (26-27); Bernger von Horheim: Nu enbeiz ich doch des trankes nie (27-28).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Farsed epistles are vernacular contrafacta of such famous tunes as the hymn Veni creator, commenting on the Latin epistles. Three factors might indicate an oral transmission: (1) variants in the contrafacta as compared to the original melody; (2) adaptation of the music by repetition of melodic formulas to changing lengths of verses; and (3) variants between the strophes. While the ornamental variants among contrafacta of the same tune indirectly suggest an oral tradition, the absence of such variants between strophes of the same piece seems to imply a written tradition.

Works: Farsed epistles of St. Stephen Sesta lesson (69-70); and St. John Evangelist Esta luson (68-70); Lament from the Jeu de sainte Agnès (68-70).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The concept of centonization (recurrence of melodic formulae) may be expanded to suggest that certain textual elements (including word sounds, placement, and meaning) also may have suggested musical setting. Clues to the sources of these borrowings are sometimes found in verses other than the first one. Whether or not it was conscious, musical borrowing of this type serves to reinforce the authority of the pre-existent material and may be an aid to memory.

Works: Pax in caelo permanet (26-27); Laudabilis domine (29-31); Alme mundi (31-35); O alma virgo (35-36); Hic laudando (35-43); Cives superni/Christus surrexit (43-45).

Sources: Laudat in excelsis (25-26); Laus tua deus (28-29, 31-35); Laus tibi domine (28-29); Alme mundi (35-36); Quem patris (35-43); Pax sempiterna (43-45).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

The soundtrack for Easy Rider (1969), compiled by director/writer/actor Dennis Hopper and producer/writer/actor Peter Fonda, illustrates the complexity of rock compilation soundtracks and their potential to generate both inter- and intratextual meaning. When used as film music, rock and popular songs behave differently from traditional underscoring in that they are not easily manipulated and tend to create audiovisual “set-pieces.” Throughout Easy Rider there is a tight integration of song lyrics and images, suggesting a conscious intertextual negotiation by the filmmakers. For example, the shots that accompany Wasn’t Born to Follow by the Byrds mirror the forest imagery and “clear and jeweled waters” presented in the lyrics. This kind of deliberate intertextuality through citation and reference is a hallmark of New Hollywood cinema, of which Easy Rider is an early example. The rock soundtrack also resonates with the countercultural themes and social consciousness of the film. The soundtrack generates meaning through intratextual means; the musical set-pieces interact with the narrative structure of the film as well as each other. For example, in one segment, Fraternity of Man’s country-styled Don’t Bogart Me, accompanied by shots of a bucolic countryside, is interrupted sonically by Jimi Hendrix’s If 6 Was 9 and visually by shots of Louisianan imagery: a river bridge, grand Southern homes, and African American workers, the only black faces in the film. The sonic elements of the soundtrack also mirror the geographical progression of the film West to East, starting in Los Angeles with electric rock (Steppenwolf), then shifting to country rock (The Byrds), faux-country music (Fraternity of Man), and finally ending in Louisiana with blues-tinged electric rock (Jimi Hendrix). The central tragedy and theme of the film—that the idealism of the 1960s was doomed to be corrupted by its commodification—is expressed through song lyrics and is heightened by the self-awareness exemplified in its compiled rock soundtrack.

Works: Dennis Hopper (director), Peter Fonda (producer): compiled soundtrack to Easy Rider (303-28)

Sources: The Byrds: Wasn’t Born to Follow (303-5, 317-19); Fraternity of Man: Don’t Bogart Me (305-6, 313, 316-17); Electric Prunes: Kyrie Eleison (306); Steppenwolf: Born to Be Wild (306, 312-13), The Pusher (313, 323-25); The Jimi Hendrix Experience: If 6 was 9 (313, 315-17); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Roger McGuinn (performer): It’s Alright Ma (I’m Only Bleeding) (325); Bob Dylan and Roger McGuinn (songwriters), Roger McGuinn (performer): Ballad of the Easy Rider (325-26)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1300s

A comparison of Ars nova motets by De Vitry and Machaut and their contemporaries, shows they are closely related by compositional detail. Comparable external stylistic features and constructional formulae suggest a link between the works of each composer, as well as a link between the two. The features that link these works are the type a composer may borrow either from another composer or from one of his own preexisting works. Related features include color length, quantity of chant notes, and integer valor length. The application of similar compositional strategies suggests these motets were composed during the same period. Although these findings do not reveal a concrete chronology, or provide definitive answers in regards to attribution, they do suggest that the isorhythmic repertoire, pre-1365, was the output of a small group of composers who knew each others' work.

Works: Vitry: Cum/Hugo/Magister invidie (1-2, 16, 19), Tuba/In arboris/Virgo sum (1-2, 11-13, 15-16, 18, 20), O Canenda/Rex/Rex regum (2, 11, 16); Vos/Gratissima/Gaude gloriosa (2,16,19), Impudenter/Virtutibus/Alma redemptoris mater (2-3, 6, 8-9, 12-13, 16, 18), Colla/Bona/Libera me (2, 6, 16, 19), Douce/Garison/Neuma (5-6, 16), Petre/Lugentium (9, 14, 18); Machaut: Christe/Veni/Tribulatio (3-4, 14, 16), Tu qui/Plange/ Apprehende (3,16), Felix/Inviolata/Ad te suspiramus (3-4, 16), Amours/Faus/Vidi Dominum (4, 14), Bone/Bone/Bone pastor (4, 12, 14, 16, 19), Aucune/Qui/Fiat voluntas tua (5-6 16, 19-20), Tout/De souspirant/Suspiro (13-14, 16, 19), Qui es/Ha fortune/Et non est qui adjuvet (12, 16-17, 19), Hareu/Hareu/Obediens usque ad mortem (12); Ivrea/Anon.: In virtute/Decens/Clamour meus (3, 5-6, 8, 16, 18-19), Flos/Celsa/Quam magnus pontifex (6, 11-12, 16-19), Fortune/Ma doloreus/Tristis est anima mea (6, 12, 14, 16, 19), A vous/Ad te/Regnem mundi (6, 15, 16, 17, 19), Rachel/Ha fratres (6, 12, 16-19), Almifonis/Rosa (6, 12-14, 16, 20), Amer/Durement/Dolour meus (6, 12-14, 16), Se paour/Diex/Concupisco (6, 12, 14-15, 16, 19,), Zolomina/Nazerea/Ave Maria (7, 12, 16-17, 19), Trop/Par Sauvage (7, 12, 16-17, 19), L'amoureuse/En l'estat (7, 12, 15-17), Mon chant/Qui doloreus/Tristis est anima mea (7, 12, 16-17, 19), Apta/Flos/Alma redemptoris mater (8-9, 16, 19), Portio/Ida/Ante tronum (10, 16), Apollinis/In omnem terram (10, 16, 20), Tant/Bien/Cuius pulchritudinum (15-16, 19), Les Mayn/Je n'y saindrai plus (19); Et in terra (10, 16); F-Pn67/Anon.: Musicalis/Sciencie/Alleluia (6, 16); Chantilly Ms./Anon: Sub arturo/Fons/In omnem terram (10).

