Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

This article lists many works by Debussy and the sources of their quotations, but provides no musical examples or measure numbers and offers no insights into the whys and hows of Debussy's musical borrowing.

Works: Debussy: Hommage à S. Pickwick, Esq. P.P.M.P.C. (22), Feux d'artifice (22), Berceuse héroique (22), Caprices en blanc et noir (22), Pierrot (22), La terrasse des audiences au clair de lune (22), "Jardins sous la pluie" from Estampes (22), Rondes de printemps (22), "Jimbo's Lullaby" from Children's Corner (22), La boite à joujoux (22), Les cloches (23), "Gigue" from Images (23), "Golliwog's Cake Walk" from Children's Corner (23, 34), Le petit nègre (34), Marche ecossaise (34).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Within a general survey of Schubert's piano sonatas, the author gives an example of the composer borrowing both from one of his own previous works and from one by Beethoven (p. 48). The theme of the rondo finale of the Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959, is taken from the central movement of Schubert's earlier Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 537. However, the structure of the movement as a whole is closely modeled on that of the rondo in Beethoven's Piano Sonata in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Bartók's compositional model was Beethoven. Similarities between the two composers may be seen in form, contrapuntal writing, use of introductions and epilogues, and thematic and motivic material. The symmetrical structure of Bartók's Second Piano Concerto is compared to the form of Beethoven's String Quartet in C# Minor, Op. 131. The forms of the second movement of Bartók's Third Piano Concerto and the concerto as a whole are related to both the Second Piano Concerto and Op. 131. The second movement is also related to Beethoven's String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132, where striking similarities occur in scoring, rhythm, texture, and dynamics. Beethoven's Grosse Fuge for String Quartet, Op. 133, serves as a model for Bartók's Sixth String Quartet with parallels of meter, dynamics, articulation, use of rests, and compositional procedures. It is clear that Bartók deliberately used many of Beethoven's compositional techniqes.

Works: Bartók: Piano Concerto No. 2 (254), Piano Concerto No. 3 (254-55), String Quartet No. 6 (255-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Maurice Ohana, a composer of cosmopolitan cultural upbringing, is undoubtedly an individualist, but his late style reflects strong influence exerted by Debussy and Stravinsky. In reaction to serialism, Ohana founded the Groupe Zodiaque to announce their rejection of post-Webern serialism and promoted the study of folk music, plainsong and the vocal works of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. He also advocated for cultivating the tribal music of the north African Berbers and black Africans, musical influences that he was exposed to in his youth which formed the basis of his musical style. He employed chiefly Spanish idioms, like the Cante jondo, in his works in the 1950s not to evoke the usual romantic exoticism of a foreign land, but rather a certain grotesque, tragic image of Spain. However, Ohana’s mature style in the 1960s reveals his affinity with Debussy and Stravinsky; this is especially notable in his use of melodic parallelism and third-tones, which can be seen as a coloristic extension of the whole-tone scale. Spanish idioms, on the other hand, are employed more subtly in his later works. Influence of jazz and oriental theatre also influenced his compositional approach.

Works: Maurice Ohana: Tiento (70), Tombeau de Claude Debussy (71), Anneau du Tamarit (71), Études d’interprétation (71), Signes (74), T’Haran-Ngo (74), Livre des prodiges (74).

Sources: Manuel de Falla: Homenaje a Debussy (70), El Amor Brujo (71); Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (71), Estampes (71), En blanc et noir (71); Federico García Lorca: Divan del Tamarit (71), La Célestine (71); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (74).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Several instances of contrafacture from Ordinary chants are found in Hungarian manuscripts. The application of new texts to these Gregorian melodies gives a new liturgical function to these chants, otherwise heard during the Mass Ordinary. This is particularly important for manuscripts from Hungary, a country with thinkers well-versed in the Gregorian tradition who were able to skillfully reshape melodic material over texts for use in cathedral dramas. Several different Kyrie settings served as the models for newly texted chants.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

The Lacrymosa movement of Hector Berlioz’s Grand Messe des morts contains numerous connections to the Allegretto movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. On the surface level, both movements feature contrasts of high and low registers, and Berlioz also quotes a descending line from mm. 144-48 of Beethoven’s Allegretto, which, in both pieces, abruptly pivots the music from C Major into A Minor. On a deeper level, however, the Lacrymosa “poeticizes” and exaggerates the elements of Beethoven’s Allegretto that Berlioz heard most clearly in his predecessor’s work: intense alternation between rhythmically driving and lyrical passages, the pervasive somber affect, parallels with the biblical Jeremiah and Gluck’s Alceste, and an incessant rhythmic motive pulsing throughout. Berlioz’s Lacrymosa thus constitutes the composer’s own vivid reading and re-interpretation of Beethoven’s Allegretto.

Works: Berlioz: Grand Messe des morts (394-407).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (395-402, 404-7); Gluck: Alceste (403-5).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In composing the overture to Music for the Royal Fireworks, Handel most likely borrowed material from William Croft's overture in D Major to his ode With Noise of Cannon. The beginning Allegro section of Handel's overture greatly resembles Croft's ode in the trumpets' fanfare-like statements and the dotted rhythmic answers of the other instruments. Though Croft's piece was more than forty years old at the time, the circumstances of both works as occasional music, each written for civic and secular celebrations, show that Handel wanted to draw from a long musical tradition and looked to secular instead of sacred music as a model.

Works: Handel: Overture to Music for the Royal Fireworks, HWV 351.

Sources: Croft: Overture to With Noise of Cannon.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1500s

In his opera Palestrina, Hans Pfitzner uses three themes from Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli. While two of them (from the "Kyrie" and from the "Christe") are simple quotations, the one from the "Sanctus" is developed further until it exactly represents the characteristic scale motive from Josquin's well known instrumental piece La Bernardina, which Pfitzner, however, most probably did not know. This development covers the final section of the dramatically important "inspiration scene" from Act I. Rectanus explains the correspondence with a mysterious relationship between the composers concerned, with what he calls an unio mystica or Sternenfreundschaft.

Works: Palestrina: Missa Papae Marcelli,Missa Benedicta es (212-13); Pfitzner: Palestrina; Ghiselin-Verbonnet: L'Alfonsina (216-17); Josquin: Mi Larés vous (216-17); Monteverdi: Raggi, D'ovè il mio ben (216-17).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

This article locates Mahler's music historically and analyzes its expression. While the incorporation of his own songs into the symphonies could function as "signposts for the intellectual appreciation of the hidden programme," the handling of deliberately trivial melodies symbolizes "experiences of despair or of heartlacerating self-irony." The parody of Frère Jacques in the First and a melody of a Viennese military cortège in the Fifth Symphony belong to the latter category.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 8.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Britten's operas and operatic style are considered to have developed from the models of Berg (Wozzeck), Stravinsky (Oedipus Rex), Hindemith (Das Nusch-Nuschi), Brecht-Weill (Die Dreigroschenoper), Pfitzner, Busoni, R. Strauss, and Verdi, while his eclecticism is compared to that of Monteverdi, Mozart, and Wagner. A specific example of Britten's modelling is that of a leitmotif from Albert Herring (Prelude to Act II, Scene 2), which may have been suggested by a passage from Act III of Verdi's Falstaff. Britten subjects his motif to variations, one of which serves as a model for his song Canticle I, and thus provides a link between Britten's operatic and lyrical styles.

Works: Britten: Albert Herring (241-42), Canticle I (243).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

René Marie’s performance of the national anthem at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, where she sang lyrics of Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing to the tune of The Star-Spangled Banner, grapples with the experience of race and gender during the dawning of “postracial” America. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing, written by James Weldon Johnson and Rosamond Johnson in the early twentieth century, became known as the black national anthem during the 1920s and 1930s, as black American communities organized around creating a collective identity and rallying to fight for Civil Rights. Marie’s performance challenged the idea of a “national anthem” by forcing her audience to confront an alternate anthem, and thus an alternate national identity. By singing alternative lyrics to the familiar (and politicized) tune, Marie highlighted this duality in a way that just singing one or the other could not. Anthems as a genre are a living performance of national identity and are not fixed, but are flexible between historical contexts. Marie’s identity as a black woman lent additional weight to her performance, in hearing as well as watching. An earlier correlate to this performance was Marian Anderson’s performance of America in 1939 at the Lincoln Memorial, which expressed both the national unity and the oppression still felt by many people in America at the time. Marie’s performance fundamentally altered the terrain of musical representation as Obama’s nomination altered it politically.

Works: René Marie: Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing (to the tune of The Star-Spangled Banner).

Sources: James Weldon Johnson and Rosamond Johnson: Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing; Francis Scott Key: The Star-Spangled Banner.

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

The motets of Francisco Guerrero, many of which were published in multiple editions with his direct involvement, present an unusual opportunity to study the composer’s revision process. The scope of Guerrero’s revisions ranges from minor changes to substantial recomposition, and these revisions reveal the variety—and inconsistency—of his approach to composition. Guerrero’s motets were issued in four major collections published in Seville in 1555 and Venice in 1570, 1589, and 1597. The most substantial revisions were done on motets first appearing in the 1555 collection. Many motets first appearing in 1570 also received some degree of reworking in later editions. Just one motet appearing in both the 1589 and 1597 collections was substantially altered, however. Some motets also appeared in publications outside of the major collections and display intermediary revisions. One of the most substantial reworkings was done to the five-voice setting of Beatus es, which between the 1555 and 1589 publications was shortened from 73 to 58 breves, eliminating repetition and improving the pacing of the text. Guerrero also revised his motets to reflect his evolving views on text setting, correcting “problems” with the placement of stressed and unstressed syllables. Revisions to a passage in Dum complerentur (1589, originally printed in 1555) demonstrate Guerrero’s aim of modernizing and improving counterpoint and sonority in addition to text setting. Besides the well-documented motets, Guerrero’s habit of revision is evident in other genres he composed in as well. Although a full account of how Guerrero’s revision practice compares to his contemporaries is out of reach, consideration of his work does inform investigations of composition, chronology, style, and print dissemination of motets.

Works: Francisco Guerrero: Beatus es et bene tibi erit, 1589 version (31-38), Ambulans Jesus, 1570 version (39-40, 42-43), Dum complerentur, 1589 version (40-41, 47-50), Trahe me post te, 1589 version (40-44), Usquequo Domine, 1570 version (42), Gloriose confessor Domini, 1570 version (44-46)

Sources: Francisco Guerrero: Beatus es et bene tibi erit, 1555 version (31-38), Ambulans Jesus, 1555 version (39-40, 42-43), Dum complerentur, 1555 version (40-41, 47-50), Trahe me post te, 1555 version (40-44), Usquequo Domine, 1566 version (42), Gloriose confessor Domini, 1555 version (44-46)

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

An attempt to broach the controversy over the monophony of the vocal music contained in MSS f.fr. 9346 (Le Manuscrit de Bayeux) and f.fr. 12744 in the Paris Bibliothèque Nationale considers (1) the related theories of Gerold and Bukofzer that the collections do not contain monophonic chansons but are made up of parts extracted from polyphonic compositions and (2) similar research on MS 4379 and the Tournai Chansonnier. The authors provide a list of the forty-eight polyphonic sources consulted in tracking down the melodies and a chart that lists the differences for all compositions examined. The melodies of Bayeux and 12744 are not mere voice-parts extracted from polyphonic compositions; those that appear elsewhere in polyphonic settings are the pre-existent bases of these works rather than transcriptions arranged from them.

Works: Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS f.fr. 9346 (Le Manuscrit de Bayeux); Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS f.fr. 12744; Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS n.a.fr. 4379 (4, 5, 7); Tournai Chansonnier (5, 7).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Liszt's Introduction et variations sur une marche du Siège de Corinthe (1830) raises many questions, because only the Introduction of the piece has been found. During his sojourn in Paris, Liszt would have certainly known Rossini?s opera Le Siège de Corinthe, which was premiered there in 1826 and was published in 1827. Liszt takes his theme in his Introduction from the March in the third act of the opera. The Introduction concludes on a dominant seventh chord, suggesting that Liszt planned to write the following variations while calling into question whether he did ever complete them. Liszt's inscription that mentions "Fuchs," probably Alois Fuchs, the Viennese autograph collector, raises several questions, including when and how Fuchs obtained the manuscript and whether Liszt wrote the title and inscribed it to Fuchs while he was writing the music on the first staff. The Fuchs entry in the Deutsche Staatsbibliothek Catalogue 317 leads to speculation that Liszt wrote the Introduction and probably variations in 1830 but kept the piece untitled until he sent it to Fuchs in 1851 with a title and inscription.

Works: Liszt: Introduction et variations sur une marche du Siège de Corinthe (103).

Sources: Rossini: Le Siège de Corinthe (103).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Sixteenth-century Seville was a learned, cosmopolitan city in which education focused on the subjects of the trivium, including rhetoric. Imitation of a model and transfer by analogy were important elements of rhetoric, the goal of which was to teach, persuade, and move. Juan Bermudo's five-volume treatise Declaración de instrumentos (1555) presents its theoretical remarks in the language of rhetoric, offering examples from Morales as models to be followed. Morales, in turn, praised Bermudo's treatise for showing theory and practice "coming together in consonance and proportion." Morales's own Missarum liber secundus of 1544 includes a full range of stylistic traits, with the individual masses arranged in a proper rhetorical scheme.

Works: Cristóbal de Morales: Missarum liber secundus (240-43).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

In an interview, Rochberg discusses his move toward serialism after World War II and his eventual return to the tonal idiom after the death of his son in the mid-1960s. Even though he was writing in the serial tradition after World War II, his music did not sound like that of other serial composers because he kept his sight on what he called "hard Romanticism," which Rochberg defines as an unattainable romantic notion that forces the music to open to the chaos of atonality. He eventually became disillusioned with serial techniques because it was only possible to manipulate the music in one way. Rochberg could find no true cadences or musical pauses for drama and expressive purposes. Starting with Contra Mortem et Tempus, Rochberg begin moving towards tonal music with the use of collage. He finally found his compositional style in String Quartet No. 3, which is rooted in both tonality and atonality. This piece, although not using collage technique, is formed through the music of previous eras that creates a sense of looking back to understand the future.