Sources: Vitry: Douce/Garison/Neuma (5); Anon.: In virtute/Decens/Clamour meus (3), Et in terra (10), Almifonis Ros (13), Se paour/Diex/Concupisco (6, 14-15, 16, 19).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

Index Classifications: 1300s

Henry Mancini’s score for Touch of Evil (1958) is innovative for its new approach to diegetic cues rather than continuous background music, and for its use of jazz and rock idioms. The music does work as a suturing effect (connecting the audience to the setting) but rather destabilizes the perception of time and place and emphasizes contradictions and incongruity within the film through its hybrid nature. Jazz is itself a hybrid genre of West African and European music; Mancini’s genres of choice for this film were also a hybrid of Afro-Cuban and cool jazz, as well as mariachi. These musics were chosen to signal an emphasis on race within the film, particularly with different cultural motifs associated with different characters, regardless of the actual race of the actors. Though some critics, particularly jazz musicians, found Mancini’s score to be “faux jazz,” it was still pioneering for the time, introducing popular music sounds into what was previously pseudo-classical and Romantic era music. Different versions of the film further problematize Mancini’s score. The most recent version from 1998 cuts his theme entirely, removing most of his influence from the movie, in an attempt to follow director Orson Welles’s desire to limit the film to only diegetic music.

Works: Orson Welles (director): Touch of Evil (226-40).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Many attempts have been made to identify the origin of Elgar's "Enigma" theme. However, such study of melodic affinity is futile. Melodic similarities can be found among many different pieces, most of which bear no relationship with each other. To prove this point, a computer was utilized to identify the relationship of material between compositions. The first study was that of Mozart's Requiem in D Minor, K. 626, to determine the amount of melodic affinity between the movements by Mozart and those by Süssmayr. This method was then employed for the purposes of identifying similarities with the "Enigma" theme. The compositions employed in this study were Elgar's Variations on an Original Theme for Orchestra, Enigma, his overture Alassio (In the South), and the slow movement from Mozart's Symphony No. 38 in D, K. 504 (Prague). As expected, many affinities were discovered between the three works. Thus, the study of melodic affinity is not conclusive, or even probable, when it cannot be coupled with documentary evidence.

Works: Elgar: Variations on an Original Theme for Orchestra, Enigma (241-44, 251-57).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Even though Chopin denounced and laughed at any attempts to relate his works to programmatic narratives, his notion of absolute music is betrayed by borrowed melodies and topical gestures that may be found in his works. The Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No 2, is an ideal subject for hermeneutic or semiotic interpretation due to its juxtaposition of funereal and religious elements. The musical texture is permeated with references to the Dies Irae chant. Chorale and funeral march topics also appear in the score. The structural troping of these elements leads one to believe that death was on the mind of the composer. The sharp decline in Chopin's health while composing these preludes gives further credence to a programmatic interpretation. Interestingly, Alexander Scriabin borrowed elements from this work for his second Prelude of Op. 74, which also alludes to his own failing health.

Works: Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (149-59); Scriabin: Prelude, Op. 74, No. 2 (159-62).

Sources: Dies Irae (149-62); Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (159-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

It is difficult to define the term "parody mass," because it encompasses a technique that underwent great development throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. This article discusses and illustrates this growth through the works of Netherland composers of this time period. The development of parody techniques begins with mass composers such as Barbingant and Josquin, who focused primarily on the melodic elements of their original source and composed works with techniques similar to that of cantus firmus masses, and continues with composers such as de la Rue, who borrowed small polyphonic fragments from the original, and later Monte, who incorporated larger, more polyphonic structures from the source, often in conspicuous places.

Works: Barbingant: Missa Terriblement suis fortunée (412); Pierre de la Rue: Missa à 6 Ave Sanctissima Maria (413-14); Josquin: Missa Fortuna desperata (415), Missa Malheur me bat (415), Missa Una musque de Buscava (415); Monte: Missa Reviens vers moi (418), Missa a 5 Cara la vita mia (418); Lassus: Missa Entre vous filles de quinze ans (417); Willaert: Missa Mente tota (416).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

In no other work did Handel borrow more material from his own and other pieces than in the oratorio Israel in Egypt (1738). With the example of the chorus "But the waters overwhelmed their enemies" based on the soprano aria "It is the Lord that ruleth the sea" from the Chandos Anthems, Leopold shows that this extensive borrowing does not result from Handel's "mental illness" in 1737, as has been stated repeatedly, but from his intention to find new possibilities with old material. The physical energy originating in the rhythmical opposition of voices and orchestra in "The waters" contrasts strongly with the purely rhetorical representation of water in "It is the Lord," where the soloist and the bass line flow in the same rhythm. Handel uses these two contrary musical styles to set suitably the two parts of Israel in Egypt: the first part with all the active elements of the exodus and the second part with the contemplative text (e.g. "And with the blast of thy nostrils"). The idea of contrasting the chorus and orchestra shows Handel developing an appropriate musical style for the oratorio by having the orchestra take over the role of the stage setting in the opera.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Despite clear similarities in the evolution of the Neoclassical styles of Schoenberg and Stravinsky, comparisons often prove more insightful when used to highlight their differences. Both composers felt a strong need to reconcile current compositional trends with those of the past, and attempted this partially through borrowing from the established classical tradition, as seen in Stravinsky's use of established forms in non-conventional ways. Stravinsky's tendency to use existing music as musical material to be manipulated is evident in the third movement of his Piano Sonata, which is clearly based on Beethoven's Sonata in F Major, Op. 54. While there is a clear relationship between these pieces, Stravinsky's use of the material completely reconceives Beethoven's ideas of form and harmony, a trait common to many of Stravinsky's recompositions.

Works: Stravinsky: Piano Sonata (541), Octet for Winds (541-42).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54 (541).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Six masses from Trent 88, 89, and 91 take their pre-existent material not from the plainchant repertory, but from secular songs. Four of these masses—Missa Wünschlichen schön and Missa Deutsches Lied from Trent 89, and Missa Sig säld und heil and Missa Zersundert ist das junge Herz mein from Trent 91—draw their tenors from Tenorlieder, polyphonic arrangements of German-texted melodies found only in sources from south Germany and Silesia. These four masses treat their borrowed material in similar ways, of which the most distinctive is the use of “block quotations.” In all four masses, the original song discantus always appears with the borrowed tenor so as to preserve the two parts’ contrapuntal relationship in the model song. These block quotations unify these masses as cycles and give them their fundamental character: some reference to the discantus-tenor framework of the model setting takes place in almost every movement of each mass, with the strongest model statements consistently placed in the Kyrie and in the Agnus Dei. Two other masses, Touront’s Missa Monÿel and the anonymous Missa Gentil madonna mia contain songs of unknown origin that act as a cyclic basis. Like the Tenorlieder masses, these two masses are organized around the use of block quotations of the discantus and tenor voices from the model song and feature the striking restatement of the song in the Agnus Dei. These common elements suggest an “Austrian manner” of song mass composition, reflective of peculiarly Austrian forms and tastes that prevailed where the masses were created.

Works: Anonymous: Missa Wünschlichen schön (214-37); Anonymous: Missa Deutsches Lied (214-37); Anonymous: Missa Sig säld und heil (214-37); Anonymous: Missa Zersundert ist das junge Herz mein (214-37); Touront: Missa Monÿel (237-38); Anonymous: Missa Gentil madonna mia (237, 248-55).

Sources: Gregorian Chant: Kyrie Cunctipotens genitor (220-21), Credo IV (Credo Cardinale) (220-21); Anonymous: Sig säld und heil (221-22).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

Index Classifications: 1900s

Two of the principal motives in Rhapsody in Blue are direct borrowings from two of W. C. Handy's compositions, "Beale Street Blues" and "St. Louis Blues." Gershwin also employs a three-against-four accent cycle that is a prominent feature of Handy's style. A sidebar disproves the persistent rumor that the E major main theme of Rhapsody in Blue was inspired by Gershwin's hearing of the "Chimes of Erie" at St. Peter's Cathedral in Erie, Pennsylvania; the chimes were installed at St. Peter's four years after the publication of Rhapsody in Blue.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

The impetus for Boris Thomashefsky’s 1904 adaptation of Richard Wagner’s Parsifal at the People’s Theater, a fashionable Yiddish theater in New York City, was a convergence of the opera’s reputation as a serious, highbrow work of art with a movement in American Jewish circles toward staging more refined and edifying entertainment. In the years around 1900, Yiddish theater was central to the cultural lives of immigrant Jews, and broadly appealing musical productions (characterized as shund or “trash” by intellectuals) were in high demand. Around this time, playwright Jacob Gordin led a reform movement of Russian-Jewish socialists and anarchists seeking to replace the shund programming in Yiddish theaters with more uplifting and edifying works, a goal that was in line with the broader Progressive Era democratization of high art. In this intellectual context, director Thomashefsky, dramaturg Leon Mantel, and an unidentified chorus master of the Met adapted Parsifal, the quintessential edifying work in 1900s America, for the Yiddish theater. The text was translated into vernacular Yiddish, and the plot was likely simplified to be performed with a combination of spoken dialogue and vocal music. While details about the performance are scarce, according to reviewer Max Smith, a selection of random tunes from the opera were cobbled together and performed as “soft music” at various points without regard for which scenes the music originally accompanied. It is unclear to what proportion various factors led to its short run of just ten performances. Lack of interest in high culture, discomfort with a Christian topic, and poor production quality all likely played a part in the closure of this unusual opera adaptation.

Works: Leon Mantel (dramaturg), Boris Thomashefsky (director), anonymous (arranger): Parsifal (163-68)

Sources: Wagner: Parsifal (163-68)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

There are more settings of "Susanne un jour" preserved in manuscripts and publications than of any other sixteenth-century secular text in any language. Almost all use the same melody, Didier Lupi Second's Susanne un jour, a chanson spirituelle intended for devotional use amongst Protestants. The settings, however, were mostly aimed at a popular audience. Lassus's 1560 setting was the most famous: reprinted and set for instruments more than any other setting, it also reached the largest audience in the most countries. Other settings in the "Susanne" complex would have played on the listener's or performer's acquaintance with the original model or other settings. Each composer used the "Susanne" model in a different way. To determine how or why an individual piece borrows, settings may be inspected in the following ways: (1) relation to the Lupi model; (2) relation to other pieces in the complex (including borrowing from one setting to another, or the purposeful use of a new technique of setting); (3) position within a "style, period or milieu"; (4) position in the composer's output. "Susanne" settings present the sixteenth-century polyphonic chanson in microcosm.

Works: Orlando de Lassus, Susanne un jour (382, 386, 388-89); Millot, Susanne un jour (387-88, 392); Claude le Jeune, Susanne un jour (389-91); Monte, Susanne un jour (392); Rore, Susanne un jour (393); François Rousell (393-95); Nicholas de la Grotte, Susanne un jour (395-96); Andreas Papius, Susanne un jour (396-97, 405-08).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

A detailed analysis of Debussy's "Feux d'artifice," the last of his twenty-four Préludes for piano, reveals a network of musical ideas and transformational relations that shape the overall form and character of the piece. A melodic fragment of the French national anthem "La Marseillaise" appears during the coda. The most obvious role of this quotation on the surface level is to evoke a spirit of French nationalism, which seems especially appropriate considering the immediate prewar period when Debussy composed this music. Yet on a deeper level of structure, the quotation of "La Marseillaise" achieves greater significance in that its headnote represents the culmination of a large-scale ascending chromatic progression initiated at the second reprise (from m. 82).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

The Afro-Creole folk song tradition of Louisiana, as disseminated in concert adaptations, presents distinctive challenges and rewards for singers. The language of these folk songs, Afro-Creole patois, was constructed by African slaves brought to Louisiana in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and differs from standard French. While many Afro-Creole melodies have been preserved in instrumental music by such composers as Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the vocal sources are less familiar. Piano-vocal arrangements of Afro-Creole folk songs show different approaches to adapting the music for concert singers. Dansé, Conni Conné, arranged by Camille Nickerson, adapts a traditional bamboula dance song. At times, the accompaniment rises to become an equal partner of the vocal line. Maud Cuney Hare’s Dialogue d’Amour, also known as Z’Amours Marianne, is an arrangement of canlinda dance song, and features a rare brief modulation from minor to major. W. T. Francis’s arrangement of Zozo Mokeur (The Mockingbird) contains several highbrow, operatic touches. Julien Tiersot’s arrangement of the call and response counjaille, Aurore Bradère, features a sparse accompaniment, highlighting the simple melody. Afro-Creole folk songs have been neglected in performance, but offer a rich cultural tradition for singers to explore.

Works: Camille Nickerson: Dansé, Conni Conné (485); Maud Cuney Hare: Z’Amours Marianne (486); W. T. Francis: Zozo Mokeur (486-89); Julien Tiersot: Aurore Bradère (489-90).

Sources: Traditional: Bamboula (484-85), Dialogue d’Amour (486), Zozo Mokeur (486-89), Aurore Bradère (489-90).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Tenets of the Cecilian movement, including stylistic borrowing of Renaissance polyphony, chant-like melodies, and the use of wind music for accompaniment, are found in the music of Bruckner and Liszt. Bruckner's Mass in E Minor, Os justi, and Pange lingua are compared with Liszt's Missa choralis, Gran Mass, and Via crucis. Bruckner and Liszt idealize the movement.

Works: Bruckner: Mass in E Minor (14), Pange lingua (14), Os justi (14); Liszt: Missa choralis (15), Gran Mass (15), Messe für Männerchor (Missa quattuor vocum ad aequales) (15), St. Elizabeth (15), Via crucis (15), Christus (15-16).

Sources: Hymn: Pange lingua (15); Eighth Psalm tone (15); Chant: Rorate coeli, Angelus, Beati Pauperes (15); Hymn: O filii et filiae (16).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Although there have been many arrangements of Bizet’s Carmen, Shchedrin’s Carmen-Suite sheds new light onto the process of transcription. His work is unified, with a strict dramaturgical outline, and presents an individualized view on Carmen’s tragic story that focuses on her relationship with broader society. Shchedrin achieves this through a focus on bold contrasts in the sequential order of scenes, which puts conflict and juxtaposition as the main force of momentum for the ballet. In order to heighten the sense of contrast, Shchedrin alters the original’s orchestration, structure, and sequence of episodes, and he also reworks small-scale melodic fragments. He constructs the ballet in contrasting episodes, representing the battle between Carmen’s freedom and tempestuousness against the backdrop of her alienating society, as represented by masks on the stage. To bring this conflict to the forefront of the ballet, Shchedrin chooses moments from the opera with the greatest emotional expressivity, occasionally altering the tonality and omitting phrases, and associating certain instrumentation with specific characters. He maximises the dramaturgical potential of his chosen orchestration of strings and a large array of percussion instruments. The percussion section can be seen as equal to the strings in this ballet, as they punctuate and define the melody’s rhythmic contour, create timbral variation, and give exotic colouring. The resulting orchestration and adaptation of Carmen reignites the function and practice of transcription in the twentieth century.

Works: Rodion Shchedrin: Carmen-Suite (100–165).