Works: Rochberg: Contra Mortem et Tempus (10), Music for the Magic Theater (10), Caprice Variations (10), String Quartet No. 3 (10-12).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Index Classifications: 1600s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Rochberg, who began as an atonal composer, has reincorporated tonality into his style as a reaction against the limitation of expression in atonal music. His Third String Quartet juxtaposes sections of atonal music with sections that strongly suggest the styles of Beethoven and Mahler, without using direct quotation. For example, the quartet's finale resembles the finale of Mahler's Ninth Symphony in hamony, mood, use of pedal point, and melodic figures to the point where one can see the two passages as belonging to the same piece. Motivic unification is used to unite historical with modern styles. Rochberg uses the styles of Beethoven and Mahler because of their expressive connotations and incorporates them into a new context. This way of using the music of the past is not reactionary, but progressive.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld, Sergio Bezerra

Handel undoubtedly turned to Purcell's works for guidance during his early years in England. Acis and Galatea, one of Handel's earliest works written for England, appears to be a manifestation of this influence. Although Handel never directly borrows from Purcell, an unmistakable likeness in feeling is present between passages of Acis and Galatea and passages from Purcell's secular works.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Characteristics of Martin Luther's quintessential chorale, Ein feste Burg, the text of which is taken from Psalm 46, suggest so strong a spirit of revolutionary heroism that several composers responded to it. In addition, many qualities of the tune suggest a folk characteristic, contributing in part to the great response the tune received. In particular, the "defiant" tones of the opening stanza evoke a "battle-song" of liberty in the face of the enemy. Many composers adapted the melody of the tune and devised new harmonies for it. A common eighteenth-century adjustment, for example, was to remove the syncopation from the tune, a tradition begun by J. S. Bach in his cantatas. Subsequent composers, including Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer, retained Bach's adaptation of the melody in their own settings.

Works: J. S. Bach: In festo Reformationis, BWV 80, Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (248); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (248); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (248).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (247-49).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1900s

Despite Brahms's reputation as a composer of "absolute" music, his music incorporates motivic borrowings and extramusical ideas. The first Piano Concerto and Requiem illustrate Brahms's use of existing material and musical symbols, which were primarily derived through his interaction with Robert and Clara Schumann. A chart suggests use of these ideas in other works by Brahms, providing a point of departure for further exploration into this subject.

Works: Brahms: Piano Quartet, Op. 60 (3), Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 15, German Requiem, Op. 45, String Quartet No. 1 (7), Symphony No. 1 (8), Variations on a Theme by Schumann (21), Ballade, Op. 10, No. 2 (21), Piano Quartet in A Major, Op. 26 (21), Die schöne Magelone, Op. 33, No. 1 (21), Ballades (duets), Op. 75, Nos. 2 and 3 (21), Violin Cncerto, Op. 77, first movement (21), Symphony No. 3, Op. 90, first movement (21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

A new interpretation and dating of Josquin's Missa Hercules dux ferrariae is possible based on evidence that in composing the famous hexachordal motive for the mass, Josquin alluded to the works of other composers. Allusion is a form of play that provided fifteenth-century composers an opportunity to show their wit and learning and to imbue their compositions with symbolic meaning as Josquin did in Missa Faisant regrets. Though Josquin constructed the motto from the vowels of Duke Ercole's name, he could have adapted the motto from a phrase in Walter Frye's Missa Nobilis et pulchra and the opening phrase from an anonymous Marian composition Salve regis mater (possibly by Marbriano de Orto). Josquin's motive alludes to the contratenor part of Frye's mass, a phrase that appears only once in Frye's entire work on the words "ex Maria virgine." The motivic resemblances between Josquin's Missa Hercules, the anonymous Salve regis mater, and Frye's Missa Nobilis infuse Missa Hercules with Marian symbolism, resonating with Ercole's religious devotion to the Virgin Mary. Josquin's allusions to these masses and his modeling both on Antoine Brumel's hexachordal Missa Ut re mi fa sol la and Agricola's song-motet Si dedero additionally suggest a later dating of 1503 for the mass. The connections between Missa Hercules and the above pieces thus illuminate the Marian associations of the work and support an early sixteenth-century dating.

Works: Josquin: Missa Hercules dux ferrariae (91-110), Missa faisants regrets (94-97).

Sources: Walter Frye: Missa Nobilis et pulchra (93, 97-101), Tout a par moy (94, 102-3); Anonymous/De Orto?: Salve regis mater (93, 99); Antoine Brumel: Missa Ut re mi fa sol la (105-6); Agricola: Si dedero (106-7).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1900s

It is well known that fifteenth-century composers typically used a chanson melody as a cantus firmus when writing masses. There is evidence to suggest that the added contrapuntal voices often quoted or alluded to chansons independent of the melody used in the tenor. Several cases of this appear in works by Dufay, Ockeghem, Caron, Faugues, and others. This technique allowed these composers to make multiple allusions to secular texts within a single passage, enriching the sung mass text with new layers of meaning. Since a central concern of the Italian humanists was to offer modern interpretations on religious themes by way of popular allusions, it seems that in this respect the ideals of the northern composers resonated strongly with humanism, challenging the notion that their music was purely "scholastic."

Works: Busnois: J'ay mains de biens (228-29); Anonymous: Fortune, n'as-tu point pitié (230-31, 241); Agricola: Je n'ay dueil que de vos viegna (230-31, 245); Faugues: Missa Pour l'amour d'une (233, 247); Cornago: Missa Ayo vista lo mappamundo (234, 237, 247-48); Seraphinus: Credo (234-36); Faugues: Missa Je suis en la mer (234-36); Dufay: Gloria (236-37); Faugues: Missa Le serviteur (237-38); Caron: Missa Clemens et benigna (237-39); Anonymous: Missa L'homme armé (240); Ockeghem: Missa Caput (240-41); Compère: Le renvoy d'ung cueur esgaré (240-41); Caron: Missa Sanguis sanctorum (241-43); Dufay: Missa Se la face ay pale (243-44); Ockeghem: Missa (245-46).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Although composers in the Romantic era did not discuss the concept of allusions and borrowings in their works, there is evidence of borrowing in the writings of music critics and the music composers wrote. It is unknown why composers so infrequently discussed where the allusions came from, but it may be connected to differing levels of audience knowledge: from the amateur “Liebhaber,” the reminiscence-hunting “Kenner,” and an exclusive group close to the composer. These allusive traditions, however, are evidenced in the very fact that fellow composers recognized them. One of the most extensive allusive traditions is that of the “Es ist vollbracht” motive from J. S. Bach’s St. John Passion. It is unclear whether Beethoven knew the St. John Passion, since it was not published in Berlin until 1830, though it is possible that C. P. E. Bach, in quoting his father, might have been the bridge between the two composers’ similar motives. Even if Beethoven did not know the work, later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann did, engaging with both the Passion and Beethoven’s similar motives in their own works. There is a particularly strong case with Mendelssohn’s Elijah due to the formal parallels and similarities between Jesus and Elijah. There may have also been an extramusical aspect of this motive as a topic for death and suffering. Connecting Beethoven’s Third Piano Concerto to this extramusical tradition means that Beethoven was engaging with this theme for about two decades, putting his first use of the theme in the period of The Heiligenstadt Testament. Regardless of whether Beethoven did actually know the source of the motive, the end result is an allusive tradition not only of Bach but of Beethoven as well.

Works: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143-44); Robert Schumann: Lieder und Gesänge aus Goethes Wilhelm Meister (143-44), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (143-44); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 2 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 2 (144-45); Luigi Cherubini: Pater noster (145-46); Louis Spohr: Vater unser (145); Felix Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht (146); Brahms: Balladen (147); Felix Mendelssohn: Violin Sonata No. 2 in F Minor, Op. 4 (147); Ferdinand Hiller: Die Zerströrung Jerusalems (147); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (147-48); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Das Jahr (149), Beharre (149); Robert Schumann: Piano Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (149, 153-54); Felix Mendelssohn: Capriccio for Cello and Piano (150), Elijah (151-53), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13 (153); Robert Schumann: Symphony in G Minor (unfinished) (153-54); C.P.E. Bach: Dank-Hymne der Freundschaft (155-56), Passions-Cantate (155-56), Cello Concerto in A Minor (155-56); Beethoven: Sonata for Cello and Piano, Op. 69 (156), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (156-58); Mozart: Concerto for Horn No. 4 in E-flat Major, K.495 (156-58); Prince Louis Ferdinand: Grosses Trio (157-58).

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Lieder für das Pianoforte, Op. 2, No. 2 (144-45); Anonymous: Vater unser (146), Ach Vater unser, der du bist im Himmelreich (146); Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (147-53, 155); Beethoven: Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (149, 153), String Quartet No. 11 in F Minor, Op. 95 (153), String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (153), String Quartet No. 14 in C# Minor, Op. 131 (153), String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor, Op. 132 (153), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (153).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

An assimilative allusion is an allusion that endorses the musical and poetic sense of the earlier passage. The practice of using quotations from earlier pieces to evoke the same mood or meaning began in the late-eighteenth century with Haydn and Mozart, and continued to Wagner. Beethoven borrowed a motif from Reichardt’s Ino depicting family love in his “Archduke” trio, which he told the Countess Guicciardi was about him embracing her family. Some pieces, like Schubert’s Mass in A-flat and his song Der Doppelgänger were composed simultaneously using the same material, so that each work adds to the meaning of the other. Haydn used assimilative allusion in some of his works, but in others he used allusions wittily, the way Schumann did. Liszt alluded to either a Schubert song or an opera by Chelard in his Faust-Symphonie; Wagner in turn incorporated a motive from the Faust-Symphonie into Die Walküre. Wagner’s opinions on Faust also influence the plot of the opera, particularly moments such as the downfall of the gods and Wotan’s inability to recognize the truth. Although people often speak of Wagner’s borrowing in regards to the texts or stories of his works, he used musical allusions as well; Tristan’s death scene in Tristan und Isolde, for instance, uses a theme from Beethoven’s Symphony No. 3, which had been described by contemporaries as depicting death.

Works: Piano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97 (46-48); Mozart: Piano Concerto in A Major, K.488 (48); Carl Maria von Weber: Mass in E-flat, Op. 75 (51); Schubert: Mass in A-flat Major, D.678 (51-52); Haydn: Mass in B-flat Major, Hob. XXII/13 (52-53); Beethoven: Fidelio (54-57); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57); Wagner: Die Walküre (57-63), Tristan und Isolde (63-66).

Sources: Friedrich Reichardt: Ino (46-48); Carl Maria von Weber: Der Freischütz (51); Schubert: “Der Doppelgänger” from Schwanengesang, D.957 (51-52); Haydn: The Creation (52-53); Mozart: The Magic Flute (54); Beethoven: Vestas Feuer (54); Haydn: Abendlied zu Gott, Hob. XXVc:9 (54-55); Mozart: Abendempfindung, K.523 (56-57); Schubert: Szene aus Goethes Faust, D.126 (57-58); Andre-Hippolite Chelard: Macbeth (57-58); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57-61); Marschner: Hans Heiling (62); Robert Schumann: Abschied vom Walde, Op. 89, No. 4 (63); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (63-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Brahms’s 1869 Alto Rhapsody adopts several traits of the German rhapsody tradition, including its use in wedding celebrations and fragmentary quotation of other works. Analyzing the Alto Rhapsody with its expressive double, Brahms’s Schicksalslied, Op.54, suggests that Brahms likely conceived it at least a year earlier than previously thought. The Alto Rhapsody draws heavily on Johann Friedrich Reichard’s 1792 Rhapsodie (Aus der Harzreise) . Brahms sets the same passage of Goethe’s “Harzreise im Winter” as Reichard and borrows several musical ideas from Reichard’s rhapsody. Brahms uses musical citations of the third movement of his own Ein deutsches Requiem and Robert Schumann’s Das Paradies und die Peri to reinforce the meaning of the text. He also draws on several other musical models related to Goethe’s Faust, in particular Berlioz’s La Damnation of Faust, Gounod’s Faust, and Liszt’s Eine Faust-Symphonie. By alluding to these works, Brahms associates the Harzreise text with the brooding “Faust allein in seinem Studierzimmer” scene (as set by Berlioz and Gounod) and “Das Ewig-weibliche” (as set by Liszt). Conceptually, the Alto Rhapsody shares a strong relationship with the choral-orchestral work Schicksalslied. The texts of each piece thematically mirror each other, and their principal musical motives are similar in contour but opposite in character. Both pieces also include a Faust motive drawn from Liszt’s Faust-Symphonie. These similarities can be understood through the Romantic phenomenon of “expressive doubling,” in which two works present opposing expressions of the same subject. The relationship between these pieces, the intertextual complexity of the Alto Rhapsody, and Brahms’s typical compositional process suggest that Brahms began composing it in June 1868 alongside the Schicksalslied, not in July 1869 as he claims.

Works: Brahms: Alto Rhapsody, Op. 53 (191-228), Schicksalslied, Op. 54 (219-21)

Sources: Johann Friedrich Reichard: Rhapsodie (Aus der Harzreise) (191-97, 214); Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (197-200, 214), Schicksalslied, Op. 54 (216-28); Robert Schumann: Das Paradies und die Peri, Op. 50 (197-200, 214); Berlioz: La Damnation de Faust (200-7, 214); Liszt: Eine Faust-Symphonie (200, 205-11, 214, 219-21); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (200, 211-14); Gounod: Faust (201-7, 214); Joseph Joachim: Hamlet (203-8, 214)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Robert Schumann’s musical work had a penchant for contrastive illusion, in which the borrowed materials in a musical work allude to another in a manner that contrast with the meaning and function of the original source. Schumann uses contrastive allusion in two ways: one method in which both text and music is contrasted, and a second type where the music is stylistically different from the source but retains its original meaning. This first type is exhibited in the song cycle Dichterliebe, and the song Schlußlied des Narren. Schumann based the first song of Dichterliebe, “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai,” on the aria “Euch werde Lohn in Bessren” from Beethoven’s Fidelio, and the poetry of Mendelssohn’s Faustian cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht. While the aria is not overtly present in the final version of the song, noteworthy are the phrases borrowed from Mendelssohn’s Die erste Walpurgisnacht. Both Schumann’s and Mendelssohn’s works share musical material, particularly harmonic and phrase structure, but Schumann’s work is contrastive because it reflects opposites for text, tempi, dynamics, and articulation compared to the source. Similarly, in the song Schlußlied des Narren, Schumann alludes to the symbolic interaction between a father and child in Schubert’s Erlkönig. However, Schumann’s allusions to Schubert’s work are more aligned textually than musically.

The second type of contrastive allusion can allude to multiple works, including short motives, as observed in Schumann’s Vogel als Prophet. In this song, Schumann uses the common diatonic motive 1-7-2-1-4-3, as found in the chanson Mon fils est là by Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann, and in Snart er Natten svunden by J. P. E. Hartmann, to depict a mood closely related to the original meaning. In the middle section of the song, Schumann self-quotes, particularly from his Szenen aus Goethes Faust, to represent the bird in the song. Vogel als Prophet also alludes to Mendessohn’s Im Walde, which represents the prophet in the song. This use suggests a more assimilative allusion because of the way Schumann imitates the character of the song. Multiple allusions allowed Schumann to communicate a specific message to those who would recognize his references in the future.

Works: Robert Schumann: “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” from Dichterliebe, Op. 48 (70-72), 5 Lieder und Gesänge, Op. 127 (72-75), Waldszenen, Op. 82 (77-81); Max Bruch: Normannenzug, Op. 32 (81).

Sources: Beethoven: Fidelio (70); Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht, Op. 60 (70); Schubert: Die Erlkönig, D. 328 (74-75); Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann: Mon fils est là (76); J. P. E. Hartmann: Snart er Natten svunden (76); Robert Schumann: Szenen aus Goethes Faust, WoO 3 (78-79); Mendelssohn: “Im Walde” from 6 Lieder, Op. 41 (79-80).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Allusion in music is an intentional reference to a preexisting work via a resemblance that influences the interpretation of meaning among those who recognize it. Any instance of allusion involves the interaction of four factors: the composer, the new composition, the old composition, and the audience. Allusions create musical order while simultaneously expressing non-musical meaning, and act within one of two categories. Assimilative allusions rely upon the creator’s acceptance of the referenced material, while contrastive allusions frame the earlier material in a way that creates new, possibly contradictory meaning. Thus, the interpretation of an allusion requires consideration of its musical-rhetorical significance, that is, the composer’s intention and the contextual framework of their audience, not just the intervallic and rhythmic similarities between the allusion and its model. This more nuanced approach to borrowed material allows for a more flexible understanding of the pieces in question, leading listeners to form interpretations may at times partially or completely contradict composers’ intentions.

Such allusions in the early nineteenth century are often achieved through symbolism, and often relied on composers’ invocation of conventional topics, such as dance types, fanfares, regional styles, and pastoral sounds. As Romanticism pervaded artistic circles, however, composers developed more personal systems of symbolism, and their allusions to other works and styles became less overt. It may be difficult to ascertain, however, the motivations behind allusions in the works of certain nineteenth century composers who, unlike Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner, were not forthcoming about their allusions or “reminiscences.” Intertextual relationships nevertheless exist in the works of Liszt and his followers that were not identified outright by the composer, and these same relationships may be said to exist in the works of less forthcoming allusory composers like Schumann and Brahms. Huizinga’s theory of metaphor as play helps to conceptualize allusion as a form of play; if rhetorical allusion is play upon words in a text, musical allusion can be play upon motives in a composition. The works of Mikhail Bakhtin, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Harold Bloom offer further context for discussion of how artists interact with other artists’ ideas.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major Op. 110 (1), Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (1), Fidelio (11); Schubert: Mass No. 2 in G Major, D. 167 (10); Haydn: The Creation (11); Mendelssohn: Festgesang zum Gutenbergfest, WoO 9, Lobgesang, Op. 52 (12); Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra (12); Robert Schumann: Frühlings Ankunft (17–19), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (21); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (21).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (1); Anonymous: Crux fidelis (7-8); Beethoven: Fidelio (10, 17–19), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (21); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (11); Handel: Samson (12); Franz Anton Rösler: Der sterbende Jesus (12); Haydn: The Creation (12), Symphony No. 104 in D Major, H. 1/104 (21); Niels Gade: Frühlings-Phantasie (14).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Chelsey Belt, Elizabeth Stoner

German Romantic composers often struggled to balance the tension between originality and musical tradition in their works. Although many composers verbally or publically downplayed their indebtedness to their predecessors, they still alluded to the great composers of the past, using those allusions as points of departure for new, original musical works. Beethoven’s Fidelio represents this tension in two distinct ways. On the one hand, Fidelio features numerous allusions to Haydn and Mozart, and these borrowings take on new identities and meanings as they enhance the drama of Beethoven’s opera. On the other hand, later composers also used motives from Fidelio as musical-textual symbols in their own works, often reshaping them to serve a new musical function. While the borrowed material could occasionally retain some of its original meaning in its new context, composers often subverted or supplanted the borrowed material in order to assert their originality and genius within a longer historical tradition.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (138-40), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (137-38, 161); Schubert: Octet in F Major, D.803 (140); Beethoven: Fidelio (141-44, 147-54); Peter Cornelius: Beethoven-Lied (144-45); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (145-47); Schubert: Mass No. 2 in G Major, D.167 (154-56); Robert Schumann: Frauenliebe und Leben (156-58), Frühlingsankunft (158-60), Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (161).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (137), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”) (138-41), Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (140), Septet, Op. 20 (140), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (144-47); Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (147-48); Beethoven: Vestas Feuer (148), Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II, WoO 87 (148), Mailied, Op. 52, No. 4 (148-49); Mozart: Abendempfindung, K.523 (150); Haydn: Abendlied zu Gott (150-51); Mozart: Idomeneo (153-54); Beethoven: Fidelio (154-61).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

A close study of Brahms’s Die Mainacht illustrates the nuanced relationship between conscious and unconscious creative states, and their impact on intentional and unconscious borrowing. Creativity in this period could be interpreted as a two-way exchange between the composer’s conscious process and unconscious inspiration. Brahms’s song Die Mainacht presents an interesting case study due to its allusion to Chopin’s Impromptu in F-sharp Major, Op. 36, No. 2. The opening motives of Brahms’s work shares a close resemblance with Chopin’s melody, and the song in its entirety features a similar tonal plan. Brahms’s process of allusion could be related to Hartmann’s theory expounded in his Philosophy of the Unconscious (1868). Brahms could be seen to consciously recognize or be initially unaware of his melody’s affinity to its predecessor, but he made the work characteristically his own by aligning it further with Chopin’s Impromptu, through extending the allusion into the following phrases.

Works: Brahms: Die Mainacht, Op. 43, No. 2 (109–117), Missa Canonica (113–14); Wagner: Das Rheingold (108).

Sources: Chopin: Impromptu in F-sharp Major, Op. 36, No. 2 (109–117); Felix Mendelssohn: Lord Have Mercy Upon Us (113); Robert Schumann: Piano Trio No. 1, Op. 63 (113–15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Nineteenth-century composers’ use of allusions serves as a source of musical creativity and can be associated with the concept of Romantic irony, whereby composers engage in a form of intellectual play with listeners. Harold Bloom’s theory of the “anxiety of influence,” which is concerned mainly with personal struggle, does not account for instances of appropriation of lesser sources such as folk tunes. Allusions can be seen as a rhetorical technique composers employ to create symbolism and irony; listeners are turned away from the obvious and are constantly challenged to search for hidden musical relationships in order to arrive at a personal interpretation. An allusive relationship can be subjected to ahistorical reading; new symbols constantly reinterpret old ones, contributing to a two-way transfer of meaning. Just as a composer’s criticism of his predecessor reveals his own artistic ideals, motivic allusions, whether assimilative or contrastive, reveals the composer’s personal compositional aspirations. Non-programmatic composers who employ musical allusions have the freedom to transform motives beyond recognition, requiring listeners to come up with their own personal programs, while programmatic composers impose their programs on listeners. A fundamental criterion in the assessment of a successful allusion is whether its presence in a new work is musically successful by itself. If one misses the allusion, it merely means that one loses a dimension in the appreciation of the work.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (167), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (167), Warum ist das Licht gegeben dem Mühseligen, Op. 74, No. 1 (167), Über die See, Op. 69, No. 7 (168), Wehe, so willst du mich wieder, Op. 32, No. 5 (168); Robert Schumann: Album für die Jugend, Op. 68 (170); Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (174); Robert Schumann: Vogel als Prophet, Op. 82 (180), Fantasie in C Major, Op. 17 (181).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (“Hammerklavier”) (167), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”) (167), Fidelio, Op. 72 (167); Robert Schumann: Trio in D Minor, Op. 63 (167); Mendelssohn: Vocal-Chor zum Abendsegen, WoO 12 (168); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (168); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor (168); Mendelssohn: Andante cantabile e presto agitato, WoO 6 (168), Elijah, Op. 70 (168); Gluck: Armide, Wq. 45 (174); Mendelssohn: Im Walde, Op. 41, No. 1 (180); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (181).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

“Naming” is a technique of musical allusion that can represent several things: a specific person through musical symbols (for example, note names); works composed by that individual; or works associated with that individual. There are a few examples of this as early as the fifteenth century, but it became very popular among nineteenth century composers. In particular, a musical motive based on J. S. Bach’s name was frequently imitated. Between 1820 and 1865, 35 compositions are identified as containing a similar name motive (half of which are the B–A–C–H motive itself). Composers also represented themselves, loved ones, or patrons by less obvious musical names, such as Fanny Mendelssohn’s C-sharp–E-sharp–F-sharp motive.

One important reason for naming among nineteenth-century composers is to memorialize deceased composers. These come both in public memorials with explicit dedication and allusion to another work, and in private memorials with personal associations. Beethoven is musically memorialized more than any other composer, with Schubert’s last three piano sonatas, Mendelssohn’s String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13, and Spohr’s Symphony No. 3 as examples of this tradition. Mendelssohn’s tribute to Fanny Hensel after her death in 1847 is a multi-layered naming memorial. In his String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 80, a transposed B–A–C–H motive appears, referencing a nearly identical passage in an unpublished early work of hers, the Sonata in C Minor, dedicated “for Felix in his absence [traveling to Scotland].” This memorial of Fanny is not for the public, but is instead deeply personal. Whatever the reason for naming in music, it fits with Romantic ideals, mixing biography and art outwardly and inwardly.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto in A Major, K. 414 (124-25); Anselm Hüttenbrenner: Nachruf an Schubert in Trauertönen am Pianoforte (123-24); Schubert: Auf dem Strom, D.943 (125-26); Schumann: Requiem, Op. 148 (127-28); Felix Mendelssohn: String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 80 (131-32); Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 (135-36).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: The Art of Fugue, BWV 1080 (119), St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (127-28); Johann Christian Bach: Overture to La calamita de’ cuori, W.G27 (124-25); Schubert: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D. 960 (123-24); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (125-26); Fanny Mendelssohn: Sonata in C Minor (131-32).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Texting is the process by which existing instrumental music is used to compose a new, texted work. The extent to which the original music is modified can vary, as can the degree of allusion intended by the composer. As a form of textual interpretation, texting is both a compositional tool and a kind of musical criticism. As such, it is a method of borrowing that sees a rich expression in nineteenth-century music, when the roles of composer and critic often overlapped and styles of texted and untexted musical genres commonly borrowed from one another. A variety of motivations for texting are evident in the Romantic repertoire, from a desire to engage the borrowed work symbolically or thematically (as in Franz Liszt’s use of themes from Beethoven’s Third Symphony in his Zur Säkularfeier Beethovens), to less sincere forms of musical play (as in Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel’s texting of themes from Felix Mendelssohn’s Sonata écossaise, Op. 28). Cases of texting can be complex and obscure, at times involving multiple layers of borrowed material. Once a texting is identified, an analysis of the new work’s interaction with its source material can yield a better formal, harmonic, and thematic understanding of the music.

Works: Franz Liszt: Zur Säkularfeier Beethovens (90); Berlioz: L’Enfance du Christ (91-93); P. E. Lange-Müller: Se, Natten er svanger med Vellugt fin (93-94); Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel: Nachtreigen (94-95); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (95-97); Clara Schumann: Sie liebten sich beide, Op. 13, No. 2 (95-97); Brahms: Über die See, Op. 69, No. 7 (95-97), Der Tod, das ist die kühle Nacht, Op. 96, No. 1 (97), Wehe, so willst du mich wieder, Op. 32, No. 5 (97-98).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (90), String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 (91-93); Saint-Saëns: Piano Concerto No. 2 in G Minor, Op. 22 (93-94); Felix Mendelssohn: String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 12 (94-95), Andante cantabile e Presto agitato, WoO 6 (97-98), Elijah, Op. 70 (97-98); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor (95-97); Robert Schumann: Hoch, hoch sind die Berge, Op. 138, No. 8 (95-97), Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (97).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Motivic allusions are often dependent on motivic transformations, the most common of which are alterations in rhythm, meter, and intervallic relationships. But a more nuanced exploration of musical allusion requires additional forms of transformation, namely motivic combination, octave displacement, and transformation by genre. Such transformations can occur at different levels—from large-scale formal structures to local phrases and motives—and vary in the obviousness of their presentation, which relies heavily on genre. Musical ideas taken from one genre and recontextualized in another do not have to be as disguised as allusions among pieces in the same genre. In fact, allusions across disparate genres are most effective when they are clear and an exact quotation. Genre was shaped by nineteenth-century audiences’ social and musical expectations, which composers could manipulate through allusions. Transformations through motivic combination, octave displacement, and genre play critical roles in Brahms’s and Schumann’s allusions to Beethoven and to each other, illustrating how nineteenth-century composers were in dialogue with themselves and tradition as they sought to distance their own ideas from preexisting ones. Source material and the allusive motive should share, as a general rule, at least three features for it to be an actual borrowing and not a coincidence. Allusions and formal modeling can be both assimilative and contrastive, and both characteristics are exemplified in Brahms’s Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1, which he models on Beethoven’s “Waldstein” Sonata, only to depart from it. It was important for nineteenth-century composers to establish distance from their models, as Brahms does with his Op. 1, because of the emphasis on originality.