Sources: Bizet: Carmen (100–165).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

In his transcriptions of songs by Chopin, Mendelssohn, and Beethoven, Liszt captures the essential textual and musical character of the original while transforming it into a purely keyboard idiom with distinctive elements, particularly bravura writing and pianistic sonority. The transcriptions portray the words and mood of the songs and also reflect Liszt's personal relationships with those composers whose works he transcribed. Liszt heightens the dramatic and emotional high points of each model by certain devices, including a prelude that sets up the mood, a fermata in the middle of the song, a short coda, and a cadenza, as illustrated in Hulanka and Adelaide. He often places the song's melody in different registers, doubling it in octaves or adding voices and ornaments, thus creating increasingly dazzling techniques, as found in Moja Pieszczota, Frühlingslied, and Adelaide. His interest in symphonic sound effects led him to explore a wide range of keyboard textures, well demonstrated in Frühlingslied. He differentiates the repetitions of the main melody from the model, each repetition being embellished with a variety of accompanimental patterns, as in Narzeczony, Suleika, Reiselied, Wiosna, and Adelaide. Liszt's piano transcriptions provided a means for the composer to enrich his public concert repertoire; to disseminate music in a new, altered form; and to promote composers he admired, exposing the audience to the masterworks of great composers.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Chopin's Six chants polonais, Op. 74 (30-64), Transcriptions of Mendelssohn's Suleika, Op. 34, No. 4, Frühlingslied, Op. 47, No. 3, and Reiselied, Op. 34, No. 6 (98-124), Transcription of Beethoven's Adelaide (144-69).

Sources: Chopin: Six chants polonais, Op. 74 (27-64); Mendelssohn: Suleika, Op. 34, No. 4, Frühlingslied, Op. 47, No. 3, Reiselied, Op. 34, No. 6 (95-124); Beethoven: Adelaide (144-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

The following indices help to locate works within the madrigal repertoire: a composer index with incipits, an index to first lines, a thematic locator index, and an index to sources. In the composer index, the comment line lists possible musical borrowings where applicable. Additionally, the thematic locator index allows users to identify melodies by their interval sequence and indicates whether a particular melodic line appears in other sources.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The following indices help to locate works within the motet repertoire: a composer index with incipits, an index to first lines, a thematic locator index, a short title index to sources, and a bibliography of modern editions. In the composer index, the comment line lists possible musical borrowings where applicable. Additionally, the thematic locator index allows users to identify melodies by their interval sequence and indicates whether a particular melodic line appears in other sources.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Recent critical response to Gioachino Rossini's opera Aureliano in Palmira (1813) has generally been negative, without any author offering a serious reevaluation of the entire work including a discussion of the opera's background, libretto, and musical content. Many passages in Aureliano in Palmira were either borrowed from his earlier works or incorporated into later works. For instance, the overture to this opera later became the overture to Il barbiere di Siviglia and, with some modifications, to Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra. Additionally, many of the macrostructures of individual scenes foreshadow Rossini's later Neopolitan style. A table indicating all the instances of self-borrowing related to this work is provided.

Works: Rossini: Aureliano in Palmira (18-30), Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (21-22), Il barbiere di Siviglia (21-22), Giunone (cantata) (21-22), Otello (22), Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo (22).

Sources: Rossini: Aureliano in Palmira (18-30), Tancredi (22).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

One finds quotation in almost every epoch. Quotation must be distinguished from parody technique, contrafactum, variation, transcription, phantasy on known themes, paraphrase, pasticcio, metamorphosis, and stylization. Some thirteen criteria for quotation are listed (pp. 365-67). Four aesthetic functions of quotation are discussed with numerous examples of each: (1) a quotation may serve as the symbol for a well-defined expressive character; (2) a quotation may be used not so much as a symbol but rather as a means of expressing the content of a programmatic work (quotation as commentary); (3) a quotation may serve as an allusion or reference which will be more or less understood by the listener; and (4) a quotation may express parody, irony, or grotesquerie. The significance of quotation must be considered in relation to the genre in which it appears, such as pure instrumental music, vocal music, opera and ballet, music for film, and Jazz.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (368); Britten: Albert Herring (368); Bax: Tintagel (368); Berg: Lyrischen Suite (368); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (369); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (369); Prokofiev: Aleksander Newski (369); Shostakovich: Symphony No. 12 (369); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (369); Liszt: Dante Symphony (369), Totentanz (369); Rachmaninoff: Die Todesinsel (369); Dallapiccola: Canti di prigionia (369); Miaskowski: Symphony No. 6 (369); Schubert: Der Tod und Das Mädchen (369); Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (370), Don Juan (370), Tod und Verklärung (370), Don Quixote (370), Also Sprach Zarathustra (370), Til Eulenspiegel (370); Offenbach: Orpheus (371); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (372).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The presence of history and of the past is very powerful in the music of today and is made evident in quotations. Quotations can function as associative symbols, as a means of representing past times, as symbols of fear, as reminiscences of specific ideas, or as parodies. Examples of each of these functions are given (see p. 26). Collage technique is also discussed with reference to works by Zygmunt Krause, Luciano Berio, Arvo Pärt, Enrique Raxach, Vittorio Galmetti, and Charles Ives. In the end, Lissa comes down hard on collage technique, wondering if it perhaps indicates an inability on the part of the composer to speak with an individual voice and stating that collage technique also devalues art by placing the quotation of artworks on the same level as street noises.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger (26); Britten: Albert Herring (26); Berg: Lyric Suite (26); Tchaikovsky: The Queen of Spades (26); Liszt: Dante Symphony (26); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (26); Strauss: Heldenleben (26), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (26); Mussorgsky: Klassiker (26); Hindemith: Nusch-Nuschi (26); de Falla: The Three Cornered Hat (26); Stravinsky: Pulcinella (26); Krause: Recital (28); Berio: Sinfonia (29); Pärt: Collage sur Bach (29); Raxach: Inside Outside (29); Galmetti: L'opera abandonnata (29); Ives: Symphony No. 4 (29), Concord Sonata (29).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General

Three types of instrumental pieces became popular in the late fifteenth-century, all of which borrowed pre-existing musical material. The instrumental chanson was by far the most widespread and artistically important type. This form used one or more voices from the source forme-fixe chanson and added two or more repetitive and rhythmically dense parts as counterpoints against the source material; however, borrowed melodic lines were only used in part and never taken in entirety. This allowed for greater freedom and flexibility in instrumental chanson compositions. Phrase lengths varied more, since there were no textual considerations in instrumental music. Note values were often shortened to create more rhythmic uniformity among the parts. Sequential and repetitive devices were more common in the instrumental chansons in comparison to their vocal models, but such devices were commonly found in large sacred vocal works, where a more abstract relationship between the text and music invited the use of sequences and repetitive designs in the music. While instrumental music depends on a strong performance tradition, the most prominent pieces of instrumental music from the early sixteenth century were still composed by singer-composers who approached the instrumental medium from a vocal standpoint. Without true predecessors, instrumental works in the mid-sixteenth century either continued to borrow from vocal models or were newly invented.

Works: Josquin: Adieu mes amours (118), Basiés moy (118), Cela sans plus (118); Isaac: Helas que devera mon cuer (118); Ghiselin: La Alfonsa (118); Hayne van Ghizeghem: Mon souvenir (120); Martini: Des biens d'amours (120), De la bonne chiere (120-21); Josquin: La plus des plus (120-21), La Bernardina (120-22).