Works: Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (24, 26, 28), Horn Trio, Op. 40 (24), Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (25-26, 34, 43), Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann, Op. 9 (28), Vier ernste Gesange, Op. 121 (30), Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (33); Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K.551 (“Jupiter”) (26-27); Robert Schumann: Carnaval, Op. 9 (29-30), Piano Quintet No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (31-32), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 97 (33, 40), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (37, 41), Konzert-Allegro mit Introduktion, Op. 134 (38), Scenen aus Goethes Faust (38), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (42); Niels Gade: Drei kleine Clavierstucke (27-28, 30); Felix Mendelssohn: Elijah, Op. 70 (30), Symphony No. 5 in D Major / D Minor, Op. 107 (“Reformation”) (37); Joseph Eybler: Requiem (34-35); Clara Schumann: Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 22 (38).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 21 in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”), (24-26, 43), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (24), Piano Sonata No. 3 in D Major, Op. 10 (24), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (“Hammerklavier”) (24, 34), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (27, 39-40), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (33), Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (40); Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K.551 (“Jupiter”) (26-27), Piano Quartet No. 2 in E-flat Major, K.493 (31-32), Requiem, K.626 (34-35); Carl Maria von Weber: Der Freischütz (29-30), Koncertstucke in F Minor, Op. 79, J.282 (37-38, 40); Haydn: The Seasons (35), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (36-37); Schubert: Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D.944 (36-37); Bach: A Musical Offering, BWV 1079 (41): Johann Wenzel Kalliwoda: Symphony No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 7 (42); Ignaz Moscheles: Grande Sonate in E-flat Major, Op. 47 (42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

[See individual chapters.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

In his 1957 neoclassical ballet Agon, Igor Stravinsky borrows from the Bransle Simple, Bransle Gay, and Bransle Double in Joan Wildeblood’s 1952 English edition of François de Lauze’s 1623 Apologie de la danse and imbeds their intrinsic characteristics within its own dances. Wildeblood’s edition contains not only de Lauze’s French text and its translation, but also complementary descriptions of court dances from Thoinot Arbeau and Marin Mersenne. The text she included from Mersenne’s Harmonie universelle (1636-37) contains musical examples, descriptions of dance steps, and dance rhythms in poetic notation for several types of dances, including three Bransle dances Stravinsky chose for Agon. The melodic contour and cadential figures of Stravinsky’s Bransle Simple movement resembles Mersenne’s example, and the phrase rhythm of the movement corresponds with Mersenne’s description of the dance rhythm. This demonstrates both a superficial borrowing of Mersenne’s dance and a deeper incorporation of the dance rhythm at the phrase level. Similarly, in Stravinsky’s Bransle Gay, Mersenne’s characteristic rhythm is incorporated in the castanet ostinato as well as in the movement’s structure. Stravinsky’s Bransle Double combines the three remaining Mersenne examples: the Bransle de Poitou, the Bransle Double de Poitou, and the Bransle de Montirande. While the rhythmic organization is less clear in the final score, Stravinsky’s sketches do show his reliance on Mersenne’s musical examples and descriptions of the Bransle rhythms. Taken as a whole, Stravinsky’s annotations of Wildeblood’s edition of Apologie de la danse, his sketches for Agon, and his multilevel incorporation of Mersenne’s dance examples in the final score for Agon demonstrate Stravinsky’s approach to musical borrowing.

Works: Igor Stravinsky: Agon (317-47)

Sources: Marin Mersenne, Eduardo M. Torner (transcriber): Excerpts from Harmonie universelle (317-47)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

During the 1960s, Peter Maxwell Davies and George Rochberg made extensive use of an integrated compositional approach characterized by the juxtaposition of existing music (especially Baroque and pre-Baroque) with newly-composed music (frequently atonal in style). Two representative works are Davies's Second Fantasia on John Taverner's In Nomine, whose pitch organization relates directly to the "In nomine" portion of the "Benedictus" from Taverner's Missa Gloria tibi Trinitas, and Rochberg's Nach Bach, which synthesizes quotations from J. S. Bach's Partita in E minor, BWV 830, with newly-composed music that borrows pitch organization and motivic, formal, and gestural characteristics from the Bach. A comparative analysis of these works and their use of existing music enriches an understanding of the complex ways that musical borrowing, such as fifteenth-century cantus firmus techniques, parody technique, quodlibet, allusion, and collage, can be manifested.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

In his Fantasy on themes from Mozart's Don Giovanni, Liszt goes far beyond the potpourri. By careful selection of the melodic material, including scenes with the Commendatore ("Di rider finirai," "Ribaldo, audace," and "Tu m'invitasti a cena"), the duet "Là ci darem la mano," and Don Giovanni's aria "Fin ch'han dal vino," Liszt concentrates on only a few figures. In the transition from the duet to the final aria, he combines thematic material from music associated with the three characters, thus creating a "free symphonic development" that reinterprets the story: after the confrontation with the Commendatore, Don Giovanni triumphs over his opponent. Ten measures before the end, however, Liszt evokes once more the sphere of the Commendatore (Andante), which can be understood as an attempt to lead back cyclically to the beginning, skepticism about the positive interpretation of the ending, or both.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

[See p. 151.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Manuscripts of the first movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 indicate the presence of an earlier version of the principal theme. In this earlier form, the principal theme is clearly derived from Mozart's "Notte e giorno faticar" from Don Giovanni. Schubert held Don Giovanni in highest esteem and was probably reminded of the work by a performance of this opera at the time he was composing Symphony No. 9.

Works: Schubert: Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The origins and authorship of a fifteenth century mass found in Siena, Biblioteca comunale degli Intronati, K. I.2, have been subject to much scholarly debate. This mass uses a variety of songs as cantus firmi, most of which remain unidentified. The identification of two cantus firmi, however, supports the idea of Obrecht as composer of the Siena mass. One cantus firmus from the Agnus Dei of the Siena mass is found in the Agnus Dei of Obrecht’s Missa Plurimorum carminum I. The second cantus firmus is derived from the German chorale Ach Gott von Himmel sieh darein, first published in 1410 as a German song with the words Begirlich in dem hertzen min. Two other works also borrow this chorale, Obrecht’s Laet u gehnoughen liever Johan and an anonymous Gaude mater in gaudio. The similarities in melody and structure between these three works lead to the conclusion that Obrecht composed both the Gaude mater in gaudio and the Siena mass.

Works: Anonymous: Missa (Siena, Biblioteca comunale degli Intronati, K. I.2) (447-76); Gaspar van Weerbeke: O salutaris hostia (457-71); Anonymous: Gaude mater in gaudio (457-71); Obrecht: Laet u ghenoughen liever Johan (457-71).

Sources: Obrecht: Missa Plurimorum carminum I (456-58, 471-77); Anonymous: Begirlich in dem hertzen min (456-71).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

The Benedictus of Jacob Obrecht’s Missa Malheur me bat contains an unusual treatment of the borrowed voices of its model, Malcort’s Malheur me bat. Obrecht’s bassus voice corresponds exactly to Malcort’s superius voice for the first nine measures transposed down a twelfth. Subjected to this transformation, the contrapuntal relationship between pitches, save for the rare simultaneous sixths, remain the same. This procedure uses the underlying principle of double counterpoint, despite being composed in an era before written music theory codified the practice in the mid-sixteenth century. The purpose of this segment of double counterpoint also warrants consideration as the transformation remains hidden, suggesting it was simply an economical means of filling out a section of music. The construction of the Benedictus without the presence of a full score further implies that Obrecht had a powerful aural memory of Malheur me bat, conceivably from performing the piece at Bergen-op-Zoom between 1480 and 1484. The suggestion of such an aural memory implies Obrecht heard the piece as a unitary whole, not unlike modern listeners. This idea raises problems as a “presentist” approach to music history. However, to say that Obrecht may have heard Malheur me bat in a presently relatable way does not mean that he brought all of the contemporary baggage to it.

Works: Jacob Obrecht: Missa Malheur me bat

Sources: Malcort: Malheur me bat

Index Classifications: 1400s

The Benedictus of Jacob Obrecht’s Missa Malheur me bat demonstrates a theoretical awareness of double counterpoint well before its principles were laid out in written music theory in the mid-sixteenth century. The mass’s model, Malcort’s Malheur me bat, exhibits imitative counterpoint with its tenor. Rather than duplicating Malcort’s imitation, Obrecht modifies the relationship between voices to create a new imitative relationship at a new transposition. Obrecht’s ability to spot this relationship between the voices in Malcort’s song opens up further questions in how he conceived of the music at a fundamental level. At the time, counterpoint was thought of as a primarily vertical relationship, Obrecht would only have access to part books, and the idea of Obrecht “hearing” the piece as a whole (as one might today) is in danger of an overly “presentist” approach to music history. On the other hand, an overly “historicist” approach denies the motivic approach to counterpoint documented in Obrecht’s mass.

Works: Jacob Obrecht: Missa Malheur me bat (61-67).

Sources: Malcort: Malheur me bat (61-67).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Musical allusions as an aesthetic principle (and not "creative impotence," as some critics sought to present it) were a part of Mahler's artistic creation from the beginning. At least at the start of his career, Mahler could count on the familiarity of his Viennese audience with certain musical ideas, no less than with numerous quotations from works of Schiller, Goethe, or the Antiquity, which belonged to the standard education of central-European bourgoisie. The first song from his cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen is based on a citation from Schubert's Mainacht, a song often performed in the circle of Mahler's friends. The poetic images in Mahler's text are also similar to those of Schubert's poet, Hölty. In the same song there is a second connection, to Marschner's "Romanze vom bleichen Mann" from the opera Vampyr. The third song is permeated by motives from the Ring, especially from Götterdämmerung. Allusions to motives are made at appropriate points in the text; for example, the phrase "nicht bei Tage, nicht bei Nacht, wenn ich schlief" ("not by day, not by night when I was asleep") is set to the descending chromatic line of the "Sleep" motive from the Ring. In the final song, apart from Wagner, Mahler quotes Schubert's Wegweiser and, most obviously, a lengthy excerpt from Donizetti's opera Don Sebastian in which a character witnesses his own funeral. The latter, a march theme Mahler remembered from performances heard ten years before, alludes to the mood of his character at the end of the cycle. The orchestral postlude consists of a twice repeated progression, a stepwise ascending minor third, common to all three of Mahler's models, Schubert, Wagner, and Donizetti.

Works: Gustav Mahler: Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, Das klagende Lied.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

The theme of Beethoven's Contredanse in Eb Major, upon which the finale of the symphony is based and which is also present in Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus and the Piano Variations, Op. 35, has its ultimate source in the opening phrase of Clementi's Piano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 7, No. 3 (a work Beethoven probably knew in his Bonn days). Ringer also discerns the presence of the idea in the Septet, Op. 20 and in Christus am Ölberg. Clementi himself used the theme again in the finale of his Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 14, No. 3. The influence of other sonatas by Clementi upon Beethoven is also noted. Elements of Clementi's G Minor Sonata (not just the opening phrase) are evident throughout the Eroica as a result of Beethoven's use of his own contredanse as a "reference theme." (The use of a reference theme, here a Russian theme, is also evident throughout the String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1.) The Prometheus music, the Variations, Op. 35, and the Eroica are viewed as "three successive responses to the same 'underlying idea,' each conceived in terms of a different 'poetic idea.'"

Works: Beethoven: Eroica (454), The Creatures of Prometheus (454), Piano Variations, Op. 35 (454), Septet, Op. 20 (460), Christus am Olberg (460), String Quartet Op. 59, No. 1 (464).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Beethoven composed two separate sketches (Paris and Vienna) on Goethe's Erlkönig. Some aspects of these settings, such as repeated notes in the treble part, the drone in the bass, and the harmonic movement to mediant-related major keys for the middle section are remarkably similar to Schubert's Wanderer and Erlkönig. Near the end of the nineteenth century, Reinhold Becker took the transcription done by Gustav Nottebohm of the Vienna sketch as the basis for a "complete version," in an attempt at what Paul H. Lang calls "the art of the second guess." Bartók then orchestrated this arrangement in a work which was unknown to Bartók scholars until the discovery of the score at the University of Illinois Music Library. Bartók made no attempt to correct any of Becker's mistakes or changes from Beethoven's setting, except for a few harmonic changes, but his orchestration provided new sophisticated treatments of rhythm, color, and dynamics not found in the arrangement or the original.

Works: Bartók: Erlkönig (308-11); Becker: Erlkönig (307-08); Beethoven: Erlkönig.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Rochberg's references to earlier compositions are discussed in the course of this general overview of his music. Numerous examples of quotation and self-quotation in his works are mentioned. His musical collages employ materials from a variety of works by others and by himself. In Rochberg's Contra Mortem et Tempus (1965), for instance, the allusions include those to Boulez, Berio, Varèse, Berg, Ives, and himself. With the composition of Music for the Magic Theater (1965), Rochberg has gained full independence from the past by so fully absorbing the music of the tradition that the music is no longer a burden on the present but instead points the way to the future.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Hector Berlioz’s second symphony, Harold en Italie, exemplifies a thread of detached, self-mocking comic irony that is common in French Romantic literature, which deals with the impossibility of artistic freedom in bourgeois society. The references to Byron and Beethoven, two of Berlioz’s Romantic heroes, are key to this ironic reading of the symphony. Mark Evan Bonds’s earlier reading of Harold casts Berlioz’s references to Beethoven as a case of anxiety of influence, ignoring the (admittedly subjective) comedy of the symphony. Berlioz started composing Harold after Paganini commissioned a virtuosic viola piece, but Paganini quickly rescinded his offer after seeing the first movement. The title and program of Harold references Byron’s poem Childe Harold, tracing a semi-autobiographical trip through Italy. In Harold, Byron (and later Beethoven) become stand-ins for the archetypical alienated Romantic Hero, characterized by the solo viola. Throughout the symphony, the orchestra undermines the heroic character of the viola, and the supposedly heroic viola is often hesitant and uncertain. The most dramatic heroic deflation comes in the finale, the most direct reference to Beethoven in the symphony. In the finale to Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, the themes from each of the previous movements are heard and a new, transcendent theme closes out the symphony. In Harold, Berlioz mimics the same reminiscences of previous movements, but the themes remain disparate and interrupt each other. The jangling Brigands theme eventually drives the viola out of the orchestra in Harold’s conclusion. Using typical Romantic hero narratives, this conclusion is ambiguous at best. However, using French ironic narrative models (such as Gautier’s fictional painter Omunphrius, whose work is recognized only after his death but is credited to someone else instead), the deflated finale becomes ironic meta-commentary on the Romantic artist. The irony of Berlioz’s hero (Harold, Beethoven, Byron, himself) is the futility of declaring your own genius to a world that does not understand.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie (73-89)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (73, 76, 80, 85-86)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Björk’s song and music video Hunter (from the album Homogenic, 1997) can be understood in terms of Donna Haraway’s theory of cyborg identity, particularly the ambiguity between the self as scientist and the self as hunter Haraway identifies. Hunter navigates the boundaries between human and nature as well as the known and unknown. The “hunter” subject can be seen in Björk’s use of the characteristic rhythmic pattern of Maurice Ravel’s Boléro throughout Hunter. Ravel often described Boléro in terms of factories and mechanical reproduction and privately acknowledged its sexual dimension. The intersection of sex, death, and mechanization has also been part of the discourse about Boléro. Although Björk describes the presence of the Boléro rhythm as an artifact of recording in Spain, she does discuss Ravel in terms of technology. The two-measure rhythmic pattern of Boléro can be read as a balance between control and compulsion. In Hunter, Björk represents the control side in the cello ostinato, an extension of the first measure of the Boléro pattern. Compulsion is presented in the snare drum’s accelerations into the downbeat, mirroring the second measure in effect. The gradual built-up of the snare over the cellos also suggests the urgency of a hunt reaching completion. In the music video, Björk’s movements only intermittently line up with the rhythmic ostinato. In total, the subject of Björk’s Hunter is a Harawayan cyborg, transcending binaries of gender, humanity, and technology.

Works: Björk Guðmundsdóttir: Hunter (78-84)

Sources: Maurice Ravel: Boléro (78-84)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Handel tended to return regularly to the works of certain composers as sources for his borrowed materials, notably the operas of Reinhard Keiser. Handel would have become familiar with Keiser's music through listening, performance, and presumably study of the scores during his years in Hamburg (ca. 1703-5). A table of the ten Keiser operas from which Handel borrowed is included. Roberts theorizes that Handel was often inspired to borrow by a textual similarity. Handel generally subjected the musical material extracted from another piece to extensive reworking, which leads Roberts to speculate that the composer's creative process may have required the stimulus of outside ideas.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn, Nancy Kinsey Totten

Roberts provides a list of 128 items containing borrowings from three collections of works of Telemann, Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst, the Musique de Table, and the Sonates sans basse, as well as borrowings from other sources contained in the same items. After briefly describing the three Telemann sources, Roberts divides Handel's Telemann borrowings into three types: use of incipit with fresh ideas or development; use of single internal passage; and compound borrowings from one model. He then offers guidelines for analysis according to these types.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron, Jean Pang

The pastiche opera Demofoonte is attributed to Niccolò Jommelli in contemporary London reviews, but it contains music by many other composers, including many Gluck arias. Eighteenth-century reviews of the work also noted the similarity of the aria "Ogni amante," thought to be from a lost opera by Gluck, to a certain Handel minuet. Although the Gluck aria was also used in self-borrowing in his opera La Clemenza di Tito, it is the Issipile version that is used in Demofoonte and compared to Handel. Through thorough analysis current audiences can better understand the observations of the work's first audiences. Gluck also borrowed from Handel's Alessandro for his opera La Fausse Esclave. The differences between Handel opera excerpts and Gluck's aria showcase the composers' different strengths and weaknesses.

Works: Niccolò Jommelli: Demofoonte (168-69); Gluck: "Se all'impero" from La Clemenza di Tito (169, 178-80), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (171-80), "Tendre Agathe" from La Fausse Esclave (180, 183-87).

Sources: Handel: Arianna in Creta (168-70), "Il cor mio" from Alessandro (180-83, 185); Niccolò Jommelli: "Padre sposa" from Cajo Mario (169); Johann Adolf Hasse "Or che salvo" from Arminio (169); Gluck: "Padre perdona" from Demofoonte (169-70), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (169-71, 178-80).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Although borrowing was not unusual in Handel's time, no other leading composer of the period is known to have borrowed on the same scale as Handel, so that the practice of the time does not fully explain why Handel borrowed. Nor do any of the more personal explanations offered in the past prove very satisfactory. Rather, it appears that Handel "had a basic lack of facility in inventing original ideas," writing melodies, and attaining fluency in the operatic style. These speculations do not diminish Handel's stature, and he deserves to be judged solely by the effects he achieves.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The meaning of Guillaume Du Fay’s Missa Se la face ay pale, based on his ballade of the same title, is best understood not through the suggestion that it was composed to celebrate the wedding of Amadeus of Savoy in 1452, but by linking its origins to the acquisition of the Holy Shroud (later called The Shroud of Turin) by Duke Louis of Savoy in 1453. Thus, the “pale face” is that of Christ, not the bridegroom. The wedding theory is unlikely because polyphonic masses were rarely composed for weddings in Du Fay’s lifetime, and because Du Fay’s ballade Se la face ay pale poetically presents a forlorn and bitter love atypical of wedding celebrations. Rather, Missa Se la face ay pale invites a Christological reading in which Christ is the man with the pale face and the Soul is his lover. Du Fay’s ballade text uses similar imagery to French Passion poetry, and the motif of Christ’s pale face was common in contemporary poetry and art. By using his ballade as the basis for a mass, Du Fay emphasizes these signs and imagery. The motivation for composing such a Christocentric mass was most likely the arrival of the Holy Shroud at the Court of Savoy, Du Fay’s patron. While using Se la face ay pale as a source directly suggests Christ’s face through its text, invoking its unusual five-syllable lines could also be a reference to the Five Wounds of Christ, relating to the image of Christ’s body on the Shroud. The singularity of the Holy Shroud further explains why other composers did not cultivate a Se la face ay pale mass tradition similar to the L’Homme armé tradition.

Works: Guillaume Du Fay: Missa Se la face ay pale (388-409, 424-33)

Sources: Guillaume Du Fay: Se la face ay pale (388-409, 424-33)

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A prominently depicted theme in Medieval liturgy, religious art and drama, and folkloric practices was that of Genesis 3:15, in which a savior of humankind crushes the head of the serpent (i.e., the Devil). This promise of the victory of good over evil is represented musically in three fifteenth-century polyphonic masses and a Marian polyphonic motet. These four works use as a cantus firmus the melisma on the word “caput” (head) from the Sarum antiphon Venit ad Petrum. Therefore, incorporation of this melisma (which represents the “head” of the serpent) creates a specific meaning (the conquering of the devil/sin by Christ or the Virgin Mary) that unites these four seemingly disparate works.

A Caput mass by an anonymous English composer served as progenitor of two other masses composed on the same cantus firmus: Missa Caput by Ockeghem, composed in the late 1450s, and a Missa Caput composed by Obrecht in the late 1480s. Ockeghem’s use of canon, Obrecht’s migration of the Caput melisma through all voices of his mass, and both composers’ employment of the cantus firmus in the lowest voice (thereby creating unusual harmonies) serve as musical illustrations of the struggle and ultimate victory of Christ and the Virgin Mary over the Devil. While the Caput mass tradition died out by end of the fifteenth century, Richard Hygons set the Marian text Salve regina to the Caput melody around 1500, tying in the increasing importance of the cult of the Virgin Mary with existing traditions of Mary as “she who crushes the dragon’s head.”

Works: Anonymous: Missa Caput (537-41, 567-72, 581-84, 595-602); Ockeghem: Missa Caput (539-41, 567-72, 581-91, 595-602); Obrecht: Missa Caput (539-41, 567-72, 581-84, 592-602); Richard Hygons: Salve regina (598-600).

Sources: Anonymous: Missa Caput (537-41, 567-72, 581-84, 595-602); Anonymous (Sarum antiphon): Venit ad Petrum (541-72, 581-84).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

The early nineteenth-century “Ancient Music” hymnody reform movement sought to return American hymnody to a pre-revolutionary European ideal. This movement was grounded in the lived experiences of New England elites, notably Joseph Stevens Buckminster, who visited Europe during this period. One overlooked source for the early “Ancient Music” movement is Buckminster’s Brattle Street Collection, a hymnal compiled for the illustrious Brattle Street Church of Boston. The history of the hymn tune Pleyel’s Second in the United States demonstrates Buckminster’s influence on American hymnody. The hymn is a contrafact of Ignace Pleyel’s 1786 Symphonie Concertante in E-flat, B. 111 and was written and published by Thomas Costellow in Britain in 1801. During an 1806 trip to Paris, Buckminster met British poet and Costellow collaborator Helen Maria Williams, who likely gave him a copy of Costellow’s hymnal. When Buckminster compiled the Brattle Street Collection, Pleyel’s Second was included as “Hymn 2” (it is later transmitted as “Pleyel’s Ps. 2” and “Brattle Street”). Although a version of the hymn was included in the Columbian Sacred Harmonist in 1808, the Brattle Street harmonization has a much wider distribution. Tracing the personal voyages and connections made by non-musicians like Buckminster give a more complete picture of hymnody reform as part of broader cultural reform movements in New England.

Works: Thomas Costellow: Pleyel’s Hymn (Second) (267-74)

Sources: Ignace Pleyel: Symphonie Concertante in E-flat, B. 111 (267-74)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

[On compositions of the 1960s to 1980s that are modeled on or quote Mahler.]

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Benjamin Britten and W. H. Auden’s 1942 operetta Paul Bunyan was critically panned for failing to capture the American spirit of its source material. However, in light of his immigrant status in the midst of wartime American identity politics, Britten took a more internationalist approach to the score and was indeed aware of the politics of folksong performance. Soon after Britten’s arrival to the United States, his publisher suggested he work on a school operetta, and Britten and Auden quickly arrived at Paul Bunyan as a suitable subject. In the previous few decades, Paul Banyan had become the quintessential American folk hero, appearing in stories and advertisements selling an optimistic vision of the American frontier. Prior to America’s entry into World War II, American music was in the midst of philosophical debates over the nature of “American” music, leaving Britten to feel a chauvinism against immigrant composers such as himself. Unlike many contemporary works on American national themes, Britten’s Paul Bunyan does not rely on folksong as a core style. Britten was concerned with the increasing use of folksongs in music to promote nationalist politics in the United States and elsewhere. Despite his aversion to folksong, Britten does use selected folk styles in a few numbers in Paul Bunyan, notably borrowing from an Industrial Workers of the World strike song in the “Lumberjacks’ Chorus.” Britten also borrows a tune from John Lomax’s Cowboy Songs collection for the “Farmer’s Song” number. Reactions to Britten’s opera almost universally ignore his (admittedly brief) engagement with folk styles and instead critique the work’s lack of a distinct American character. Britten’s very particular use of folksongs in Paul Bunyan demonstrates his engagement with the politics of folk music and his refusal to be defined by the nationalist political structures often surrounding it.

Works: Benjamin Britten and W. H. Auden: Paul Bunyan (21-28)

Sources: Anonymous (lyricist): Fifty Thousand Lumberjacks (to the tune of Portland County Jail arranged by Leo Sowerby) (21-24); John Lomax (editor): The Dreary, Dreary Life (25-26)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In a brief interview, George Rochberg discusses his move away from serial techniques in the 1960s in hopes to create a more evenly mixed tonal/atonal tradition. With pieces like Music for Magic Theater, he relied upon the music of his peers as the foundation of the piece. His String Quartet No. 3, however, only evokes the music of past composers through the harmonic and motivic movement, which is interspersed between atonal sections of music.

Works: Rochberg: Music for Magic Theater, String Quartet No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Michael Tippett's compositional process is revealed through a discussion of the writing of his Symphony No. 3. Tippett perceives four distinct stages in this process: conception, where ideas are often inspired by other music or sounds; gestation, a period of mental development of the piece; development of form, both large and small, at which time some actual composing may begin; and the final stage, which is the writing of the score. In his Third Symphony, Tippett takes the idea of a vocal finale from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and includes three quotations from Beethoven's final movement. The finale of Tippett's symphony is related in subject matter to Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde, and the musical style is based loosely on the blues as sung by Bessie Smith in St. Louis Blues with Louis Armstrong.