Sources: Anonymous: Adieu mes amours (118), Basies moy (118); Hayne van Ghizeghem: De tous biens plaine (118); Ockeghem: D'ung aultre amer (118); Hayne van Ghizeghem: Mon souvenir (120); Josquin: Vultum tuum deprecabuntur (123), Alma redemptoris mater (123).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey, Victoria Malawey

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

It has been assumed that compositions found in sixteenth-century Tudor manuscripts are indeed of English origin. However, several parody pieces, based on Continental source compositions, are included in one particular Tudor manuscript. The question then follows of whether the parody compositions are of Continental or English origin. These compositions are attributed to "Lupus"; from this, there is a resulting problem as to which "Lupus" the attribution should be made. The Peterhouse collection attributes these compositions to "Lupus Italus," yet this attribution has been discredited. Comparing Missa Surrexit pastor bonus with its model confirms its Continental origins and further confounds the problem of attribution. Both the Mass and motet feature similar textual correspondences, similar formal design, and exact corresponding closing "Alleluia" sections. Furthermore, the order of the borrowed material in each Mass movement corresponds with the model's presentation. The material of the motet's prima pars serves as the source for the opening of the Mass's movements, and the secunda pars is the source for the second half of the Gloria and Credo movements. A more detailed examination of these pieces and their models may reveal the proper attribution of Continental works included in Tudor manuscripts.

Works: "Lupus": Aspice Domine (337), Missa Surrexit pastor bonus (341).

Sources: Andrea de Silva: Surrexit pastor bonus (341-42).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

About 1500 there occurred a change of model for the Mass from chanson to motet. This change was due in part to the significant output of motet types. The rising importance of the text in the motet caused composers to be alert to the opportunity of drawing upon text associations to generate certain musical procedures in the Mass. In addition, the importance given to the text caused composers to think and write motivically. This type of motivic construction, not present in the 15th century, was crucial to the development of the 16th-century parody Mass.

Works: Claudin: Missa Domine quis habitat (57); Gombert: Missa Sancta Maria (57); Therache: Missa Quem dicunt homines (57); de Hondt: Missa Benedictus Dominus (57); Obrecht: Missa Rosa playsant (58): Josquin: Missa D'ung aultre amer (58): Barbingant: Missa Terribilment (62); Obrecht: Missa Ave Regina (63), Missa Si didero (63); Josquin: Missa Mater Patris (63): Févin: Missa Mente tota (64), Missa Ave Maria (64); Mouton: Missa Quem dicunt homines (64); Divitis: Missa Quem dicunt homines (64).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra

Despite the recognition of the importance of "L'Homme armé," two questions still remain outstanding: (1) what are the origins of the melody and its text, and (2) how may the earliest polyphonic elaborations of the tune be identified, grouped, and ordered? Details of the tune's structure and modality suggest that it was composed rather than arising spontaneously from folk tradition. Its traditional use as a tenor part supports the idea that the tune was once the tenor of a three-part chanson. The text can be read in light of several social and military innovations in 1440s France. Dufay appears to be the first to elaborate the melody in a mass cycle; the tradition spread to other regions of France and returned to Burgundy before spreading into Italy. There are marked stylistic differences in the oldest masses using the tune. Dufay, Josquin, Palestrina, and others used a countermelody resembling Kyrie VIII ("Kyrie de angelis") in "L'Homme armé" masses. This same countermelody appears in the "In nomine" section of John Taverner's Mass "Gloria tibi trinitas," thus suggesting a link between the "L'Homme armé" and "In nomine" traditions.

Works: Guillaume Dufay: Missa L'Homme armé (112-15, 116); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa L'Homme armé (113-15); Josquin des Prez: Missa L'Homme armé super voces musicales (116-17), Missa L'Homme armé sexti toni (117); Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa L'Homme armé (117); Johannes Prioris: Missa de Angelis (118-19); John Taverner: Missa Gloria tibi trinitas (120-21).

Sources: L'Homme armé; O rosa bella (101-02); Kyrie VIII ("Kyrie de Angelis") (116-21).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Beethoven did not simply transcribe his Piano Sonata Op. 14, No. 1 for strings, but rather recast the musical material to highlight the idiomatic differences between string and keyboard instruments. This is primarily indicated by changes in dynamics, which are more abundant than altered pitches or registers. For example, at the end of the development of the first movement, the piano sonata decrescendos and has a sudden forte at the recapitulation. At the same point in the quartet arrangement, the strings crescendo and then have a sudden piano at the recapitulation. Opposite dynamics such as these capitalize on the shading and sustaining capabilities of each instrument. Other alterations also point to a recasting, as opposed to simple transcribing, of material from one genre to another. Beethoven shifts the key from E major in the keyboard sonata to F major for the string quartet, exploiting the open C string sounds of the viola and cello. When changes in pitch content occur in the string quartet, the writing is idiomatic for strings. Finally, the key of F major evokes important late string quartets of Mozart and Haydn.

Works: Beethoven: Arrangement of Piano Sonata, Op. 14, No. 1 for String Quartet in F Major, Hess 34.

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Beethoven's Wielhorsky sketchbook contains sketches for a variety of works, including the Op. 35 Eroica variations for piano. Immediately following the sketches for the piano variations is a plan for the Third Symphony, with meters, key schemes, tempo markings, and rough themes for each of the first three movements. The lack of reference to a fourth movement suggests that Beethoven planned to use the piano variations as a basis for the finale to the symphony from the start. Lockwood demonstrates that the principal theme of the first movement is derived from the "Basso del Tema" of Op. 35. The finale of the symphony is thus seen as the generating force of the entire work.

Works: Beethoven: "Eroica" Variations for Piano, Op. 35, Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Eroica, Op. 55.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

The authority and widespread of the term "parody" as applied to sixteenth-century music stem from a reference by Ambros in 1868, based on the title of Jacob Paix's Missa Parodia Mottetae Domine da nobis auxilium of 1587. Theorists such as Vicentino, Zarlino, Pietro Ponzio, and Cerone discussed the concept as it applies to music but did not use the Greek term "parody," most often using the Latin "imitatio." While other terms would be more acceptable, the widespread use of the word "parody" makes necessary a concise definition as it has come to be used. The term "parody" can be applied preeminently to music in the sixteenth century, and its major area of cultivation was the Mass. A distinctive feature of sixteenth-century "parody" is that its unit of procedure is the motive and that the skill and art of "parody" lay in the transformation that composers could achieve from previously formed motivic constructions. A drastic change in the concept of composition was an apparently essential condition for "parody" to develop in music.

Works: Jacob Paix: Missa ad imitationem Mottetae In illo tempore (564-65), Missa Parodia Mottetae Domine da nobis auxilium (561-66, 568). WJM

Index Classifications: General, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

When Robert Schumann was composing his Cello Concerto, Op. 129, Emil Bockmühl, the cellist who later premiered the piece, made suggestions for revisions to the composer, occasionally invoking Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto, Op. 64, as a point of reference. Although Schumann ignored virtually all of Bockmühl’s recommendations—ultimately creating an unidiomatic and cumbersome solo cello part when compared to the violin solo of Mendelssohn’s Op. 64—the noticeable similarities between the two concertos indicate that Schumann was clearly thinking of his colleague’s earlier work when composing his Cello Concerto. In both pieces, the solo parts feature numerous cantabile melodies and frequently take advantage of the instruments’ higher registers, while the openings of the outer movements are strikingly similar. Despite these broader parallels, the two works are conceptually very different. Whereas Mendelssohn’s concerto highlights the soloist and exploits the violin’s capabilities, the cello solo of Schumann’s piece rarely features such bravura, even in the cadenza. Instead, Schumann’s concerto downplays the prominence of the solo part and integrates it into the orchestra to a far greater degree than does Mendelssohn, almost inverting the genre’s traditional hierarchy between soloist and accompaniment. Additionally, Schumann’s concerto is far more musically integrated, with thematic connections across movements and a greater overall coherence of motivic material throughout the work .