Works: Tippett: Symphony No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Index Classifications: 1900s

New biographical information on Josquin des Prez has forced us to reconsider his compositional output and to revise our perceptions of him in comparison to his contemporaries. Recent archival discoveries now place Josquin's birth date around 1450 and date his arrival in Italy twenty-five years later than previously believed. From these revisions, it is clear that Josquin was contemporary with his generation and that he reached his first compositional maturity around 1490, during which time he was employed as a singer in the Sistine Chapel. It is further possible to draw comparisons between Josquin and other musicians at the Chapel such as Marbrianus de Orto, who produced a large body of work while employed there. Although Josquin did not directly quote from de Orto's works, he learned and borrowed a range of compositional techniques from cantus firmus treatment to contrapuntal and melodic writing. Examples of Josquin's procedural borrowings from de Orto include: (1) using a variety of mensuration signs and presenting the cantus firmus in the "wrong" mode in his Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales, a technique employed by de Orto in his Missa L'homme armé; (2) incorporating an ostinato cantus firmus, which appears on multiple pitch levels in the tenor motet Illibata; (3) composing strict canons in a clear reference to de Orto's Missa Ad fugam; (4) employing "conspicuous repetition," in Missa Fortuna desperata and in Missa La sol fa re mi, a method also used by de Orto in his L'homme armé and Ad fugam masses; and (5) absorbing compositional procedures from de Orto in a setting of Si j'ay perdu mon amy. These examples show Josquin's competitive drive and his absorption of compositional techniques around him as a way of establishing a distinctive voice.

Works: Josquin: Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales (322-30, 341), Illibata (331-37, 341-42), Ave maris stella (340-41), Missa Fortuna desperata (342), Missa La sol fa re mi (348-50), Si j'ay perdu mon amy (353-58).

Sources: Marbrianus de Orto: Missa L'homme armé (322-30, 344-47, 352), Ave Marie mater gratie (332-37), Da pacem Domine (337), Missa Ad fugam (338-41, 347-48), Si j'ay perdu mon amy (353-58).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Et in spiritum, which appears in a Vatican manuscript (VatS 154, compiled around 1550) as a mass section--and may be a setting of the missing text, "Et in spiritum," in the Credo from Josquin's Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales--provides an unusual case of musical borrowing in mid-sixteenth century Rome that includes compositional archaism, in contrast with the new mass sections written in contemporary styles far from Josquin. Evidence against Josquin's authorship of Et in spiritum is provided by some features atypical of Josquin, including the repeated text underlay in a single line and the dense texture with close imitation, features that are associated with sixteenth-century compositional characteristics and thus a composer later than Josquin. The differences are not, however, a dramatic departure from Josquin's style. Rather, some correspondences between the Et in spiritum and Josquin?s mass, including structural correspondences in the cantus firmus treatment and a similar use of continuous manipulation of motivic units at various levels, suggest that the composer made a careful study of Josquin's mass and consciously imitated it. This borrowing process reflects an attempt to "complete" and "augment" Josquin's mass, in contrast with the modernizing tendencies in the new mass compositions, thus reflecting interaction between old and new in the mid-sixteenth century papal chapel.

Works: Anonymous, Et in spiritum (VatS 154) (420-35, 438-41).

Sources: Josquin: Missa L?homme armé super voces musicales (424-35, 438-41).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

The L’homme armé tradition is perhaps the best example of musical borrowing in Renaissance music, but we know very little about the reasoning behind most of the masses in the tradition. Cultural associations for L’homme armé are difficult to pick out and likely forgotten about by new generations of composers, leaving aesthetics, not politics, as the justification for compositional techniques. Three masses set the precedent for the L’homme armé tradition: the settings of Du Fay, Ockeghem, and Regis, all ca. 1460. Each setting caused a number of successive composers to imitate their musical devices. As more L’homme armé masses were written, composers looked to more recent models than the original three, or they set a unique path entirely. Fifteenth-century composers often attempted to outclass each other while simultaneously being part of the shared L’homme armé tradition. The term “borrowing” is problematic when it comes to these masses, as it implies intentionality, which cannot be firmly established in many instances. Caution must be taken when discussing this music in terms of borrowing because it was common for composers to memorize stock phrases and follow strict compositional rules in this era. Furthermore, masses with “borrowing” are not inherently more interesting than those without, and thus should not be privileged in critical discourse. With this ambiguity surrounding “borrowing,” “echo” might be a more neutral and encompassing way to describe the transformations of shared material in the L’homme armé tradition.

Works: Du Fay: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75); Ockeghem: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75); Regis: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75); Firminus Caron: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Guillaume Faugues: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Anonymous (Naples I-VI): Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Busnoys: Missa L’homme armé (72, 74-75); Anonymous (Bologna Q.16): Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Tinctoris: Missa L’homme armé (72, 74-75); Loyset Compére: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Obrecht: Missa L’homme armé (72, 74-75); Philippe Basiron: Missa L’homme armé (72, 74-75); Marbrianus de Orto: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Josquin: Missa L’homme armé super voces musicales (74-75), Missa L’homme armé sexti toni (72, 74-75); Brumel: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); La Rue: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Matthaeus Pipelare: Missa L’homme armé (74-75); Bertrandus Vaqueras: Missa L’homme armé (72, 74-75).

Sources: Anonymous: L’homme armé (69-70); Du Fay: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75); Ockeghem: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75); Regis: Missa L’homme armé (71-72, 74-75).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman, Matthew Van Vleet

The study of film music is often focused on the classical film score, which derives from late nineteenth-century opera and musical theater, including features such as the use of symphony orchestras, functional tonality, the leitmotif, and a newly composed score. However, the practice of the compilation score has been around from the earliest days of film, and by the end of the twentieth century, the popular music score was being used in a postmodern manner, decentering the role of the unique musical work and drawing upon the style and celebrity of a musical work, exemplified by Pulp Fiction and Trainspotting. In Pulp Fiction, the musical style of borrowed popular music rather than a singular theme is used as a leitmotif, and in Trainspotting, celebrity and irony are used as a leitmotif through the social codes (the mode of Social Practice). Full lists of borrowed music for the films are included in tables.

Works: Quentin Tarantino (director): Sound track to Pulp Fiction (121, 123-30); Danny Boyle (director): Sound track to Trainspotting (121, 130-35).

Sources: Dick Dale and the Deltones (performers): Misirlou (126); Kool and the Gang: Jungle Boogie (126); John Hurley and Ronnie Wilkins (songwriters), Dusty Springfield (performer): Son of a Preacher Man (126); Neil Diamond (composer), Urge Overkill (performer): Girl, You'll Be a Woman Soon (126); Lew DeWitt (composer), Statler Brothers (performers): Flowers on the Wall (126); Gerald Sanders, Jesse Sanders, Norman Sanders, and Leonard Delaney (songwriters), The Tornadoes (performers): Bustin' Surfboards (126); Dennis Rose and Earnest Furrow (songwriters), The Centurians (performers): Bullwinkle, Part II (126); Sam Eddy, Dean Sorensen, and Paul Sorensen (songwriters), The Revels (performers): Comanche (126); Bob Bogle, Nole Edwards, and Don Wilson (songwriters), The Lively Ones (performers): Surf Rider (126); Bizet: Carmen (131); Iggy Pop and David Bowie (songwriters), Iggy Pop (performer): Lust for Life (133), Nightclubbing (134).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Senegalese-French rapper Sefyu’s 2006 track En noir et blanc is a case study in hip hop’s role as both a product of postcolonial contradictions and a form of cultural politics aimed at combatting postcolonial inequalities. While the track includes musical gestures to Africa, Europe, and America, the featured loop is sampled from Nina Simone’s 1962 recording of Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn’s 1956 song Hey, Buddy Bolden. Sefyu’s sample recalls not only the past of Simone and Ellington, but also the past of New Orleans circa 1900 and Buddy Bolden, the “elusive father of jazz” (in Ted Gioia’s words). The origins of jazz recall further still centuries of syncretic music making since the first African slaves were brought to the Virginia Colony in 1619. Sefyu’s lyrics deal more directly with the complexity and contradictions of cultural and racial identity, with color used as a poetic motif throughout the song. Edward Said’s postcolonial theory stresses the entangled histories of colonizer and colonized, and, together with W. E. B. Du Bois’s concept of double consciousness, it helps listeners to hear the continuities in Black popular music and to escape from notions of American exceptionalism.

Works: Sefyu: En noir et blanc (378-80, 384); Nina Simone (performer): Hey, Buddy Bolden (379)

Sources: Nina Simone (performer): Hey, Buddy Bolden (378-80, 384); Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn: Hey, Buddy Bolden (379)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In Mahler's First Symphony, third movement, section A is based on the tune Frère Jacques, and section B is based on "Die zwei blauen Augen von meinem Schatz," from Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen. Aristotles's eironeia is a means of interpreting the ironic treatment of the borrowed material; it is characterized by distortion, understatement, and self-depreciation.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, third movement (211); Symphony No. 2, third movement (218).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Chapter V of Roman's dissertation presents an examination of Mahler's songs in symphonies from the point of view of their constituent poetical as well as musical-echnical elements. As in the genre of the song itself, Mahler also sought for new means of expression in the symphony. Still in the tradition of Beethoven, he expands "the grand design of symphonic music" by the incorporation of a hitherto unexplored resource: the song. The result of his search for an ultimate "symbiosis of symphonic and vocal music" can be described as follows: (1) Mahler's music--even in his apparently purely instrumental symphonies--has to be viewed in connection with his interest in literature. (2) The new possibilities created by Mahler's expansion of the genre are reflected in the works of the following generation.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Das Lied von der Erde.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Mahler's songs to texts from Des Knaben Wunderhorn are influenced by folk music. Those most clearly related to folk or popular songs may be divided into two groups: (1) songs that show a direct resemblance to existing songs, and (2) songs with general characteristics of a popular genre such as dance songs and soldier songs. The melodies are classified by style (diatonic, chromatic, mixed); intervallic motion (triadic, conjunct, disjunct, mixed); and rhythm (predominantly dotted, primarily smooth, mixed). Mahler follows the stylistic traditions of the nineteenth-century Lied: the simplicity and "volkstümliche character" of many of the Wunderhorn songs is similar to Schubert; the harmonic language is much like Schumann; and the nature of the accompaniment is related to Brahms. While these songs clearly reflect the influences of his predecessors and of Romantic historicism, they also show Mahler's "absorption" and "adaptation" of material which foreshadows the "total stylistic assimilation of folk music" by twentieth-century composers.

Works: Mahler: "Revelge," "Wo die schönen Trompeten blasen," "Es sungen drei Engel einen süssen Gesang," "Wir geniessen die himmlischen Freuden," "Ich ging mit Lust durch einen grünen Wald," "Rheinlegendchen," "Lied des Verfolgten im Turm" ("Die Gedanken sind frei"), "Der Tamboursg'sell," "Zu Strassburg auf der Schanz," "Verlorene Müh'," "Hans und Grethe," "Nicht wiedersehen!," "Scheiden und Meiden," "Der Schildwache Nachtlied," and "Trost im Unglück" from Des Knaben Wunderhorn.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

The music composed for theatrical productions at the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne in late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century Paris shaped the urban popular song tradition of vaudeville, or popular songs that circulated in urban Paris with often satirical and subversive texts commenting on public affairs. Out of Évariste Gherardi’s six volumes of repertoire from the Comédie-Italienne, twenty-six songs originating in the theater appear in chansonniers collecting the texts (and sometimes music) of the vaudeville tradition. A ribald parody of Jean-Gille, Gilli joli Jean from the 1697 play Pasquin et Marforio, Médecins des mærs printed in the Maurepas Chansonnier demonstrates the appeal of using such innuendo-laden theater music to comment on public scandal. It is also a useful case study in tracing the origin of a vaudeville tune back to its original form. The vaudeville Les Trembleurs presents a notable case of a vaudeville originating from an opera, Lully’s Isis (1677), before itself being absorbed into the Comédie-Italienne repertoire in 1693. Musical finales from the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne, which were very often structured as highly repetitive strophic tunes, were frequently turned into vaudevilles collected in chansonniers. The plays of Florent Carton Dancourt and Jean-Claude Gillier at the Comédie-Française also frequently included similar strophic tunes at the end of their divertissements, several of which also “ran in the streets” as vaudevilles. The dynamic relationship between Parisian theaters and the vaudeville tradition was mutually beneficial. Theatrical songs that became vaudevilles acted as effective word-of-mouth advertisement for the productions themselves, and after the closure of the Comédie-Italienne, the vaudeville repertory reemerged in fairground theater, giving birth to French comic opera.

Works: Anonymous: Jean-Gille, Gille joli Jean printed in Maurepas Chansonnier (426-30), Les Trembleurs (430-34); André Campra: Hésione (442-45).

Sources: Dufresny and Claude-Ignace Brugière de Barante: Jean-Gille, Gille joli Jean from Pasquin et Marforio, Médecins des mæurs (426-30); Lully: Isis (430-34); Dancourt and Gillier: La Foire de Bezons (439-45).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Composers of film scores are not usually involved in the choice of any pre-existing songs that appear within the film, but these works are often very important to both the narrative of the film and to the soundtrack itself. Instead, these choices are made by the music supervisor, who decides what songs should be included in the film, usually with specific feedback from the director. There are completely different budgets for the music supervisor to license films and the film composer to create a new score. The two must coordinate in order to create a score and soundtrack that work together. Sometimes the supervisor has chosen the songs for the film long before the composer is brought onto the project, which can make this collaboration difficult. In other cases, the composer is chosen at the start of the film, which can change the dynamic. The use of the temp score can be a stumbling block to both the composer and music supervisor, who are often asked to emulate the temp track, and directors and writers often request songs from the music supervisor with no thought to how much the licensing fees for those songs cost.

Works: Jay Roach (director): Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (262); Giorgio Moroder: Score to Metropolis (263); Sam Mendes (director): American Beauty (263-64).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Though products of one Zeitgeist, Schoenberg's Erwartung and Bartók's Bluebeard's Castle differ in compositional method, sonority, and texture. The influences of Ravel, Debussy, and Richard Strauss are heard in Bartók's opera, which in turn, influenced other composers. Stravinsky borrowed liberally from Bartók, using the latter's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta in his Symphony in Three Movements, and the First String Quartet in Jocasta's air from Oedipus Rex.

Works: Stravinsky: Symphony in Three Movements (11), Oedipus Rex (11).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Just after the turn of the 17th century, Aquilio Coppini published three consecutive books of spiritual madrigals which were sacred contrafacta of madrigals by Monteverdi. In all the examples discussed in this article, most of the character, structure, syntax, melody, and words of the Italian originals are preserved in the new sacred Latin versions. Inspiration for these sacred recompositions probably came from a request by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, who, in following the sacred reforms instigated by his cousin and predecessor, Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, saw value in using the music of composers of the new baroque style in order to entice worshipers to the faith.

Works: Coppini: Maria, quid ploras (170), Te, Jesu Christe (170), Qui pietate tua dirupisti (170), Qui laudes tuas cantat (170), Luce serena (170), Plorat amare (171), O Jesu mea vita (171).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Rachmaninoff used the Dies Irae chant to create a five-note motif in Isle of the Dead, and the motif crafted by Bernard Herrmann for the title character in Citizen Kane is strikingly similar to that of Rachmaninoff. Two possible explanations for this semblance exist: the motif of Herrmann resembles that of Rachmaninoff because it is modeled on the Isle of the Dead, or the resemblance exists because the two motifs are modeled on a common source, the Dies Irae. When applying musical hermeneutics to film, it is necessary to consider the musical associations composers may make when viewing films as they prepare to compose a score. The application of musical hermeneutics to the Kane motif suggests that Herrmann modeled it on the motif of Rachmaninoff because when Herrmann first saw cinematic images of Xanadu he was reminded of the painting by Arnold Böcklin, The Island of the Dead, which had inspired Rachmaninoff’s symphonic poem. That Herrmann never attributes this motif to Rachmaninoff could be explained by his general silence on the issue of musical borrowing in his music or by the process of cryptomnesia, in which an artist or writer unintentionally borrows from a work he or she has forgotten.

Works: Orson Welles (director) and Bernard Herrmann (composer): score to Citizen Kane (104-13); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (104-13).

Sources: Anonymous: Dies Irae (104-13); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (104-13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

The main title of the original Dracula (1930) consists of an abbreviated version of scene 2 from Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake. Whether conscious or not, the composer Heinz Roemheld was carrying on into sound pictures a convention from silent films, in which Tchaikovsky's piece was used as a misterioso. Original pieces from the 18th and 19th centuries were often employed in the scores of these "B movies," as producers naively believed this would bring sophistication and class to their films, the quality of which was admittedly substandard. The harmonic language peculiar to pieces such as Stravinsky's Firebird and Petroushka and the whole-tone scale in particular have become characteristic of horror film music since the early 1930s.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: David Oliver

Rap is often conceptualized as developing from the oral orientation of the African-American tradition but is rather a complex combination of orality and post-modern technology. The concept of rap as a "post-literate" oral tradition that is a natural outgrowth of oral Afro-American traditional forms is overly simplistic and romanticized. Rap lyrics, which are strongly identified with the rappers that wrote them, display the strong sense of authorship at work in the rap community, which stands in stark contrast to the concepts of orality. However, rap artists' use of sampling reveals the influence of the oral Afro-American tradition in which authorial authority is achieved not in creating a story but rather in its retelling, as texts are considered community property. By sampling, rap artists recontextualize pre-existing material, essentially using sampling technology as "de- and re-construction devices." Sampling, largely regarded as theft by the mass culture, consequently creates a type of resistance against that culture. The re-use of copyrighted material without permission can be read as undermining the legal and capital market authorities.

Works: Kool Moe Dee (Mohandas Dewese) and Teddy Riley: How Ya Like Me Now! (41); Eric B. (Eric Barrier) and Rakim (William Griffin Jr.): Paid in Full (42-43).

Sources: Jimmy Forrest: Night Train as performed by James Brown (41); Franne Golde, Dennis Lambert and Duane Hitchings: Don't Look Any Further as performed by Dennis Edward (42-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

In a broader investigation of rap music and contemporary Black American culture, sampling is discussed (pp. 73-80 and 88-93). Rappers utilize sampling technology not as a shortcut to copy pre-existing music but rather as a means to achieve unique creative objectives. Often, the sonic qualities sought after by rap artists and producers can only be created through sampling, not through live performance or digital synthesized sound such as drum machines. The way in which digital samples are used by rap DJs is in line with what Walter Ong has identified in oral traditions as "narrative originality." According to Ong, narrative originality is achieved not through the creation of new material but through the "reshuffling" of the pre-existing material. However, in addition to this, use of sampling technology by rap artists can also be seen to constitute a means of composition. Samples in a rap song generate meaning through complex intertextual references, as does the process of "versioning," the reworking of an entire song so that it takes on new meaning in a new context. The use of sampling and versioning has generated conflict with existing copyright laws, and rap artists are often accused of stealing musical material. This problem arises partially because current copyright laws originated in the nineteenth century and were originally intended to protect musical scores. Sampling technology allows access to sounds that were previously "uncopiable" and therefore unprotected.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The four chords Britten used in Act II of A Midsummer Night's Dream are remarkably similar to those used in the setting of "Sonnet to Sleep" (Keats) in the Serenade, the differences being a reversal of the first two chords, re-spacing, and re-scoring. Both works are concerned with the subject of sleep, thus lending added weight to the possibility of self-borrowing. However, upon Roseberry's inquiry, he and Britten discovered that the similarity was completely subconscious. The chords in the opera were developed in a conscious effort to use all twelve tones in a four-chord theme to be used for dramatic and structural purposes, while those in the Serenade came, according to Britten, "as a kind of harmonic overtone to the cello phrase."

Works: Britten: A Midsummer Night's Dream, "Sonnet to Sleep" from the Serenade.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

The Britten and Imogen Holst performing edition of Purcell's Dido and Aeneas, five songs from Orpheus Britannicus, and a realization of The Blessed Virgin's Expostulation show Britten's eclectic disposition as a composer. Britten's arrangements an improvement of those of Edward J. Dent (1925) and Cummings (1887), due to Britten's attention to more modern treatments of dissonance and less willingness to hold himself to "textbook" voice-leading principles. Britten felt that Purcell had given a framework that could incorporate almost any realization, but holds himself to "the rules of the game." Britten's ten Irish folksongs settings show the composer's similar pull to use more modern harmonic ideas in older music. The accompaniments often avoid cadences, and are "harmonically elusive."

Works: Britten/Purcell: Dido and Aeneas, (8, 13-24) Orpheus Britannicus, (8-10), The Blessed Virgin's Expostulation (10-13), Ten Irish Folksongs (24-28).

Sources: Purcell: Dido and Aeneas, (8, 13-24); Thomas Moore: Irish Melodies (24-28).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Influences on one composer by another's work are demonstrated between Haydn and Mozart. In the first of two examples, the rhythmic shape of Mozart's fugal Gigue for Piano, K. 574 parallels the gigue finale of Haydn's C Major Quartet, Op. 20, No. 2. Mozart was familiar with Haydn's quartets Op. 20 and imitated them closely for years. Similarities are also drawn between Haydn's Symphony No. 81 and Mozart's Prague Symphony, including the use of ostinati, a flatted seventh degree within the introductions, similar rhythmic patterns, and the use of new motifs. Influence through structural modeling is then illustrated by a comparison of the finales from Brahms's D Minor Piano Concerto and Beethoven's Piano Concerto in C Minor.

Works: Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 959 (93); Brahms: Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 1 (93); Scherzo, Op. 4 (93); Piano Concerto No. 2 (94).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1900s

The second half of this book focuses on the works of Lili Boulanger and provides detailed stylistic analyses of individual compositions. Within these stylistic analyses, a number of quotations from works by other composers are identified. In several cases, Rosenstiel discusses why these quotations may have been used. Examples of other composers borrowing compositional gestures from Boulanger are also pointed out.

Works: Boulanger: Nocturne (139), Le Retour (154), Pour les Funérailles d'un Soldat (156), Clairières dans le Ciel (172, 189), Dans l'Immense Tristesse (191); Fauré: "Diane" from Horizon chimérique (175); Honegger: Le Roi David (191); Ravel: La Valse (195), Concerto for the Left Hand (195).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Throughout ca. 1200 to ca. 1500, the symbolic meaning of springtime was deeply linked to the Easter season and to the Virgin Mary in both sacred and secular music. One case study demonstrating this relationship is the diverse collection of thirteenth-century compositions based on the In seculum tenor, which is drawn from the Easter gradual Haec dies. Pastourelles based on the tenor, for instance L’autre jour par un matin/Au tens pascour/In seculum, are not explicitly religious, but they do draw on the springtime association of the Easter tenor. Courtly love songs such as Ja n’amerai autre que cele/In seculum similarly evoke Marian overtones with the In seculum tenor. Surprisingly, there are relatively few Latin motets based on the tenor. The springtime/Easter association of In seculum—paired with its malleable text (“in eternity”)—thematically link the disparate uses of the tenor in various genres. A second case study linking springtime and Easter comes from comparing two sixteenth-century paraphrase settings of Easter sequences: Henricus Isaac’s Laudes salvatori and Josquin des Prez’s Victimae paschali laudes. Isaac’s Laudes salvatori sets a paraphrase of the Easter Sunday chant of the same title and incorporates paraphrases of two other chants, Regina caeli and Victimae paschali laudes, as secondary cantus firmi. Together, these paraphrased chants link the Easter Resurrection to Marian imagery. Josquin’s Victimae paschali laudes paraphrases the chant melody throughout and also includes strict quotations of two secular chansons in the superius voice: Ockeghem’s D’ung aultre amer and Hayne van Ghizeghem’s De tous biens plaine. These selections also link Easter and Marian imagery, but the secular songs Josquin quotes work in a similar way to the thirteenth-century examples by evoking springtime imagery as well. Both case studies demonstrate the centuries-long association between springtime, Easter, and the Virgin Mary in music.

Works: Anonymous: L’autre jour par un matin/Au tens pascour/In seculum (329-336), Ja n’amerai autre que cele/In seculum (341-45), Li doz maus m’ocit/Trop ai lonc tens en folie/Ma Loiauté m’a nuisi/In seculum (345-350), O felix puerpera domina/[In seculum] (350-53), In seculum Artifex seculi/In seculum supra mulieres/[In seculum] (353-54); Henricus Isaac: Laudes salvatori (360-76); Josquin dez Prez: Victimae paschali laudes (377-86)

Sources: Anonymous: In seculum (from Haec dies) (329-54), Regina caeli (360-76), Victimae paschali laudes (360-76); Notker Balbulus: Laudes salvatori (360-76); Ockeghem: D’ung aultre amer (377-86); Hayne van Ghizeghem: De tous biens plaine (377-86)

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The three works Isaac composed for the Maximilian court that quote the chant Virgo prudentissima represent a thematic unit adhering to the ideological and liturgical goals of the court, acting as a grand plea to the Virgin Mary. The antiphon Virgo prudentissima is liturgically appropriate because it glorifies Mary and her Assumption and Coronation, which is symbolically aligned with Maximilian’s coronation. In his six-voice Virgo prudentissima motet, Isaac emphasizes key phrases in the cantus firmus that directly address Mary by shifting into a homorhythmic style. Like the unusually grand motet, Missa Virgo prudentissima is unusual in Isaac’s work. It is Isaac’s only six-voice cyclic Mass based on a chant, but its earliest source is in a collection of six-voice polyphony and alternatim Masses, suggesting an alternatim reconstruction of the Mass is possible. The shared use of the Virgo prudentissima and other stylistic similarities between the coronation motet and the mass would call to mind Maximilian’s coronation during the annual performance of the Mass on the Feast of the Assumption. This strong connection between the Virgo prudentissima antiphon and the Maximilian court in Isaac’s work suggests that music found in manuscript CCII, thought to be composed exclusively for the Cathedral of Constance, could have been used at Maximilian’s court as well. The Introit Gaudeamus omnes V. Exaltata es contains a conspicuous use of Virgo prudentissima as a secondary cantus firmus, connecting this Introit to the Maximilian court compositions. Taken as a unit, these Virgo prudentissima compositions work to appeal to the Virgin Mary directly as the protector of Maximilian, aligning with his cultivated image as the Wise King.

Works: Isaac: Virgo prudentissima (six-voice motet) (48-57), Missa Virgo prudentissima (57-67), Gaudeamus omnes V. Exaltata es (67-73)

Sources: Antiphon: Virgo prudentissima (48-73)

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

The opening notes of the medieval Dies irae, dies illa has been used frequently by composers to allude, seriously or jocularly, to death. Rachmaninoff was especially fascinated with the Dies Irae, especially its first seven notes, and employed the chant most consistently and most strikingly. Rachmaninoff achieves a subtle architecture in his Second Symphony largely through the cyclic use of the Dies Irae, which undergoes a variety of transformations in construction and mood. Musical examples are provided to illustrate Rubin's outline of the transformations.

Works: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (132); Khatchaturian: Symphony No. 2 (132); Liszt: Totentanz (132); Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (132); Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6 (132); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (132), Piano Concerto No. 4 (132), Piano Sonata No. 1 (132), Piano Sonata No. 2 (133), Symphonic Dance No. 1 (133), Symphony No. 1 (132), Symphony No. 2 (133), Symphony No. 3 (133); Respighi: Brasilian Impressions (132); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (132); Tchaikovsky: Orchestral Suite No. 3 (132).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Following Dvorák's lead, Gershwin and Ives both evoked the popular spirit of American music. They validated borrowing from the American folk tradition and indigenous jazz. Gershwin transformed old musical clichés with a slight twist of originality. In Rhapsody in Blue he borrowed from Liszt in terms of form and style, borrowed from jazz the way Liszt borrowed from Hungarian gypsy music in his rhapsodies, and borrowed from Tchaikovsky, especially in the slow movement. Ives borrowed from popular dance hall tunes, hymns and patriotic anthems, brass band marches, country dances, and songs. Like Gershwin, he borrowed from the jazz idiom; also like Gershwin he fused his borrowings from American popular and folk traditions with his borrowings from the traditions and styles of European art music.