Works: Robert Schumann: Cello Concerto in A Minor, Op. 129.

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Violin Concerto in E Minor, Op. 64.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Song parodies published in American newspapers were integral to American political culture from the 1790s through the 1810s as they exposed political “truth” in the first party system (Federalists versus Republicans) through mimesis, structural manipulation, and high degrees of intertextuality. Regardless of topic, word play with a model song’s lyrics was a core component of these political parodies. Some parodists just mocked their political opponents, as in Theodore Dwight’s Moll Carey, a parody of Isaac Watt’s psalm Ye Tribes of Adam Join. Others additionally mocked the model song, as in the anonymous Parody of a Federal Song, a parody of the Federalist song Friends to Order—Rise. In both cases, the model was readily apparent and the parodists made additional intertextual references to get their points across. Chains (a parody of a parody) and clusters (multiple parodies of one model) of song parodies demonstrate an even greater level of intertextual references and relationships. The chain of parodies based on Henry Mellen’s The Embargo exemplifies the way partisans on both sides of an issue argued back-and-forth through song parodies. A particularly large set of parodies on Thomas Campbell’s Ye Mariners of England appeared in 1812 debating the prospect of war with Britain. Parodies justifying or opposing the war were met with others serving non-political functions, including John Richard Desborus Huggins’s Ye Shavers of Columbia, a satirical advertisement for his barber services. The tradition of song parodies in early American political culture demonstrates the long-standing efficacy of political rhetoric delivered in an entertaining form.

Works: Anonymous: Parody of a Federal Song (39-42), A Parody Parodied or a New England Aristocratic Song, stripped of its fallacy, &dressed in the becoming garb of ‘native truth and unaffected simplicity (47-48), The Parody on Henry Miller (48-51), A Parody (55-56); Theodore Dwight: Moll Carey (42-46); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (46-47); Unus Plebis: Poetry (48-51); Simon Pepperpot, The Younger: The Embargo Parodied (48-51); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (51-53); Alexander Lucas: Ye Members of Congress (53); John Richard Desborus Huggins: Ye Shavers of Columbia. A Barber-ous Ode (54-55); A Citizen of Monmouth: To the Soldiers of America (55).

Sources: Anonymous: Friends to Order—Rise (39-42); Isaac Watts: Ye Tribes of Adam Join (42-46); John Brown Williamson: The Hobbies (46-48); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (47-48); Henry Mellen: The Embargo (48-51); Thomas Campbell: Ye Mariners of England (51-56); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, Popular

Josquin based his Missa Di Dadi on the tenor of Robert Morton's three-voice rondeau N'aray je jamais mieulx que j'ay. Not only this text but also the visual device of two dice indicating the degree of augmentation in the tenor are closely related to the fifteenth-century liturgical ritual of the Mass. The dice disappear at the beginning of the "Osanna," and it is at this same place that the chanson tenor is quoted beyond the first line ("N'aray je jamais mieulx que j'ay?"). Long interprets the sequence of dice arrangements as rolls of a popular French dice game, which ends after the "Sanctus" with the victory of the first player. The winning of the game corresponds to the "short-lived glimpse of the Redeemer" (a reward for the faithful) at the elevation of the host during the "Osanna." The first line of the chanson text, which is repeated seven times before the "Osanna," has a meaning that is both secular (relating to money) and sacred (relating to the search for salvation), and the answer is not given until that moment where the whole cantus firmus is quoted. The remainder of the article (p. 14-21) considers parallels between Josquin's Missa Di Dadi and the late Missa Pange lingua. The latter may have been in part a reworking of the former in order to eliminate the metaphor of the dice.

Works: Josquin: Stabat Mater (1-2), Missa Di Dadi (1-13, 20-21), Missa D'ung aultre amer (5); Pierre de la Rue: Missa de Sancta Anna (12-13); Josquin: Missa Pange lingua (14-21).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Musicology is in need of generalist methodologies and perspectives for fragments, clichés, and non-sequiturs of classical music that occur in twentieth-century media and culture. Such music is related to the “vernacular imagination,” the shared phenomenon of twentieth-century American (and occasionally European) media audiences in which an artist’s imaginative priorities intersect with the past and with memory. Musicologists can adapt the notion of register, a tool used to locate a work culturally, to study this music in a way that traces the development and intersection of its fluctuating meanings, emphasizing audience reception of an expressive mass media rather than arguing for the absolute value of a musical object.

Works: Barry Manilow: Could it Be Magic (17); Kiss: Great Expectations (17); Billy Joel: This Night (18); DMX: What’s My Name? (34-40); Busta Rhymes: Gimme Some More (34, 38-40); Alan Crosland (director) and Louis Silvers (composer): score to The Jazz Singer (51-55, 73-81, 86, 177); Otto Preminger (director) and David Raksin (composer): score to Laura (42, 44-47, 52, 58-59, 76, 163); Irving Rapper (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Now, Voyager (59-60); Victor Fleming (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Gone with the Wind (69-70); Gregory La Cava (director) and Max Steiner (composer): score to Symphony of Six Million (86-101); Jefferson Airplane: White Rabbit (122-24); The Doors: Light My Fire (124); Led Zeppelin: Stairway to Heaven (126-27); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (129-39, 149-51); The Swingle Singers: Aria (135-37); Lawrence Kasdan (director) and Meg Kasdan (composer): soundtrack to The Big Chill (152-56); Alfred Hitchcock (director) and Bernard Herrmann (composer): score to Psycho (171-73); Robert Z. Leonard (director): soundtrack to Strange Interlude (181-83); James Whale (director) and Franz Waxman (composer): score to Bride of Frankenstein (190-95); Stephen Herek (director) and Michael Kamen (composer): score to Mr. Holland’s Opus (196-202); William Hanna and Joseph Barbera (directors) and Scott Bradley (music editor): score to Tom and Jerry, no. 29, The Cat Concerto (197-98); Friz Freleng (director): score to Merrie Melodies, episode Rhapsody Rabbit (197, 205); Carlos Santana and Dave Matthews: Love of My Life (214-16); Albert Lewin (director): The Picture of Dorian Gray (216-21); Queen: Bohemian Rhapsody (222-35); Penelope Spheeris (director): soundtrack to Wayne’s World (222-23, 231-32).

Sources: Chopin: Prelude in C minor, Op. 28, No. 20 (17); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (18); Richard Addinsell: Warsaw Concerto (34-35, 41); Bernard Herrmann: score to Psycho (34, 38-40); Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture (51-58), Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74 (59-63); Handel, “Ombra mai fu” from Serse (69-70); Ravel: Bolero (123-24); Johann Sebastian Bach, Air from Suite in D Major, BWV 1068 (133-34), Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 (133-34, 136-37); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (152-56); George Antheil: Symphony No. 4; Dukas: The Sorcerer’s Apprentice (190); Gottfried Huppertz: score to Metropolis (194-95); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (198, 204-6); The Toys: Lover’s Concerto (196, 202-9, 213); The Supremes: I Hear a Symphony (196, 202-4, 213); Brahms: Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (214-16); Chopin: Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24 (217-21); Queen: Bohemian Rhapsody (222-23); Mascagni: Cavalleria rusticana (227); Richard Strauss: Ariadne auf Naxos (227-31).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Index Classifications: 1900s

Many questions about musical collages still remain to be answered, especially with regard to the relationships between the seemingly disparate elements on their musical surface. Analysis shows that seemingly disparate features in Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia, George Rochberg’s Music for the Magic Theater, and Bernd Alois Zimmermann’s Musique pour les Soupers du Roi Ubu, are actually governed by a multitude of associations that create unconventional structures and relationships. Chromatic saturation within pitch (not pitch-class) space in the Sinfonia provides the motivation for relating disparate passages in this collage, while aggregate completion and the saturation of certain motivic units connects seemingly disparate passages in the Music for the Magic Theater. Finally, the lack of aggregate completion and several inconclusive gap-fill processes lead to a lack of closure in Musique pour les Soupers du Roi Ubu, which is used in tandem with other musical features to provide dramatic meaning. Analyses of these three musical collages should not ignore contrasts in musical language, but instead should embrace them as fundamental building blocks, emphasizing the associations and relationships between seemingly disparate elements which make up the work’s structure. Organic unity should not be attempted to be “proven” in these works, but the idea of total disjunction of the musical surfaces of these collages is an illusion.

Works: Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (64-81); George Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (81-87); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Musique pour les Soupers du Roi Ubu (87-94).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (64-66, 69); Mozart: Divertimento in B-flat Major, K. 287 (81-86); Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique (87-90); Wagner: Die Walküre (87-90).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Musical collages are distinguished from other forms of musical borrowing because of the excessive amount and diversity of quoted material, as well as the degree to which the quoted material retains its individuality. Techniques for analyzing musical collages are few, and the process of modulation in musical collage still remains to be examined. The term “modulation” refers to the shift between distinct harmonic domains, the recurrence of a main or dominant sound world, and sharp contrasts and the efforts to reconcile these contrasts. There are several modulatory techniques of collages. Overlap is a technique that traverses the spectrum in terms of varying degrees of subtlety and can function on different conceptual levels. Types of overlap include pitch convergence, which encompasses pitch connections at different levels of abstraction, and textural dispersal/emergence, which is produced when two quotations sound simultaneously and are subjected to a process of fragmentation. In chromatic insertion, chromatic passages fulfill a modulatory function, filling in the intervening tonal space between surrounding passages of quotations. Finally, rhythmic plasticity denotes the ways in which the rhythmic profile of the music is manipulated in order gradually to introduce or to lead away from a quotation.

Works: Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (298-99, 302-4, 310-15, 326-27); George Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (299-300, 304-310, 318-27); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Musique pour les Soupers du Roi Ubu (300-301, 305-307, 317-18, 326-27).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (298-99, 302-4, 310-12, 321-24); Mozart: Divertimento in B-flat Major, K. 287 (300-301, 307); Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique (301, 304-5, 317-18); Wagner: Die Walküre (301, 304-305, 317-18).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Index Classifications: 1900s

Even in his earliest compositions, Frederick Delius showcased the influence of Norwegian music and Edvard Grieg on his practice. Letters from Edvard Grieg to Delius demonstrate that the composer encouraged the young Delius to pursue his compositional craft. Further letters indicate Grieg provided comments and criticism on Delius’s works, including Song of the High Hills, which developed from the overture Paa Vidderne. Norwegian influence is shown in other works by Delius, such as the use of the Norwergian national anthem Ja, vi elsker dette landet in the 1897 play Folkeraadet. Additionally, Delius’s song Over the Hills and Far Away shows direct homage to Grieg. The period of 1909–12 marks a move away from pure Impressionism in Delius’s work, to an imitation of human states, culminating in the composer’s post-Impressionist stage, which had its roots in his Norwegian influenced works.

Works: Delius: Paa Vidderne (34), Song of the High Hills (35, 40), Folkeraadet (37), Over the Hills and Far Away (38), Life’s Dance (39–40).

Sources: Rikard Nordraak: Ja, vi elsker dette landet; Delius: Paa Vidderne.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

The publication of The Mulliner Book (Brit. Mus. Add. 30513) along with its accompanying commentary by Denis Stevens comprises a valuable introduction to several types of musical borrowing in English Tudor keyboard music. All possible variations of cantus firmus techniques may be found in the many In Nomine and Gloria tibi Trinitas settings. A comparison of the elaborate popular song settings, such as Johnson's Defiled is my name, with their vocal counterparts show how sixteenth-century musicians dealt with the voice leading problems that occurred in creating instrumental transcriptions. Other works in the collection show how English composers took common Italian bass patterns and used them to establish new variation techniques. These new processes would become standard practice for Elizabethan composers of the next generation, including William Byrd. Also included in the collection is the first British Fansye by Master Newman. It is clearly modeled on Marco Antonio Cavazzoni's Salve virgo.

Works: Johnson: Defiled is my name (378-79); Passamezzo (387-89); Master Newman: A fansye (389-92).

Sources: Antiphon: Gloria tibi Trinitas (375); Johnson: Defiled is my name (378-79); Marco Antonio Cavazzoni: Salve virgo (389-92).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

The Mulliner Book contains the largest collection of keyboard works by William Blitheman (1525-1591). Although Blitheman is best known as John Bull's teacher, a closer inspection of the Gloria tibi Trinitas settings shows that he may have also been one of the pioneering figures in the development of plainsong variation sets. The six Trinitas pieces were probably originally intended as one cyclic work. This composition would not predate Narvaez's two sets of variations on O Gloriosa domina, but was probably a great influence on later European variation composers, such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck. In the first five variations, the Gloria tibi Trinitas plainsong serves as a structural voice around which increasingly virtuosic passages are composed. In some of the variations, the cantus firmus participates in and is obscured by the musical figuration. The last variation follows the contemplative melos suave style, which can be found in other works by Blitheman. Investigation also shows that the work was most likely composed for organ.

Works: William Blitheman: Gloria tibi Trinitas I-VI (528-53).

Sources: Antiphon: Gloria tibi Trinitas (528-53).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Throughout his career, Franz Liszt frequently revised and recomposed Marche hongroise d’après Schubert, the second movement of Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (1838-39), Liszt’s arrangement of Schubert’s Divertissement à l’hongroise (1825). Over four decades, Liszt published nine different notated versions of the piece. Liszt’s continued engagement with Schubert’s Viennese approximation of Hungarian music introduces many complications with regard to Liszt’s Hungarian identity. Four transcultural readings of Marche hongroise illustrate the complex relationship between national identities and politics surrounding Liszt’s career-long engagement with the work. The first transcultural reading concerns Schubert’s adoption of Hungarian folk style in his Divertissement and Liszt’s reclamation of the Hungarian style through his transcription in Mélodies. In transcribing Schubert’s Divertissement, Liszt asserts his authority as a Hungarian musician by amplifying the idiomatic effects marking a Hungarian style. The addition of verbunkos and militaristic effects further frames Liszt as correcting Schubert’s Viennese style hongrois and revealing the heroic nature of Hungarian music. The second transcultural reading places Liszt’s work in the context of republican heroic marches. Since the French Revolution, the heroic march genre was often linked to republican and revolutionary politics. This context combined with Liszt’s own political leanings suggests a republican reading of the Marche hongroise. The third transcultural reading contextualizes Marche hongroise with Liszt’s cultural identity as a performer in Vienna. Performing variations on Schubert’s Divertissement was a way to reconcile his Hungarian identity with the critical culture of Vienna, which prized German musical style above others. Liszt’s orchestral version of Marche hongroise, recast in German as Ungarischer Marsch, allowed him to frame his Hungarian music as a Schubert transcription, which was more palatable to the Viennese establishment. Finally, the fourth transcultural reading places Marche hongroise in the context of transcultural modernism. In his orchestral Ungarischer March (1870 version), Liszt adopts a modern chromatic idiom, creating a stylistic hybrid of Hungarian and New German music. The changing musical trends also prompted Liszt to create new piano versions of Marche hongroise based on the orchestral version: Franz Schuberts Märsche (1880) and the Troisième edition of Marche hongroise (1883). Although we can never truly know what Liszt was thinking when he recomposed Marche hongroise in 1883, applying these four transcultural perspectives to his lifelong engagement with Marche hongroise reveals the complex associations attached to the piece and how it could represent (in Lachmund’s words) “the noblest Hungarian spirit.”

Works: Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (423-40, 447-49), Ungarischer Marsch (454-64), Franz Schuberts Märsche (464-65), Marche hongroise: Troisième édition et augmentée (465-68)

Sources: Schubert: Divertissement à l’hongroise (423-40); Liszt: Mélodies hongroises d’après Schubert (454-68), Ungarischer Marsch (464-68)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

ABBA's music is used to negotiate the formation of gay identity in Muriel's Wedding. ABBA's "Dancing Queen" becomes the theme for the main character as she struggles to establish her unique persona in a small town. Muriel is marked by her friends as having outdated taste in music for listening to ABBA while at the same time making her more sympathetic to an urban audience that placed value on retro style and music. Through the use of 1970s popular music, Muriel's Wedding and The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert established a sense of camp, rather than kitsch, creating the identification with gay counter-culture. Alicia Bridges's "I Love the Nightlife" is used in Priscilla to portray both the town's backwater status and the theatrical nature of the drag queen performance, highlighting the tension between the main characters' identification with gay culture and the unyielding conservative culture of the small town.

Works: Peter Allen and Peter Best: music for Muriel's Wedding (79); Guy Gross: score to The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (83).

Sources: Benny Andersson, Stig Anderson, Bjorn Ulvaeus: Dancing Queen (79); Benny Andersson, Bjorn Ulvaeus: Fernando (83); Benny Andersson, Stig Anderson, Bjorn Ulvaeus: Waterloo (83), I Do, I Do (86); Alicia Bridges: I Love the Nightlife (81); Ken Hirsch and Ron Miller: I've Never Been to Me, as performed by Charlene (85); Henri Belolo, Jacques Morali, and Victor Willis: Go West (85); Dino Fekaris and Freddy Perren: I Will Survive as performed by Gloria Gaynor (87).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Johanna Beyer’s prominent quotations of Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte in her String Quartet No. 2 are notable for several reasons: for quoting a tonal piece in the context of ultramodern dissonant counterpoint, for demonstrating the lasting impact of ultramodern compositional practices in the late 1930s, and for exemplifying the way musical borrowing carries extramusical meaning for women composers in particular. In the first and fourth movements of String Quartet No. 2, Beyer borrows the melody from Papageno’s aria “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen” but sets it against dissonant counterpoint in the vein of ultramodern composers such as Charles Seeger and Ruth Crawford. The contrast between the quoted material and the ultramodernist aesthetic is more than just sonic; the use of a tonal melody by Mozart flouts the ultramodernist rejection of European musical tradition. The particular quotation of an aria about Papageno’s desire for a wife introduces another layer of interpretive meaning to the quartet. Beyer composed in an era where the structures of musical modernism were especially misogynist. Unmarried women like Beyer faced further hardships during the Depression. Around the time Beyer composed String Quartet No. 2, she proposed an arranged open marriage to Henry Cowell so that they may reap the social benefits. This arrangement never materialized, but one detail linking the quartet to the idea of marriage is Beyer signing the manuscript “Persephone,” the wife of Hades from Greek mythology. The subversion of gendered tropes is a common theme with modernist women artists. Reading Beyer’s quotation of “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen” in this context sets the free, ultramodern counterpoint of the upper lines against the fixed cello line that repeats Papageno’s tune through the whole first movement. The content of the aria, Papageno’s desire to marry any woman at all, provides further analytical material, as this perspective is tied to the rigid cello, never achieving the freedom of the upper strings. Borrowing Papageno’s aria allows Beyer and her audience to think subversively about marriage and gender roles. Examining the connections between musical borrowing and gender opens up a rich array of analytical possibilities.

Works: Johanna Beyer: String Quartet No. 2 (306-13, 320-32)

Sources: Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (306-8, 313, 320-32)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

One reference to borrowing is present: the second song of On Wenlock Edge, "From Far; From Eve and Morning," recalls "The Infinite Shining Moment" from Songs of Travel with its widespread common chords.

Works: Vaughan Williams: On Wenlock Edge (36).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

More than one third of Beethoven's compositions make use of his pre-existing music. These reworkings are frequently extensive and serve as an alternative way to access his compositional method in addition to his sketchbooks. His self-borrowings have both musical and practical explanations: (1) to correct, improve, and perfect the quality of a previously finished composition; (2) to enable him to indulge his penchant for variation, development, and invention; (3) to respond to compositional challenges; (4) to express feelings of friendship and debts of gratitude; (5) to make a composition available to a wider spectrum of the music buying public in order to earn extra money. The re-uses can be classified in four categories: (1) amelioration; (2) arrangement; (3) single composition or movement reuses; and (4) thematic or motivic reuses.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (1), Piano Sonata in C# minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (5), Piano Sonata in C major, Op. 2, No. 3 (10), Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (13), Feuerfarb', Op. 52, No. 2 (14), O welch ein Leben!, WoO 91, No. 1 (17), Fidelio, Op. 72 (21), Sonatina in G Major, Op. 79 (28), String Quintet in Eb Major, Op. 4 (32), String Trio in Eb Major, Op. 3 (49), String Quintet in C minor, Op. 104 (69), Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 (78), Der freie Mann, WoO 117 (102), Piano Concerto No. 2 in Bb Major, Op. 19 (106), Rondo in Bb Major for Piano and Orchestra, WoO 6 (110), Quartet in Eb Major for Piano and Strings (116), Septet in E Major for Violin, Viola, Clarinet, Horn, Basson, Violoncello, and Contrabass, Op. 20 (124), Trio in Eb Major for Piano, Clarinet or Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 38 (124), Opferlied (130), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 (151), Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2 (156), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 (156), Sonata in G Major for Piano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3 (156), Piano Trio in E Major Op. 70, No. 2 (156), Piano Sonata in Ab Major, Op. 110 (156), Adagio in Eb Major for Mandolin and Harpsichord, Hess-44b (164), Allegretto in C minor for Piano, Hess-66 (176), Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 (179), String Quartet in F, Hess-34 (184), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (200), Septet in Eb Major, Op. 20, arranged as Trio, Op. 38 (210), Fragment of an Arrangement for Military Band of Septet in Eb major, Op. 20 (225), Piano Sonata in Bb Major, Op. 22 (228), German Dance or Allemande in A Major for Orchestra, WoO 13 (231), Trio in G Major for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 1, No. 2 (231), String Quartet in A minor, Op. 132 (231), Fifteen Variations in Eb major with a Fugue for Piano, Op. 35 (248), Symphony No. 3 in Eb major, Op. 55 (248), Music for Friedrich Duncker's Drama Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 (260), Arrangement for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello of Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 (263), Busslied, Op. 48, No. 6 (269), Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 (270), Overture III to Leonore (1806) (273), Concerto in D for Violin, Op. 61 (287), March in Bb Major for Six Wind Instruments, WoO 29 (313), Music for August von Kotzebue's Festspiel (Nachspiel) Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (318), Introduction to Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (327), Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1 (337), Hoffnung, Op. 82, No. 1 (339), March and Chorus from Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 114 (346), An die Geliebte, WoO 140 (351), Canon An Mälzel, WoO 162 (353), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (361), Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria for Orchestra, Op. 91 (367), Hochzeitslied, WoO 105 (370), Puzzle Canon Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (378), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (381).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s