Works: Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (150-152), Cuban Overture (152-53), Porgy and Bess (153-55); Ives: Song for the Harvest Season (159), Second Piano Sonata ("Concord") (162, 164-65).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Many of the works of Pierre de la Rue have been mistakenly ascribed to Josquin des Prez. A comparison of key compositional techniques in their four-voice masses may reveal why this error occurred so frequently. Few differences in cantus firmus treatment can be found between the composers, with both using the borrowed material fairly literally, in extended note values, as the basis for an ostinato pattern, or as a basis for melismatic elaboration. Both composers make frequent use of the motto technique as a means of unification within masses. In their early parody masses, both composers tended to borrow from individual voices rather than an entire polyphonic source, although La Rue borrowed more heavily from all voices later in his career. Since their treatment of borrowed material is similar in many cases, an examination of differences in melodic development is more useful for distinguishing between the styles of these two composers.

Works: Josquin: Missa L'homme armé (370, 371), Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales (370, 371): La Rue: Missa L'homme armé (370, 371), Missa Cum jucunditate (371, 373), Missa Puer natus (371), Missa Nunqua fué pena maior (371, 372): Josquin: Missa Allez regretz (371), Missa Ave maris stella (371), Missa Ad fugum (371), Missa Di dadi (371), Missa L'ami Baudichon (371), Missa Malheur me bat (372), Missa Fortuna desperata (372), Missa Mater patris (372), Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae (372), Missa La sol fa re mi (372), Missa Faisant regretz (372); La Rue: Missa Incessament (372), Missa Ave sanctissima Maria (372, 375), Missa Almana (373, 374).

Sources: Hayne van Ghizeghem: Allez regretz (371); Ockeghem: Malheur me bat (372); Busnois: Fortuna desperata (372).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

“Missae Parodiae”—masses which take their sources in polyphonic works—are misleadingly named, as their sources are not parodied, but used as points of departure for the mass. Burgundian composers of Ockeghem’s generation began using secular sources such as the chanson rather than other masses as the sources for their own elaborative masses. By the 1500s, the liturgical motet became the primary source for elaborative masses, a practice which was also taken up by French composers.

Works: Ockeghem: Fors seullement (7); Heinrich Isaac: O Praeclara (7); Antonine Févin: Ave Maria (8), Sancta Trinitas (8); Pierre de la Rue: Ave Sanctissima Maria (8).

Sources: Ockheghem: Fors seullement (7); Agricola: Si dedero (7); Busnois: Le Serviteur (7); Heinrich Issac: Rogamus te (7); Josquin: Mente tota (8).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

English ballad operas and burlesques regularly used borrowed melodies, drawn from popular tunes. The use of these tunes often had a nationalistic motivation, attempting to imbue the music with an English identity, while simultaneously establishing a locale within the opera. The songs for burlesque and ballad operas were adapted from a wide variety of sources, including ballad airs, folk songs, arias from Italian and French opera, and minstrel tunes. The burlesque orchestra also played familiar tunes to signal associations in the minds of the audience, often with humorous intent. Humor played a large role in burlesques, taking form in parody through song, puns in dialogue, and through women playing men’s roles.

Works: Kane O’Hara: Midas (553); James Planche: The Golden Branch (554); Edward Stirling: The Buffalo Girls (555); Albert Smith: Hop-o’-my-Thumb (555); William Leman: Douglas Travestie (556); Francis Talfourd: Macbeth Trovestie (555), Atalanta (557), Electra in a New Electric Light (557); Henry Byron: Ali Baba (557); Joseph Coyne and Francis Talfourd: Leo the Terrible (557); William Rhodes: Bombastes Furioso (557); Maurice Dowling: Othello Travestie (558); Robert Brough: Masaniello (559); Leicester Buckingham: William Tell (559); Joseph Coyne: Willikind and hys Dynah (559); James Planche: Puss in Boots; An Original, Comical, Magical, Mew-sical, Fairy Burletta (561); William Hale and Francis Talfourd, The Mandarin’s Daughter (561).

Sources: Anonymous: Shaan Bwee (553), Sheelagh na guig (553), Larry Grogan (553), Kiss me fast my mother’s coming (553), Bobbing Joan (553); Handel: Overture to Ottone (553); Anonymous: Cherry Ripe (554), If you’re waking, call me early (555); Rossini: Il Barbiere di Siviglia (555); Anonymous: Sich a gittin’ up stairs (555), Come haste to the wedding (556), Paddy’s Wedding (557), My Lodging is on the Cold Ground (557), Drink to me only with thine eyes (557), Weippert’s Fancy (557), Lord Cathcart’s Favourite (557), Oh ‘tis love (558), The Ratcatcher’s Daughter (559), We won’t go home till morning (559), My poor dog Tray (559), To all you Ladies now on Land (560); John Christopher Pepusch: The Beggar’s Opera (561); Anonymous: There’s nae luck about the house (561).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

The Jovial Crew, an eighteenth-century ballad opera based on Richard Brome’s play of the same name, was composed primarily from popular tunes. The songs used are mainly of dance origin, and are synonymous with the English nationalist paradigms propagated in ballad operas. The ballad opera was subject to subsequent revivals, which changed the songs’ texts and music or omitted them entirely.

Works: Anonymous: The Jovial Crew (240–43).

Sources: Anonymous: Which Nobody Can Deny (241), Under the Greenwood Tree (241), Now Ponder Well (241), Young Philander lov’d me long (242), Gilderoy (242), Now ponder well! (242), To you, fair ladies, now on land (242); John Barrett: The St. Catherine; James Paisible: Room Room for a Rover; Purcell: A New Scotch Tune (241), Lilliburlero (242); Richard Leveridge: One Sunday After Mass (242).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Gabriel Fauré’s mélodies exemplify the fluid boundary between French salon and theatrical song and invite listeners to listen hermeneutically. They also demonstrate the importance of critical reflection in Vladimir Jankélévitch’s musical aisthesis as informed by Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotic theory. One example of Fauré slipping between lyrical and theatrical poetic modes is his setting of Théophile Gautier’s La chanson du pêcheur, in which the poetic refrain is transformed into diegetic song. Fauré’s setting of Tristesse also plays with poetic modes with its detached waltz topic and allusion to J. S. Bach’s melancholic Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582. The song cycle La chanson d’Ève also uses the idea of performance and musical diegesis to represent Eve’s fall. For this effect, Fauré borrows from The King’s Three Blind Daughters, a ballad he composed as part of the incidental music for an 1898 production of Maurice Maeterlinck’s Pelléas et Mélisande. The borrowed ballad is marked as diegetic music by its rigid ostinato form. Fauré additionally distinguishes different modes of diegesis through diatonic, octatonic, and chromatic harmony. Musical gestures toward performance (as seen in Fauré’s mélodies or in dance topics in Mozart’s operas) can be understood through the model of Peircian semiosis, constructed from a triadic structure of sign influencing interpretant influencing object influencing sign again. This structure allows for a chain of interpretants to be formed and for music to be understood with mixed forms of attention.

Works: Gabriel Fauré: Tristesse (525-26), La chanson d’Ève (526-43)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582 (525-26); Gabriel Fauré: The King’s Three Blind Daughters, incidental music to Pelléas et Mélisande (526-531)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Scriabin's Prometheus borrows from Beethoven and Chopin. The design for the work is Beethoven's, while the themes are "Chopinesque." This brief reference is couched in a discussion of aesthetics in Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and Scriabin. Scriabin is called "one of the most generous borrowers time has brought forth." The music of these composers is compared with the art of Kandinsky and the literature of Pound.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Schubert’s Sonata in C Minor, D. 958 is often cited as an homage to Beethoven’s Thirty-Two Variations in C Minor, WoO 80. There are, however, several ordinary musical events in common between these two pieces. The use of a passacaglia bass, found in an inner voice of the Schubert, can be traced back to the Baroque era. Both works also set up but subvert a sentential phrase structure (2+2+4 measures) at the beginning of the work, hardly a compositional device unique to either composer. With Derrida’s concept of grafting, meant metaphorically as the “insertion of one text into another by means of a scission,” the concept of a piece as homage or critique can be challenged. Though the Sonata in C Minor appears to be influenced by Beethoven’s Thirty-Two Variations, Schubert’s work is in dialogue with compositional techniques used before the Beethoven. As a result, historical narratives, such as Beethoven’s overwhelming influence on Schubert, need to be reinvestigated. Such reconsideration may write new historical narratives or confirm old ones.

Works: Schubert: Sonata in C Minor, D. 958.

Sources: Beethoven: Thirty-Two Variations in C Minor, WoO 80.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

The 2011 musical The Book of Mormon, created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone (the creators of South Park), and Robert Lopez (co-creator of Avenue Q), is a widely intertextual work, referencing popular culture from Star Wars to The Lion King to The Music Man. The intertextuality goes deeper, however, with structural references to the “Golden Age” musicals of Rogers and Hammerstein. Despite the conspicuously offensive wrapping of The Book of Mormon, the musical relies on the musicals of Rodgers and Hammerstein as models for both form and content. The two protagonists in the musical, Elder Price and Elder Cunningham, young missionaries tasked with converting a Ugandan village, mirror the journey taken by Maria von Trapp in The Sound of Music in their attempts to do good, and in their ultimate achievement of doing good by bending the rules. The penultimate scene of the musical, “Joseph Smith American Moses,” involves the Ugandans performing their misreading of the Mormon story, which mirrors the “Small House of Uncle Thomas” ballet from The King and I. Both scenes portray a culture confronted with western domination, but The Book of Mormon offers a more mature version by showing a community that creates and defines itself, rather than conforming to a Western one. Any intertextuality is subjective on the part of the reader, but The Book of Mormon is notable in the way it references a wide range of texts in a way that can reach a broader audience.

Works: Trey Parker, Robert Lopez, and Matt Stone (music, lyrics, and book): The Book of Mormon.

Sources: Rodgers and Hammerstein: The Sound of Music (44–45), The King and I (45–47).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Spanish composers for the Baroque guitar took borrowed material as a point of departure for unique and personal creative expression. In the simplest cases, phrases were added or omitted from existing works, or changes were made in ornamentation. Another technique was the use of a musical "module" that could be altered, expanded into two separate phrases, or serve as a sort of musical parenthesis. This type of recomposition is frequently found in passacaglias, variations, batallas, and obras de clarines. In other cases, a borrowed phrase may serve as a point of departure for an entirely new composition. At other times, motifs may be borrowed to serve as unifying elements in a new composition, especially a suite.

Works: Libro de diferentes cifras de guitarra escojidas de los mejores autores (1-10, 14-15); Santiago de Murcia: Passacalles y obras de guitarra por todos los tonos naturals y acidentales (12-17), Obra por la O (18-22); Ruiz de Ribayaz: Luz y norte musical para caminar por las cifras de la guitarra española y arpa (16-17).

Sources: Gaspar Sanz: Instrucción de música sobre la guitarra española (2-10, 14-15); Antonio Martín y Coll: Flores de música (11-13); Antoine Carré: Prelude (14-15); Henry Grenerin: Gigue Aymable (14-15); Arcangelo Corelli: Sonatas from Opus 5 (15-16); François Campion: Nouvelles découvertes sur la guitarre (17); François Le Cocq: Recueil des pièces de guitarre (18-22).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Little research has been done on Paul Simon's earliest years of songwriting and recording (pre-1963), as the songs have been dismissed by the songwriter himself as teen fluff and many early recordings are unavailable. Simon's style changed decisively in 1963 and 1964 because of his maturing as a songwriter, but also and maybe more importantly because of Bob Dylan's overwhelming influence in the folk-rock scene of the 1960s. Dylan paved the way for songwriters to express concerns about serious cultural and political issues. Simon could not help but be influenced by Dylan's songs that showed his consciousness of civil rights and other social issues. Simon claimed to have been inspired to write his first "serious" tune, He Was My Brother, as a eulogy to his friend, Andrew Goodman, who had been murdered in 1964. However, it is clear from the songs themselves as well as other evidence, that Dylan's influence was the primary factor in transforming Simon from a more frivolous singer/songwriter into a more mature songwriter in the 1960s.

Works: Paul Simon: He Was My Brother (595); Traditional: Peggy-O as performed by Paul Simon (596); Bob Dylan: The Times They Are A-Changin' (596); Paul Simon: A Church is Burning (596), On the Side of a Hill (596-97), A Simple Desultory Philippic, or How I was Robert McNamara'd into Submission (596-97).

Sources: Bob Dylan: Oxford Town (595), The Death of Emmett Till (595), The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll (595), Only a Pawn in Their Game (595-96); Traditional: Pretty Peggy-O as peformed by Bob Dylan (596); Bob Dylan: The Times They Are A-Changin' (596), With God on Our Side (597), Subterranean Homesick Blues (597), It's Alright Ma, I'm Only Bleeding (597), I Shall Be Free (597), Rainy Day Women No. 12 &35 (597), Highway 61 Revisited (597).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Siegfried Ochs claimed that Brahms had made it clear to him that the second movement of his Ein deutsches Requiem had been based on a chorale tune, “Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten,” yet analysis reveals that the rhythm and pitches of the melodies are quite different. Christopher Reynolds has recently argued that it is in fact based on a different chorale tune. If one compares the movement with a piano piece by M. Jessen that explicitly takes its melody from the chorale, Brahms’s use of it in the Requiem becomes more doubtful. In fact, treatises of the time suggested that composers wishing to write a successful funeral march should make it sound chorale-like. Therefore, it is highly possible that Brahms wrote the melody himself, merely emulating the general style of a chorale and not a specific chorale tune.

Works: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem (8-9); M. Jessen: Wer seinen Gott allein läßt walten, Op. 6, No. 1 (9).

Sources: Georg Neumark: Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Although Dett never associated with the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance, he shared their belief that African-American folk music should be utilized in the development of classical compositions. Like some of the leaders of the Renaissance, Dett was ambivalent toward this folk music, particularly the spiritual, in its purer forms. Debate centered around the value of the pure folk idiom, and also around how it should be used in the development of high art. Dett's two extended choral compositions are based on spirituals. The Chariot Jubilee is based on Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, and The Ordering of Moses draws its subject, thematic material, and organizational devices from Go Down, Moses.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders