The popularity of the cake walk in early-twentieth-century Paris introduces complex layers of cultural signifiers and meaning both within and outside of constructions of race. The Parisian public was introduced to cake walks in 1900 by Sousa’s band, whose aura of civility and control challenges the dance’s assumed primitivism in current scholarship. The physical, spectacular, and participatory nature of the cake walk dance as described in the 1900s French press further runs counter to the expectations of a solely primitivist understanding. Filmmaker Georges Méliès’s combination of cake walk with early film splicing technique (as in his 1903 Le Cake Walk Infernal) adds an uncanny association to Parisian cake walks. Debussy’s quotation of Tristan und Isolde in Golliwogg’s Cake Walk is typically understood as a lighthearted critique of Wagner and Wagnerism. Lawrence Kramer reads these inclusions as quotations of absence—the harmonic substance of the Tristan chord is stripped away and rendered trite. However, a more nuanced reading of this quotation comes from taking seriously the irony inherent in the cakewalk genre: black plantation slaves parodying the mannerisms of their white masters. The theatricality and excess in Debussy’s score can further be identified with the modernist fixation on clowns. This interpretation takes into account the complexity of cultural signifiers in the cake walk genre and its appropriation in modern Paris.

Works: Debussy: Golliwogg’s Cake Walk, from Children’s Corner (288-89, 308-11)

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (288-89, 308-11)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Before the Elizabethan Act of Uniformity of 1559, there was an active school of liturgical organ polyphony in England. These compositions were intended to replace the singing of a choir or soloist for the portion of the chant that was set. After the Reformation, composers continued to employ plainsong from the Sarum rite, but not with any liturgical intent. The practice of setting plainsong in this way is uniquely English. The many settings of In nomine and Gloria tibi Trinitas are examples of this practice. Two tables list all known keyboard plainsong settings, both before and after 1559 (i.e., both for liturgical and non-liturgical use).

Works: Anonymous: Kyrie (137-38); William Byrd: Three polyphonic keyboard settings of Clarifica me Pater (142-44), Polyphonic keyboard setting of Miserere mihi, Domine (148-49).

Sources: Guillaume Dufay [attrib.]: Portugaler (137-38); Basse danse: La portingaloise (138); Chant: Clarifica me Pater (142-44), Miserere mihi, Domine (148-49).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Provides new sources, entries, and annotations.

Works: Thomas Tallis: Fantasy (216); Guillaume Dufay [attrib.]: Portugaler (216-17).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Three late thirteenth-century, refrain-form conducti that interpolate French refrains offer insight into the compositional processes of Latin conducti that engage in the rare practice of cross-genre and cross-linguistic borrowing. The interplay of musical and textual borrowing suggests that the unknown composers of these conducti conceived the music and text in tandem. Veni sancte spiritus spes, copied in GB-Lbl Egerton 274 (ca. 1275), adapts the text of the sequence of the same name and the melody of a French refrain En ma dame ai mis mon cuer et mon panser (vdB 662). The vdB 662 melody also appears in several motets, chansons, and a rondeau (with some variation), complicating its chronology. The form and scansion of Veni sancte spiritus spes draws on both the sequence and the refrain, creating a hybrid work with no clear distinction between borrowed and new material in both text and music. The northern French manuscript F-Pn lat. 15131 contains no musical notation, but the musical identity of the included Latin poems can be derived from the appearance of French and Latin refrains in their rubrics. The incipits Marie preconio and Superne matris gaudia demonstrate identifiable textual borrowing from sequences transmitted in other sources. The two incipits also have poetic scansion in common with French refrains, suggesting musical borrowing as well. Marie preconio is in this sense a “contrafact” of the refrain Amez moi douce dame amez (vdB 117) and Superne matris gaudia a “contrafact” of Par defaus de leaute (vdB 1476). The relationship between the scansion of Superne matris gaudia and its refrain source suggests that the composer adapted the Latin sequence to align with the French refrain form and rhyme scheme. These and many other examples of vernacular song citations in Latin conducti reveal an intertextual and intermusical borrowing practice that brings disparate “voices” into harmony.

Works: Anonymous: Veni sancte spiritus spes, GB-Lbl Egerton 274 (138-54), Superne matris gaudia, F-Pn lat. 15131 (169-71), Marie preconio, F-Pn lat. 15131 (171-74).

Sources: Anonymous: En ma dame ai mis mon cuer et mon panser, vdB 662 (138-54), Amez moi douce dame amez et je fere voz voulentez, vdB 117 (169-71), Par defaus de leaute que j’ai en amour trove me partire du pais. contra in latino, vdB 1476 (171-74).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The long-standing appeal of the Fulget dies refrain in twelfth- and thirteenth-century hymns, through the Counter-Reformation, and into nineteenth-century Catholic hymnals is linked to its association with liturgical time and relationship with multiple feasts, seasons, offices, and chants. The Fulget dies refrain originated sometime in the twelfth century within a family of contrafact tropes on Benedicamus Domino, each related to a different feast. By 1220, the refrain was found in hymns as well, as illustrated by its appearance in at least five hymns found in the Worcester Antiphonal. By 1300, the refrain had made its way to Hungary, Spain, Norman Sicily, France, and England. While Fulget dies appears in a variety of musical and liturgical contexts, it generally functions as a marker of festivity. Even after many office and mass tropes fell out of favor, Fulget dies lived on as a refrain in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century hymnals. The Feast of Corpus Christi hymn O salutaris hostia and the Marian hymn Matrem per integerrimam illustrate its continued association with important feasts and the ways in which the text and melody of Fulget dies gradually changed over time. In sources from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the refrain was transmitted only in ordinals which did not contain notated music, just text. Here, Fulget dies became primarily associated with the Christmas season. Two sources, the thirteenth-century Worcester Antiphonal and a sixteenth-century Hungarian ordinal, document the erasure of the Fulget dies refrain from hymn transmission. Through the sixteenth century, Fulget dies had a degree of stability attached to three Christmas hymns, most often to Fit porta Christi pervia, with both the text and music demonstrating a high degree of similarity. Accounting for its longevity as a refrain, the text of Fulget dies (the day shines forth . . . this day shines forth) exhibits both poetic brevity and flexibility to engage with any number of theological cycles from daily rituals to the cycles of seasons.

Works: Anonymous: Iam lucis orto sidere (91-97, 114-16, 120-23, 138, 141-42), A solis ortus cardine (107-11, 120, 126-27, 133-25, 142), Nunc sancta nobis spiritus (107-11), O salutaris hostia (117-20, 125), Matrem per integerrimam (117-20), Ordinarius Stringoniensis (122), Deus tuorum militum (125-26), Enixa est puerpera (126-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (126-32), Venez vos gens chantez Noé (132); Willaert: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32, 142-43); Orlando di Lasso: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32)

Sources: Anonymous: Fulget dies from tropes on Benedicamus Domino (91-144), A solis ortus cardine (126)

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The three pasticci that debuted at the Theater nächst der Burg in Vienna in 1750, Andromeda liberata, Euridice, and Armida placata, were created as a result of complex interactions among librettists, performers, and many composers who borrowed and adapted music from Vienna and beyond. These three works were the only pasticci to appear at the Theater under the direction of Rocco Lo Presti during a short-lived resurgence of opera seria in Vienna. Between them, there are twenty-three borrowed arias composed between 1734 and 1750 (twenty of which have been identified). Local composer Georg Christoph Wagenseil probably coordinated the music in all three pasticci with various local librettists providing new text. Many of the borrowed arias were included by way of the singers who had performed them in other theaters, were associated with the original productions, or had access to prints of the arias. Two of Johann Adolph Hasse’s arias borrowed in Euridice show no connection to the local singers, but instead come from older operas that had been adapted and staged in Vienna decades prior. Andromeda liberata contains the highest proportion of borrowed arias, with some arias even appearing without any text changes. As a rule, however, the texts were rewritten, preserving the verse structure but changing the content, sometimes quite drastically. The musical changes are by comparison more difficult to ascertain, as complete scores for some sources exist in multiple versions or are missing entirely. In most cases, arias are unchanged if they are associated with a particular singer. Some arias were transposed or melodically adjusted to fit the range of the new singer. Arias by Girolamo Abos sung by Maria Masucci were recomposed to emphasize her apparent technical ability, with repeated coloratura passages and longer ritornellos. These pasticci were created as a result of historically contingent and pragmatic decisions dependent on the music and musicians available to Lo Presti’s theater.

Works: Georg Chrisoph Wagenseil (music coordinator): Andromeda liberata (11-13, 16-17, 19-21), Euridice (15, 17, 19-21), Armida placata (11, 13, 18, 21-22)

Sources: Baldassare Galuppi: Evergete (11, 13, 20); Georg Christoph Wagenseil: La clemenza di Tito (11); Johann Adolph Hasse: Arminio (12), Semiramide riconosciuta (13), Il natal di Giove (12, 16, 19-20), Attilio Regolo (12, 17-18), Il Sesostrate (15), Gerone tiranno di Siracusa (15); Niccolò Jommelli: Ezio (13, 18, 21), Merope (13, 19-21); Domenico Sarro: Ezio (13); Andrea Bernasconi: Bajazet (13); George Frideric Handel: Arianna in Creta (13, 20); Girolamo Abos: Pelopida (13, 21-22), Arianne e Teseo (13, 17)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Satie’s score for Parade is regarded as an important work of early avant-garde modernism, reflecting a collaborative artistic endeavor involving Cocteau, Picasso, Diaghilev, Massine, and Satie, and helping to spawn the development of minimalism. This work attracted considerable attention in Paris, and its appropriation of cinema and jazz into the musical fabric of the work demonstrates Satie’s fascination with American culture. The “Ragtime du Paquebot” at the end of the second movement demonstrates rhythmic modeling from Irving Berlin’s 1912 popular song That Mysterious Rag. This intentional imitative gesture invited complaints of plagiarism. Other instances of Satie’s thematic borrowings are observed his melodic and orchestral quotations of Stravinsky and Debussy in the cabaret tunes and circus music themes in the third movement, “Acrobates.” These borrowing attempts, however, are mocking in nature. All the artists involved in this collaboration characteristically adopted a creatively defiant stance against tradition and convention. Satie rejected the adherence to a defined school of artistic or aesthetic thought, and his style of modern simplicity pervades the entire work. In spite of many criticisms, Parade was lauded for its stylistic innovation and departure from traditional forms and conventions. It is viewed as the culmination of avant-garde artistic expression and demonstrated a modernistic approach to creativity.

Works: Satie: Parade.

Sources: Irving Berlin: That Mysterious Rag (12).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Merce Cunningham’s early choreography, particularly his collaborations with John Cage and fascination with the music of Erik Satie, demonstrates an interdependence of life and work as well as a marriage between music and dance that are fundamental to understanding his modernist divorce of choreography from music and narrative. The first Cage-Cunningham collaboration, Credo in Us (1942), reflects Cage’s unhappy marriage and blames the bourgeois conventions of American society and their insistence on maintaining the appearance of a happy heterosexual marriage. Cage’s score suggests this with a dismissive call for bourgeois favorites “Beethoven, Sibelius, Shostakovich, or whatever” to be played on a phonograph. Other early Cunningham choreographies, including Cage collaboration Four Walls and his Revivalist solo for Appalachian Spring, also deal with themes of marriage and exhibit clear relationships between dance and music. As Cunningham’s choreography began to meaningfully diverge from its accompanying music, his settings of Satie’s music and collaborations with Cage—for example, Idyllic Song (1944) choreographed to Satie’s Socrate—were still thematically “married” to the music and linked to Cunningham’s erotic dance. When Cage and Cunningham worked to choreograph the remainder of Socrate in 1969 as Second Hand, Satie’s publisher refused performance rights for Cage’s arrangement. Instead, Cage composed a derivative work, Cheap Imitation, that preserved the meter, rhythms, and at times intervallic distance of Socrate while transposing the pitches by consulting the I Ching. The new score was not entirely generated by this procedure, however, as there are clear instances of Cage composing in musical cues for Cunningham’s dance. This relationship between dance and music is clearly different from other Cunningham works such as Split Sides (2003), produced after Cage’s death, in which the dance is entirely independent from the music. Although Cage and Cunningham remained for the most part silent about their sexuality and relationship, analyzing the formal structures of their professional collaborations in light of their personal relationship helps to reveal a fuller understanding of the couple’s life and work.

Works: John Cage (composer) and Merce Cunningham (choreographer): Credo in Us (448-51), Idyllic Song (456, 484-90), Second Hand (496-508); John Cage: Cheap Imitation (496-508); Merce Cunningham (choreographer): Septet (490-94), Split Sides (509-11)

Sources: Erik Satie: Socrate (456, 484-508), Trois morceaux en forme de poire (490-94); Sigur Rós: ba ba ti ki di do (509-11); Radiohead (Colin Greenwood, Jonny Greenwood, Ed O’Brian, Philip Selway, Thom Yorke): Untitled (509-11)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The practice in Leipzig of interpolating Laudes into the Magnificat at Christmas extends from the early 17th through the first quarter of the 18th century. The so-called "Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest" of early 18th-century Leipzig provenance actually consists of four Laudes , whose surviving parts indicate they were available for interpolation into Magnificat settings in two keys. Because an anonymous early 18th-century Leipzig Magnificat and Bach's Magnificat in E-flat call for interpolation of four Laudes to the same text as those in the "Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest," it was perhaps customary in Leipzig at this time to interpolate Laudes to these texts into the Magnificat at Christmas.

Works: Johann Andreas Kuhnau: Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest (82-87, 92, 93); Anonymous: Magnificat à 4 in D major (87-89); Johann Sebastian Bach: Magnificat à 5 in E-flat major (89-93).

Sources: Martin Luther: Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her; Anonymous: Freut euch und jubiliert, Gloria in excelsis Deo; Paul Eber [attrib.]: Virga Jesse floruit.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

The chaconnes in Bach's unaccompanied Violin Partita in D minor, Beethoven's Thirty-Two Variations in C minor for piano, and the finale of Brahms's Symphony No. 4 in E minor are similar in many respects. Bach's Partita was not published until twenty years after Beethoven's death, thus it was impossible for Beethoven to have known Bach's work. Brahms, on the other hand, having transcribed the Bach chaconne for piano left hand and practiced Beethoven's Thirty-two Variations, borrowed the themes from both Bach and Beethoven and incorporated them in the finale of his Symphony No. 4. A comparison of the treatment of meter, accents, harmonic structure, rhythmic movements, paired variations, ostinato, tetrachord, rondo form, contrapuntal devices, and sequences well illustrates the differences and similarities among the three composers in applying the old Baroque chaconne form, and the various degree of departure they made from the tradition.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (69-72).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Violin Partita No. 2 in D Minor, BWV 1004 (64-66); Beethoven: Thirty-Two Variations on an Original Theme in C Minor for Piano, WoO 80 (67-69).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Brahms wished to emulate his models, and after Schumann lamented that the piano sonata was in decline, he published three forays into the genre. Hummel was a friend of Beethoven and a brilliant improvisor and composer, and his Sonata in F-sharp Minor was well known and admired by Schumann, which made him an ideal model for Brahms. Hummel’s layered (though not quite contrapuntal) pianistic texture can be seen in the three-stave section of Brahms’s own F-sharp Minor Sonata. Brahms’s Scherzo, Op. 4, also has a similar melody to the scherzo from Hummel’s Piano Quintet, Op. 87, and it employs flat sixth chords in a similar way as well. Additionally, in his Sonata, Op. 2, Brahms employs direct quotation in several places, a reworked version of the opening passage of Hummel’s Sonata, and contrapuntal passages in the finale similar to those in Hummel’s sonata. Both pieces also employ prominent harmonic and melodic movement by thirds. The motives used in Brahms’s “developing variations” in the piece are similar to the improvisatory motives in Hummel’s. The similarity in structure of the two pieces goes beyond the basic sonata form to the ways in which they stretch the traditional system.

Works: Brahms: Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 2 (133-38, 142-56), Scherzo, Op. 4 (138-42).

Sources: Johann Nepomuk Hummel: Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 81 (133-38, 142-56), Piano Quintet, Op. 87 (138-42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although Ives's writings discuss concepts of sardonic wit in composition, his songs reveal a wide range of expression of humor, which became more complex over the course of his career. His humorous compositions can be categorized into at least four categories: parody, whimsical reminiscence, philosophical humor, and exaggerated insignificance. Ives's techniques of humor often do not rely on musical borrowing, but rather from outlandish performance directions, general stylistic allusions, or incongruous juxtapositions of styles. Nonetheless, musical borrowing can contribute to the humor.

Works: Ives: The Side Show (125, 129-31).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Borrowing and adapting were cornerstones of Bach's compositional process. He not only borrowed music and ideas from other composers but also revisited his own works, using them in different contexts. Borrowings from different media and simple revisions or re-workings, especially in the keyboard works, are two distinct practices. An intentional re-use of an existing phrase, theme, section, movement, or work constitutes a borrowing; unintentional quotations or accidental allusions should be considered mere resemblances. Extensive tables with commentary consider borrowings arranged by media: keyboard to keyboard, keyboard to cantata, chamber music to cantata, and the like. Part I of the book covers self-borrowings, while Part II consists of borrowings from others. The datings used are those of Schmieder and Besseler. Dürr and Dadelsen's work on chronology is noted when it is significantly different from Schmieder, thus affecting the source-borrowing relationship.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The exclusive right of the artist to the benefits that accrue from his or her intellectual property is a characteristic of modern culture. Borrowing is a common phenomenon, and exists in three types: (1) self-borrowing, or use of themes from one piece in another; (2) borrowing which is done as an obvious tribute or burlesque of the original, and (3) unacknowledged borrowing. Modern sensitivities consider this latter type of borrowing to be outright theft. The eighteenth century acknowledged but did not condemn this type of borrowing.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The 1628 wedding festivities in Parma of Duke Odoardo Farnese and Margherita de' Medici of Florence set the stage for a rich environment of competition and debate between Sigismondo d'India and Claudio Monteverdi. In trying to win favor for this celebratory event, d'India presented two laments, the Lamento d'Armida and the Lamento di Didone, to the impresario for the Parma festivities, Marquis Enzo Bentivoglio, which bear a marked resemblance to Monteverdi?s Lamento d'Arianna. The extant Lamento di Didone is characterized by a number of the same rhetorical, topological, and musical tropes as Monteverdi's famous lament. D'India failed to secure the commission, which was offered to Monteverdi instead, most likely because of his daring musical language. D'India's musical conservatism and adherence to an older courtly convention based on Monteverdi in his laments demonstrate a failure to recognize current tastes, whereas Monteverdi had clearly progressed beyond his earlier works, demonstrating a more innovative treatment of the lament and winning favor in Parma at the 1628 festivities.

Works: Sigismondo d?India: Il lamento di Didone (36-44).

Sources: Monteverdi: Il lamento d?Arianna (40-43).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

As a well-constructed song, Cole Porter's What Is This Thing Called Love? became a popular source tune for jazz musicians. James P. Johnson's 1930 recording displays stride and boogie-woogie patterns, and only slightly modifies the chord progression. More drastic alterations are exhibited by Clifford Brown and Sonny Rollins in their 1956 recording with the Max Roach Quartet. In this case, the tune was highly ornamented and expanded, non chord-tones were emphasized during solos, and the tempo was twice as fast as prior versions. Brief analyses of treatments by Sidney Bechet, James "Bubber" Miley, Ella Fitzgerald, John Hardee, Bill Evans, Marian MacPartland, and Thad Jones attest to the variety of ways in which jazz musicians developed different perspectives on What Is This Thing Called Love?

Works: Porter: What Is This Thing Called Love?

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

C. P. E. Bach’s final composition, C. P. E. Bachs Empfindungen, a chamber sonata arrangement of his Free Fantasia in F-sharp Minor, Wq. 67/H. 200, can be understood through the philosophies of sympathy posed by Bach’s contemporaries. This reading emphasizes the added violin as an integral figure in the work: the sympathetic reader. Across disciplines, notions of sympathy can be described as a “common thought pattern” in eighteenth-century Germany, and Bach’s own writings suggest he was at least familiar with these ideas as they related to his music. While Bach’s solo fantasias had the character of intimate diary entries, the accompanied sonata was a genre that favored sociability. This can be seen musically in how the violin interacts with the keyboard in Empfindungen. The keyboard part remains basically unchanged from the solo Fantasia for the majority of Empfindungen while the violin sympathetically reinforces the harmonic motion and motives, never duplicating the keyboard part. Empfindungen proceeds to adapt another Bach sonata for its conclusion, the unpublished Sonata in B-flat, Wq. 65.45/H. 212. Throughout the work, Bach demands a great deal of attention and sympathetic listening between performers, exemplifying his ideas on musical performance expressed in Versuch. The relationship between composer, performers, and audience modeled in Empfindungen not only mirrors ideas of literary sympathy, but also suggests a change in the way composers relate to their public.

Works: Carl Philip Emanuel Bach: C. P. E. Bachs Empfindungen, Wq. 80/H. 536 (22-31)

Sources: Carl Philip Emanuel Bach: Free Fantasia in F-sharp Minor, Wq. 67/H. 300 (22-26), Andenken an den Tod (24-26), Keyboard Sonata in B-flat Major, Wq. 65.45/H. 212 (26-28)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1600s

Within a discussion of Monteverdi's understanding and use of tonality, the two versions of Lamento d'Arianna are singled out as a paradigm case. Monteverdi's Lamento d'Arianna is the only surviving portion of the opera Arianna, written for performance in Mantua in 1608. Sometime in the ensuing years (probably around 1610), Monteverdi arranged the lament for five vocal parts, and this version appears at the opening of his sixth book of madrigals, published in Venice in 1614. A bar-by-bar comparison of the two settings reveals that the five-part version was much more than a mere transcription of the original. Although the monody can be divided quite easily into four sections as marked by the fermatas, Monteverdi expands the music considerably (and modifies the text accordingly) when reworking the lament into a four-madrigal cycle. An analysis of the reworkings notes that the madrigal more fully realizes the tonal implications inherent in the original monody.

Works: Monteverdi: Lamento d'Arianna (165-85).

Sources: Monteverdi: Arianna (165-85).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Peter Maxwell Davies consistently demonstrates an interest in the medieval and Renaissance periods in his compositional output. He begins with material borrowed from works in these periods and through his treatment of that material creates symbolic effects of powerful meaning. In addition to borrowing, Davies also utilizes parody as a compositional device, creating a commentary on the past and the present. In compositions such as Alma Redemptoris Mater and Fantasia on an In Nomine of John Taverner Nos. 1 and 2, the borrowed material is built into the structural framework of the work and therefore is less audible. Shakespeare Music uses the same technique, but fragmentary allusions to the models are occasionally allowed to come through the texture. Parody is employed in the Purcell realizations Fantasia and Two Grounds and Two Pavans,Taverner, and Antechrist. In these compositions borrowed material is used more extensively and can be heard in surface details.

Works: Davies: Fantasia and Two Grounds (12), Two Pavans (12), Taverner (12), Ecce manus tradentis (13), Antechrist (13), Shakespeare Music (13), L'homme armé (14), Revelation and Fall (14), Songs for a Mad King (14), Worldes Blis (14), St. Thomas Wake (15).

Sources: Davies: O Magnum Mysterium (12); Anonymous: Deo confitemini Domini (13); Bull: Pavan (15).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1700s

Understanding Ives's use of borrowed materials demands that one first verify that seemingly quoted materials are in fact there, and from what source they derive. Judgments are difficult to make in many cases because it is impossible to be familiar with all of the music Ives knew. Then the material should be classified according to its structural importance. Some of Ives's quotations are brief and structurally insignificant, others are structurally important within a single movement, and still others serve as unifying factors among movements. Given that many of the tunes Ives used have more than one text, the approach seeking extra-musical "reasons" that Ives quoted one tune or another is less serviceable than the preceding.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The "suture effect," adapted from psychoanalytic theory by Jean-Pierre Oudart, identifies the relationship of the spectator to the chain of signifying images, while also accounting for the subject's connection with the film score. Once becoming aware of the absence of vital information presented visually, the spectator unconsciously closes the gap between the seen and unseen, simultaneously sealing the spectator within the film. Music serves as an off-screen signifier, replacing the absence of corresponding affect, and the spectator is freed to claim the imaged emotion as his own. The film score permits the spectator to impart human depth to the flatness of photographed images by using programmatic music or music which carries off-screen meaning. Hugo Friedhofer's 1946 score for The Best Years of Our Lives draws stylistically from neo-classicism in its employment of numerous leitmotifs; the opening notes of the theme suggest somber memories of war, corresponding directly to the opening intervals of "Taps." Hoagy Carmichael's "Among My Souvenirs" is borrowed as a sentimental relic from the popular songs of the 1930s, as well as "Up a Lazy River" and "Chopsticks."

Works: Hugo Friedhofer: score to The Best Years of Our Lives (27-28, 31-38).

Sources: Taps (32); Traditional: It's Raining, It's Pouring (33); Hoagy Carmichael: Among My Souvenirs (33), Up a Lazy River (35); Antonín Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (33).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Haydn quotes a particular melody on numerous occasions. The melody is found in many sources from central and eastern Europe and is often called "Der Nachtwächter" or "Hajnal." The melody is often quoted by eighteenth-century composers and often appears in Christmas pastorellas as well. Haydn quotes it in Symphony No. 60; Divertimento a nove (Hoboken II/17); Sextet for Horns and Strings in Eb (original versions of H.II/21); the canonic setting of Hagedorn's Wunsch (H.XVIIb/13), Baryton Trio No. 35 (H.XI/35), Piano Sonata in C# minor (H.XVI/36), and Baryton Duo No. 19 (H.XII/19). Other passages in which the melody is quoted by Haydn may well exist. Haydn's characteristic use of folk material is well demonstrated in these works. Eleven versions of the melody as it appears in the sources are given in examples and all the known sources are listed in the appendix.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In considering the origins of the cyclic mass, scholars have suggested both liturgical and aesthetic considerations, although evidence suggests that the mass was liturgically unified before any attempts at musical unification took place. The growth in the popularity of the cantus firmus mass occurred as the popularity of tropes was decreasing, and it possible that the early cantus firmus served as a substitute for a trope, carrying with it a certain degree of meaning or symbolism similar to that of an added trope. Given the choice of cantus firmus in many early English cyclic masses, it appears that many were intended to be associated with the king and certain royal rituals. Following decades of problems plaguing the Papacy, a number of cantus firmus masses written in the mid-fifteenth century, including those with references to military symbolism, were likely written in support of recovering Papal power. With these allusions to current political and religious concerns, it is unlikely that these cyclic masses served purely liturgical purposes.

Works: Dunstable: Missa Rex saeculorum (256); Frye: Missa Flos regalis (256); Driffelde: Missa Eructavit cor meum (256); Anonymous: Missa Veterem hominem (256); Anonymous: Missa caput (256); Dufay: Gloria ad modum tubae (259), Missa Caput (259); Anonymous: Patrem tubula (261, 263, 264); Regis: Missa L'homme armé (262); Tapissier: Eia dulcis/Vale placens (264-5); Dufay: Missa L'homme armé (265), Missa Se la face ay pale (265).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Index Classifications: 1900s

Ignacy Jan Paderewski’s Polish Fantasy, Op. 19 follows the conventions of the piano fantasy genre and one-movement concerto forms. The work contains original folk-inspired themes that borrow characteristics from the Mazur, Krakowiak, and Oberek Polish folk dances, which can be identified throughout the work. Particularly, the theme from the rondo section shares similar rhythmic patterns and melodic direction as the Krakowiak melody Albośmy to jacy tacy. The rhythmic pattern of the Mazur can also be found in other works by Paderewski, such as the third piece of his from Dances Polonaises, Op. 9. A comparison with Chopin’s Mazurkas and the Piano Concerto in E Minor, Op. 11, demonstrates how stylistic allusions from Polish folk dances can be incorporated into original themes.

Works: Ignacy Jan Paderewski: Polish Fantasy, Op. 19.

Sources: Anonymous: Albośmy to jacy tacy (23).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

By the end of the fifteenth century, composers using pre-existing material frequently treated that material as a point of departure rather than as a source on which to base an entire piece. This trend is evident in the group of compositions based on the chanson Allez regrets by Hayne van Ghizeghem. The three known intabulations based on this chanson all carefully follow the model with little structural deviation, although there is a great deal of elaboration in the borrowed melodic material. In the five chansons based on Allez regrets, each begins with a literal quotation from the superius and tenor of the model. Throughout the remainder of the new pieces, one voice is borrowed from the original and the others are freely composed, resulting in a greater amount of experimentation with the existing material than was found in the intabulations. Five known masses are based on Allez regrets, and employ a variety of techniques in using the borrowed material, including quotation, paraphrase, cantus firmus, and use of melodic material as points of imitation. These varying usages result in a wide range of resemblance to the model, and point to the potential of Allez regrets for use in many compositional contexts.

Works: Capirola: A les regres (165-68); Gerle: Ales regres (165-68); Kleber: Ales regres (165-68); Agricola: Allez regrets (169); Anonymous: Allez regrets (169); Organi: Allez regrets (170); Senfl: Allez regrets (170); Compère: Venes regretz (170-71), Missa Allez regrets (172-73); Bruhier: Missa Carminum (172); Anonymous: Missa Allez regrets (172); Prioris: Missa Allez regrets (172); Josquin: Missa Allez regrets (173-74); Scompianus: Missa Allez regrets (175).

Sources: Ghizeghem: Allez regrets.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Mozart’s quotations of three opera buffa melodies in the Tafelmusik scene of Don Giovanni are generally understood to be jokes for his audience and colleagues. However, if the quotations are treated seriously as sources of intertextual meaning, they might serve a greater dramatic purpose than simply giving listeners the delight of recognition. The first quotation comes from Vincente Martin y Soler’s Una cosa rara, an opera with superficial plot similarities to Don Giovanni. Specifically, Mozart quotes the chorus from the Act I finale of Cosa rara, which depicts a falsely joyful conclusion, mirroring Don Giovanni’s premature dinner celebration. The next quotation comes from Giuseppe Sarti’s Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode, a farcical story of three men vying for the affection of a serving-maid. The quoted aria, “Come un agnello,” comes from one of the suitors (prematurely) boasting about winning the hand of his beloved, much like the ever-cocky Don Giovanni. The opening line of the quoted aria, “Like a lamb which goes to the slaughter,” has been interpreted by previous scholars as referring to Don Giovanni’s conquests, Don Giovanni himself, or (as Steffen Lösel argues) as an allusion to the Last Supper. The final quotation, from Mozart’s own The Marriage of Figaro, comes from Figaro’s aria “Non più andrai,” in which Figaro tells Cherubino his days as an “amorous philanderer” are over, foreshadowing Don Giovanni’s fate. Mozart’s choice to quote his own opera—and to have Leporello recognize the tune—creates what John Kirby describes as a “double rhetorical situation,” inserting Mozart’s compositional persona (if not the man himself) into readings of the opera text. As a unit, the quick transitions between the Tafelmusik quotations reflect Don Giovanni’s shifting musical (and social) identity. They also ironically affirm the opera buffa conventionality before Mozart subverts convention in the next scene. One final function of the Tafelmusik quotations is to blur the line between the world of the opera and the world of the audience, welcoming the audience to engage with the characters and lessons of Don Giovanni on a more personal level.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (8-29)

Sources: Vincente Martin y Soler: Una cosa rara (8-16, 16-19, 25-29); Giuseppe Sarti: Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode (8-16, 19-21 25-29); Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (8-16, 21-25, 25-29)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The musical continuity in Rachmaninoff's Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini represents the culmination of his approach to writing a set of variations explored in his earlier pieces as well as in those of his predecessors. Through such continuity he resolves the stop-and-start method that composers such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms employed in variation writing: the breaks that occur when one variation ends on a cadence and the next one begins at once. Musical continuity in the variation process was not new but was revitalized by Rachmaninoff, who focuses more on the variations as a whole rather than on their individuality. Within such continuity, his variation sets are connected to his models. For example, in the Corelli Variations, the majority of the variations retain the regular phrase structure, similar length, and simplicity of the Folia melody. In the Paganini Rhapsody, Rachmaninoff's use of chromaticism, particularly in the introduction, is a direct reference to the chromatic contrary motion that resolves the augmented-sixth harmony in the penultimate measure of the original Paganini theme.

Works: Rachmaninoff: Variations on a Theme of Chopin, Op. 22 (19-26), Variations on a Theme of Corelli, Op. 42 (26-33), Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 43 (34-205).

Sources: Chopin: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 20 (23-24); Corelli: Violin Sonata, Op 5, No. 12 (30); La Folia melody (30); Paganini: Caprice in A Minor, Op.1, No. 24 (42-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1800s

Four-hand piano transcriptions are arguably the most important medium for the dissemination of concert repertory in the nineteenth century and played a destabilizing role by breaking down the geographic boundaries between public and private spheres of music. Before the recording era, piano transcriptions were the primary means of disseminating concert music and four-hand transcriptions in particular struck a balance between practicality and verisimilitude. Advocates of the medium praised it as the ideal way to understand and personally connect with the music while detractors lamented the piano’s limited timbre. Arrangers took different approaches to adapting orchestral textures to the piano. Carl Czerny’s arrangement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony strictly adheres to the orchestral doubling and range of the Beethoven’s score while Hugo Ulrich drastically pares down the texture. Additionally, there were many critical debates over which composers could and could not be faithfully translated to four-hand piano. Contemporary to the four-hand transcription craze, the process of lithography was developed which allowed historical artworks to be similarly reproduced and owned by the masses. Thus, the debates over the aesthetics of the domestication of art extended from music to visual art and largely defined reception histories of the nineteenth century. One understudied aspect of four-hand transcriptions is the effect the practice had on listening habits, particularly as a way for the public to practice dedicated, sustained listening and appreciation for orchestral music that facilitated the Romantic symphonic aesthetic. This, along with the visceral experience of playing four-hand transcriptions, contributed to the breakdown of barriers between the public and private music spheres.

Works: Carl Czerny: le Symphonie en Ut arrangée pour le Piano à quatre mains par ch. Czerny et composée L. Van Beethoven (270-72); Hugo Ulrich: Symphonien von L. Van Beethoven für Pianoforte zu vier Händen arrangirt von Hugo Ulrich (272-75)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (270-75)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The first season of Mitchell Hurwitz’s television sitcom Arrested Development, scored by David Schwartz, extensively uses musical humor that falls into six categories: rendering characters’ personalities, comic Othering, comic seriousness, snarky commentary, hidden cultural references, and diegetic ambiguity. Developing a taxonomy of musical humor reveals the complex role music plays in the show’s comedic tone and the subtlety of Schwartz’s musical comedy. Comedy in general and music comedy in particular are relatively unexplored by scholars. Arrested Development, which ran for three seasons in 2003-2006 before a 2013 revival, offers a case study of musical comedy rife with in-jokes, call-backs, and cultural references catalogued by a dedicated online fanbase. One way music is used for comedic effect is by establishing consistent themes for each character that prompt audiences for their typical style of joke. Another type of comedy the show uses is musical exoticism, often exaggerated or ironically commenting on the tropes of exoticism. For instance, a hodge-podge of “Latin” musics (such as mariachi and Spanish guitar) accompanies the Colombian character Marta, an ironic commentary on other characters’ ignorance about the differences between specific Central and South American cultures. A third comedic effect is juxtaposing serious music (classical, folk, or film noir) with the characters’ ineptitudes. A fourth is that pop songs are frequently used to punctuate situations with overtly literal interpretations of their lyrics. A fifth is the use of music to underscore in-jokes that run throughout the series. Finally, the show often blurs the line between diegetic and non-diegetic music, as in a gag in the pilot where a rimshot is played after a joke (as an apparent nondiegetic stinger) and a character on screen turns to look at the off-screen drummer (as though it were diegetic). The art of musical comedy relies on the clever subversion of expectations, and David Schwartz’s musical contribution to Arrested Development deserves acknowledgement for its artistry.

Works: David Schwartz: score to Arrested Development: Season One

Sources: Captain and Tennille: Love Will Keep Us Together (21, 27); Al Green: Free At Last (21, 27); Irving Berlin: I’m a Bad, Bad Man (21); Leroy: Gonna Get Together (21); Britney Spears: I’m Not That Innocent (21, 27); Europe: Final Countdown (21); Johann Sebastian Bach: Italian Concerto, BWV 971 (24); Arlo Guthrie: Alice’s Restaurant (25); Burt Bacharach and Hal David: Raindrops Keep Falling on My Head (27); Turner Overdrive: Taking Care of Business (28); Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg: Over the Rainbow (29)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Two works titled L'alouette: Or sus vous dormez trop, an anonymous three-part chanson printed by Antico in 1520 and a four-part chanson by Janequin printed by Attaingnant in 1528, share the same text and much musical material. The three-part piece, circulated widely in the early sixteenth century, must have been known to Janequin. Janequin's four-part version has voice crossing problems between the contratenor and superius. It itself may have existed previously as a three-part work, later to be rewritten in haste for Attaingnant's publication. Included in the contratenor of Janequin's four-part work is a quotation of his own Le chant des oyseaux. Through their use of bird-song these pieces bring elements of the popular chanson rustique into the courtly program chanson.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Manuel de Falla’s Homenaje a Debussy functions not only as a tribute to the French composer but also as a tribute to the guitar through its ending quotation of Debussy’s Soirée dans Grenade, prominent habanera rhythm, and scoring for solo guitar. Debussy’s influence on Falla cannot be quantified but can be heard in a number of his pieces. Falla wrote his homage shortly after Debussy’s death and coupled the composition with a tributary article that highlighted Debussy’s compositional talents as well as his connection to Spain and Spanish music. Around this same time, Falla had recently become interested in the guitar. Having previously turned down requests from friend and guitarist Miguel Llobet to compose a piece for the instrument, Falla saw an opportunity to satisfy his and his friend’s interests while also paying tribute to Debussy, who was equally fascinated with the Spanish guitar. In addition to writing for solo guitar, Falla links Debussy to the instrument and to Spain by using harmonies common to the Andalusian tuning of the guitar. Homenaje a Debussy makes prominent use of the habanera rhythm, which Debussy used frequently in his Spanish-inspired pieces. Falla’s quotation of Soireé dans Grenade reinforces Debussy’s musical connection to Spain.

Works: Manuel de Falla: Homenaje a Debussy.

Sources: Debussy: Soirée dans Grenade (5).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

The discovery of Beethoven's précis and analysis of the Kyrie fugue from Mozart's Requiem on a sketchleaf containing a draft for the Credo fugue Et vitam venturi of the Missa Solemnis on the reverse side raises the question, whether Beethoven used this piece as a model for his fugue. The following findings reinforce the assumption of a close connection: (1) Beethoven most probably made the Mozart copy during his work on the Credo and Gloria portions of the Mass. (2) The Gloria subject features similarities of gesture (with Mozart's countersubject) and presentation (with Mozart's subject, first in the bass). (3) Like the Mozart example, the Credo fugue is a double fugue. (4) The pairing of subject and countersubject in the Credo exposition involves the same voices. (5) Like Mozart, Beethoven makes extensive use of the compound 4/4 meter in his Gloria.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Tony Britten’s 2008 television adaptation of Verdi’s Falstaff reconfigures the opera into a British situation comedy, a radical treatment that suggests a new path for opera films as transformation through remediation. While performances of operas are not a new phenomenon, they tend to capitalize on television’s aesthetic. Britten’s adaptation, however, strips Falstaff of nearly all of its operatic signifiers with its cast of non-opera singers and Britten’s updated English libretto and chamber arrangements of the score. In a context of British television, Falstaff, a television actor in Britten’s adaptation, reads as a familiar kind of sitcom character embodied by Tony Hancock of Hancock’s Half-Hour (1956-60) or more recently David Brent of The Office (2001-3). An example of the changes Britten makes to Verdi’s score is the removal of the textual return at the end of Falstaff’s aria Quand’ero paggio, which minimizes its operatic conventionality. Verdi’s mannered musical style associated with Fontana is justified in Britten’s film through the cinematic trope of the Godfather; Fontana’s overly Italianate scoring is rendered televisually with Italian mobster stereotypes. Britten’s television opera concept works particularly with Falstaff, as it highlights the unique strengths of Verdi’s score. Britten’s chamber arrangement—pared down to nine players and no core string section—still captures Verdi’s textures and mannerisms. The discontinuities and speech-like patter in Verdi’s score are readily adapted into the fast-paced medium of television. Although not all operas would benefit from Britten’s approach to televisual realism, the novelty of his remediation of Falstaff could serve as a model for opera adaptation in the digital age.

Works: Tony Britten (director and arranger): score to Falstaff (486-513)

Sources: Giuseppe Verdi: Falstaff (486-513)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Fantasia uses pre-existing classical music as the subject of animation that demonstrates three types of music: program music, music that does not have a plot but paints pictures, and absolute music. The film is an example of Disney's imagineering (engineering and imagination), in which images and stories add meaning to the abstract music. Images in the film create a familiar narrative to describe unfamiliar music to middle-class audiences. The structure of The Rite of Spring was modified to fit the narrative of the animators, and the narrative itself is not one intended by Stravinsky. Fantasia can be understood as an effort to construct ideologies of current social positions and behaviors through imagineering of the music, as seen in the animation for Beethoven's Symphony No. 6.

Works: Walt Disney (producer): Sound track to Fantasia.

Sources: J. S. Bach (arranged by Leopold Stokowski): Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (92-96); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (97-98); Beethoven: Symphony No. 6 in F Major (Pastorale) (99-105).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

In 1904 or 1905, Frederick Delius composed his Mass of Life (with a text from Nietzsche's Also sprach Zarathustra), that is compared with several other works of that time, especially Mahler's Veni Creator and Bruckner's Te Deum. The article is the result of the author's "reminiscence hunting" and presents the findings as a series of personal reactions to Delius's work rather than in a systematic order. They concern "family resemblances" of content and style, including correspondeces of the dramatic layout.

Works: Delius: Mass of Life; Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra,Elektra; Bruckner: Te Deum; Mahler: Veni Creator, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 8, Das Lied von der Erde; Wagner: Tristan.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Similar to some occasional motets of the fourteenth century that celebrate specific historical figures, three motets from the same period draw on the liturgical context of their borrowed tenors to refer to identifiable women. The borrowed tenors of these motets are drawn from the chants for virgin martyrs, specifically Saint Agnes and Saint Lucy. This use of non-Marian Sanctorale material in motet tenors is common for works that honor a living individual, often the namesake of the chant’s textual subject and named in the text of the upper voices. Unlike other motets of this tradition where the upper voices are Latin-texted, these three motets combine French amatory texts with their tenors, creating a hybrid genre between Latin motet and French ballade. These texts (in the voice of a male) interact with the chant text (in the voice of a female) in a way that suggests that they were originally composed as occasional pieces intended to honor a living individual rather than a martyred saint. The geographical and historical evidence suggests that these motets honored Agnès de Navarre and Lucia Bernabò Visconti.

Works: Anonymous: Tant a souttille pointure/Bien pert qu’en moy n’a d’art point/Cuius pulcritudinem sol et luna mirantur (42, 50-56); Anonymous: Se päour d’umble astinance/Diex, tan desir estre amés de m’amour/Concupisco (42, 50-56); Anonymous: L’ardure qu’endure/Tres dous espoir/Ego rogavi Deum, ut ignis iste non dominetur michi/Contratenor (42, 56-59).

Sources: Anonymous: Cuius pulcritudinem sol et luna mirantur (51-53); Anonymous: Concupisco (51-53); Anonymous: Ego rogavi Deum, ut ignis iste non dominetur michi (56-57).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

All twelve surviving opera texts that Haydn set to music for Esterházy existed in previous versions by other composers, but La fedeltà premiata (1780) is the only one whose earlier setting, with the title L'infideltà fedele (1779) by Domenico Cimarosa, Haydn apparently knew before attempting to write his own work. Haydn's debt to Cimarosa is not great, apart from sharing the almost identical libretto. An intertextual approach reveals the incorporation of elements of the pastoral genre of the later sixteenth-century, while an unsuspected connection between the "coro di furie" from Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) and the second-act finale of La fedeltà premiata proves to be much more significant. Haydn uses the tonality, the chromaticism, and the sarabande rhythm articulated by Gluck's furies, while also evoking the austerity of the scene. This parody of Gluck's Orfeo is contrasted with an interpolated section employing Gypsy music or the "style hongrois," which provides a clash between the buffa and seria opera styles. This clash is further reflected in the second-act finale's almost tragic character within the pastoral and opera buffa world of La fedeltà premiata. By quoting from Gluck's famous opera, which would certainly be recognized by his knowledgeable audience at Esterházy, Haydn provides a commentary between texts, and through the juxtaposition of different styles he reveals the comic character behind this apparently serious finale.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

The production of printed stock arrangements of jazz music in the 1920s and 1930s has typically been downplayed in jazz history compared to improvisation, but it is no less important to the dissemination of jazz. Stock arranger Archie Bleyer is remembered by black and white musicians alike as producing some of the finest jazz stocks of the era. By the late 1920s, stock arrangements produced by large publishing houses had developed a consistent formula and allowed dance bands to quickly incorporate new popular tunes into their repertoire. Bleyer, who went on to have a long industry career as a bandleader and arranger, produced many influential stock arrangements and is credited with being one of the first arrangers to regularly add sixths to chord voicings. His stock arrangement of Business in F, an original composition, exemplifies his incorporation of stylistic elements from both black and white jazz bands. His stock for Maceo Pinkard and Mitchell Parrish’s Is That Religion was another popular selection recorded by several different bands. In his arrangement, Bleyer adapts the faux-gospel Tin Pan Alley song into a hot jazz orchestration, adding spaces for solos and syncopated riffs. The three recordings of Is That Religion by Billy Cotton, Duke Ellington, and Cab Calloway realize the same arrangement in radically different ways, again highlighting the dynamic relationship between arrangement and improvisation in early jazz music.

Works: Archie Bleyer (arranger): Is That Religion? (153-58)

Sources: Maceo Pinkard and Mitchell Parrish: Is That Religion (153-58)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Although the French quadrille of the 1830s and 1840s has often received censure for its limited expressive qualities and aesthetically detrimental arrangements, the dance was a critical nexus in Parisian musical life, connecting the worlds of "high" and "low" culture and often serving as the public's first point of contact with operas. With the standardization of the form of the quadrille around 1820, it began to receive criticism for the mechanical quality of the dancing it supported. Although some attacked the genre's poor arrangements, the quadrille both directly and indirectly could benefit the operas from which it drew tunes. Quadrilles did not always destroy the music they borrowed; French composers typically did not use irregular phrases or rhythms, and melodies such as Auber's often are readily suited to dance arrangement. Furthermore, although quadrilles could break up the narrative of the opera from which melodies were drawn, often the sheet music covers or performances might allude to or seek to recreate the narrative of the original.

Works: Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Tolbecque: Pantalon from Guillaume Tell (520), La Muette de Portici (520-22); Louis Antoinie Jullien: La Muette de portici (522-23), Les Huguenots (523).

Sources: Auber: La Muette de Portici (520, 523).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

A comparison of several intabulations of Josquin's Mille regretz explains why Narváez's version is still the best known. Josquin's chanson is particularly apt for instrumental performance because of its points of imitation, use of themes and sequences, and rich contrast of textures. Several intabulations for lute show the wide range of styles from bland to highly ornamented versions. The frequent use of running sixteenth or thirty-second notes in the intabulations by Gerle and Neusidler, for example, show their intent to stimulate rather than satisfy the listener. Other intabulations were written for a more practical or theoretical purpose. For example, the intabulations found in MS 266 and MS 272 from the Bavarian State Library in Munich follow the vocal model more closely and show a greater sensitivity to the original texture. Narváez's intabulation of the chanson remains the finest because of several strong characteristics: a greater harmonic interest, rhythmically independent lines, and a textural complexity. His intabulation also uses motives that are repeated until they become an integral part of the original music. Narváez's creative exploration of harmony, rhythm, texture and motives shows his superior skills as an intabulator.

Works: Intabulations of Mille regretz by Gerle, Neusidler, Narváez, Phalèse, Intabulations of Mille regretz from MS 266 and MS 277, Bavarian State Library, Munich (32-52).

Sources: Josquin: Mille regretz (20-22).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1300s

Since 1945, musical quotation of European classical music, opera in particular, has become a significant trend in contemporary American art song as exemplified by the works of William Bolcom, Tom Cipullo, and Benjamin C. Moore. Bolcom’s George, from volume 2 of his Cabaret Songs, tells the story of a drag performer who is murdered while singing Un bel di from Puccini’s Madama Butterfly. Throughout the song, Bolcom quotes Un bel di three times in the voice and piano, with the final quotation harmonized as a rich, dissonant lament. In his song Another Reason Why I Don’t Keep a Gun in the House, which deals with the frustration of a neighbor’s constantly-barking dog, Cipullo quotes several Beethoven symphonies—including the Eroica funeral march and Ode to Joy—in presenting its facetious revenge fantasy. Moore’s Content to be Behind Me satirizes the rivalry between singers and accompanists by juxtaposing quotations of Schubert’s lied Die Forelle with Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto, a much more interesting piece for the pianist. Sexy Lady (for mezzosoprano) and I’m Glad I’m Not a Tenor (for baritone) both quote several famous arias for soprano and tenor respectively, providing a humorous outlet for their less prestigious voice parts. Each of these examples uses existing music in unexpected ways to connect to audiences increasingly detached from classical music.

Works: William Bolcom: George (282); Tom Cipullo: Another Reason Why I Don’t Keep a Gun in the House (283-84); Benjamin C. Moore: Content to be Behind Me (284-85), Sexy Lady (284-85), I’m Glad I’m Not a Tenor (285-86).

Sources: Puccini: Madama Butterfly (282), Tosca (285), Turandot (285-86); Beethoven: Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 (283), Symphony No. 3 in E flat Major, Op. 55 (283-84), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (283), Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (283), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (283); Schubert: Die Forelle (284-85); Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 2 in C Minor, Op. 18 (284-85); Handel: Giulio Cesare (284); Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (284); Richard Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier (284-85); Bizet: Carmen (285).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Bartók’s use of Ravel’s “Scarbo” motive as the main folk-like theme in his 1911 piano work Allegro Barbaro, particularly his barbaric transformations of the motive, should be interpreted as a musical joke targeted at French critics. Allegro Barbaro can be considered as a representation of Bartók’s career because it reflects his formal musical training as well as his interest in folk music. Bartók’s education in art music is reflected by the influence of Debussy’s music, whereas his folk influence came from his interaction with the authentic Hungarian folk music that he collected. The first theme in the A section is distinctively composed in a Hungarian folk-like style, and in the B section, the barbaric folk style is dramatically transformed into the French art idiom through Bartók’s borrowing of Debussy’s “Minstrels” motive. This idiosyncratic source of borrowing should be viewed in an ironic and humorous light. Then, the barbaric, folk-like style immediately attempts to reassert its dominance over the French art style throughout the rest of the B section. The returning A section continues this dramatic play, with the French Impressionistic style further emphasized by “planing.” The reassertion of the Hungarian folk style comes immediately with the return of the tonal center of F-sharp.

Generally, Bartók’s quotations can be divided into four groups: the first is one in which Bartók borrows from his predecessors and contemporaries, the second includes programmatic and autobiographical quotations, the third contains humoristic quotations, and the fourth contains shopwork, in which he self-borrows. In Allegro Barbaro, Bartók employs the third group, and he conveys an ironic narrative.

Works: Bartók: Allegro Barbaro, Sz. 49 (165-71).

Sources: Ravel: “Scarbo” from Gaspard de la nuit (165-66, 168-71); Debussy: “Minstrels” from Préludes, Book I (170).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd, Jingyi Zhang

Scholarship on music in The Shining has largely ignored the semiotic richness of the incorporation of modernist musical works, but the historical subtexts of the pieces contribute to a unique Kubrickian approach to horror that relies on more than purely visceral audience response. By exploring congruencies between music and visual elements, certain symmetries come into focus that allow for a broader reading of music in the “Kubrick universe.” During the maze scene, Bartók’s Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta is a temporal phenomenon and is thus not congruous with the four-dimensional maze. Ligeti’s Lontano is used in two instances to accompany scenes of “shining,” but the third instance of its use deflects this established association. The symmetry between the music of Penderecki and the film extends even to the level of musical notation. Ultimately, one could read The Shining as an allegory of literate culture in the face of post-literate culture, represented in part by the use of modernist graphic scores.

Works: Stanley Kubrick (director) and Wendy Carlos (composer): soundtrack to The Shining (133-51).

Sources: Anonymous: Dies irae (131-32, 135); Bartók: Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (134, 136-41); Ligeti: Lontano (136, 141-44); Penderecki: The Awakening of Jacob (144-46), Polymorphia (147).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Index Classifications: 1500s

Musical artists within the Jewish American "hipster" scene (ca. 1986-2006) drew on conventions from rap and hip-hop as a means of negotiating a new Jewish identity. Of the many strategies to draw on the conventions of rap, one common tactic was parody. For instance, parody artist Shlock Rock parodied Aerosmith and Run DMC's Walk This Way (1986) and created Wash This Way, now a song about the Jewish hand-washing ritual. Despite the different lyrics, Shlock Rock's parody borrows vocal inflection, instrumentation, and even attitude. Although humor and parody were common reasons to incorporate rap and hip-hop into Jewish music, the Yeshiva-educated duo Black Hattitude used rap to promote a political and controversial program. Drawing on the stylings of rap, the duo included spoken tracks, took polemical points of view, and sampled artists such as Led Zeppelin. Such music provided a site in which young Jews could simultaneously negotiate a new Jewish identity and preserve and transmit their culture through such change.

Works: Lenny Solomon and Etan Goldman (songwriters), Shlock Rock (performers): Bless On It/Boogie in the Shul [Synagogue] (5), Wash This Way (5); Black Hattitude, R.E.L.I.G.I.O.N (7); Etan G (Etan Goldman): South Side of the Synagogue (8).

Sources: Newcleus: Jam On It/Boogie in the Club (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Aerosmith (performers): Walk This Way (5); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry (songwriters), Run DMC (performers): Walk This Way (5); Led Zeppelin (Jimmy Page, Robert Plant, John Bonham, and John Paul Jones) and Willie Dixon: Whole Lotta Love (7, endnote 11); Peter Gabriel: Sledgehammer (7, endnote 11); Lenny Solomon (songwriter), Shlock Rock (performers): Yo Yo Yo Yarmulke (8), Recognize the Miracles (8).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Index Classifications:

In Thomas Weelkes's first madrigal book, Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6 Voyces (London, 1597), the five- and six-voice works borrow both text and music from Salamone Rossi's Primo libro delle canzonette a tre voci of 1589. Numbers 13 through 18 of Weelkes's madrigal book clearly borrow from numbers 7, 6, 2, 11, 15, and 19 of Rossi's book respectively. From Rossi, Weelkes primarily borrows thematic points, melodic contours, rhythms, and textures for use in his own compositions. For example, in Weelkes's No. 16, Lady, our spotless feature, the homophonic texture and chanson-like rhythm of Rossi's No. 11, Donna, il vostro bel viso, are clearly present in the work's opening. These borrowings show a progression of maturity on the part of the English composer. Numbers 16 and 13 demonstrate a dependence on the model and unimaginative solutions, while numbers 15 and 17 reset the derived ideas more convincingly, and numbers 14 and 18 clearly show that Weelkes has not only fully mastered the borrowed material but also surpassed his model. Moreover, his later Italian version of Donna, il vostro bel viso in his Ayeres or Phantasticke Spirites for Three Voices of 1608 shows a dependency on his own English version of the text from 1597 rather than a direct relationship with Rossi's original. Weelkes's reuse of Rossi's canzonette demonstrates a progressive compositional maturity in his manipulation of borrowed material, culminating in a reworking of his earlier attempts at modeling.

Works: Thomas Weelkes: Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6. Voyces (110-17), Lady, your spotless feature (111), Your beauty it allureth (111), Those sweet delightful lilies (112), If thy deceitful looks (113), What haste, fair lady (113), Ayeres or Phantasticke Spirites for Three Voices (115-17), Donna, il vostro bel viso (115), I bei ligustri e rose (115).

Sources: Salamone Rossi: Primo libro delle canzonette a tre voci (110-17), Donna, il vostro bel viso (111); Thomas Weelkes: Madrigals to 3. 4. 5. &6. Voyces (115-17)), Lady, your spotless feature (115).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker, Elizabeth Elmi

Index Classifications: 1400s

Video games can capitalize on the popularity of source music through the subject or narration of a game, including a popular musician as composer for the game, and licensing popular music for the soundtrack. One of the ways that video game publishers can offset monetary risks is to use well-known intellectual property such as films, music, and musicians and actors. In the case of the audio in video games, this intellectual property could be a well-known voice talent, sound designers, or popular music.

Games with music as the subject or part of the narration, such as PaRappa the Rapper and Guitar Hero have been popular overall with players. These types of games can be divided into three categories: creative games, rhythm-action games (both categories in which music is the primary part of gameplay), and musician-themed games, where musicians or bands appear as characters. Many popular musicians were also involved in the soundtracks for other more general games, as well as recording or rerecording songs for games. Even more popular is to simply license popular music for use in video games. Earlier video games were not as concerned with the music tracks, as they were difficult and time-consuming to program, so many of these games made use of classical music. Once the environment changed and creators needed to address issues of copyright and licensing, there was a stronger tie to the musicians whose music they were borrowing, including cross-media promotions and the sale of game soundtracks. Oftentimes the musicians whose songs are featured gain a boost of popularity from the game.

Works: Milton Bradley (manufacturer): Simon (36); SCEI (manufacturer): PaRappa the Rapper (36); Red Octane and Harmonix (manufacturers): Guitar Hero (36, 38); Atari (manufacturer): Journey’s Escape (37); Midway (manufacturer): Revolution X (37); Sega (manufacturer): Michael Jackson’s Moonwalker (37); Acclaim (manufacturer): Summer Heat Beach Volleyball (37); Vivendi (manufacturer): 50 Cent: Bulletproof (37); Codemasters (manufacturer): Music Generator (38); Harmonix (manufacturer): Frequency (38), Amplitude (38); Nintendo (manufacturer): Donkey Konga (38); Namco (manufacturer): Taiko Drum Master (38); Konami (manufacturer): Dance Dance Revolution (38); Time Warner Interactive (manufacturer): Rise of the Robots (38); id Software (manufacturer): Quake (38-39); SCEE (manufacturer): Wipeout Pure (39); Nintendo (manufacturer): Donkey Kong (40); Atari (manufacturer): Crystal Castles (40); Centuri (manufacturer): Vanguard (40); Sega (manufacturer): Dracula Unleashed (41); DTMC (manufacturer): Adventures of Dr. Franken (41); Blizzard (manufacturer): Rock’N’Roll Racing (41); Psygnosis (manufacturer): Wipeout XL (41); EA Sports (manufacturer): Madden NFL 2003 (41), FIFA 2006 (42); Neversoft (manufacturer): Tony Hawk’s American Wasteland (42); Reflective (manufacturer): Driver: Parallel Lines (42); Sony (manufacturer): SingStar (43).

Sources: Journey: Escape (37), Frontiers (37); Aerosmith: Eat the Rich (37), Sweet Emotion (37), Toys in the Attic (37), Rag Doll (37), Walk this Way (37); Michael Jackson: Thriller (37), Bad (37); Deep Purple: Smoke on the Water (38); Megadeth: Symphony of Destruction (38); Brian May: The Dark (38); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (40), Nutcracker Suite (40); Liszt: Mephisto Waltz (40); Anonymous: Turkey in the Straw (40); Scott Joplin: Maple Leaf Rag (40); Queen: “Vultan’s Theme” from Flash Gordon (40); Deep Purple: Highway Star (41); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (“Moonlight”) (41); Carl Orff: Carmina Burana (41); George Thorogood: Bad to the Bone (41); Steppenwolf: Born to be Wild (41); Black Sabbath: Paranoid (41); Good Charlotte: The Anthem (41); Selasee: Run (42).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Humor and programmatic effect are the two primary reasons for Debussy's musical borrowings. Debussy draws his borrowed material from classical music, popular songs, and national anthems. These points are illustrated through detailed analyses of pieces in which Debussy incorporates national anthems.

Works: Chabrier: Souvenirs de Munich (20); Debussy: "Golliwog's Cake-walk" from Children's Corner (20), "La Boite à joujoux," from Images oubliées (20), "Jardins sous la pluie" from Estampes (20), "Rondes de printemps" from Images (20), 9th Prelude (Book II) (20), Berceuse heroique (20, 22-23), En blanc et noir (second piece) (20, 23-26), "Feux d'artifice" from Préludes, Book II (21); Fauré: Fantasie en forme de quadrille sur des motifs du Ring (20); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (20); Clementi: Symphony No. 3 in G Major, "Great National Symphony" (21).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (20); Mendelssohn: "Wedding March" from Midsummer Night's Dream (20); Arne: God Save the King (20-22); Campenhout, François van: "Brabançonne" (20, 22-23); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (21-22, 24, 26); Luther: Ein feste Burg (24-25); Haydn: Symphony in G Major, Hob. I:100, "Military" (24)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

[from AG's dissertation: "According to Conati, Verdi saw both Milan productions of Robert le diable, modeling portions of Macbeth (1847) and possibly Giovanna d' Arco (1845) on Meyerbeer's work, whether in certain touches of instrumentation, the role of the grotesque, or abandoning of formal conventions in some places."]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Schubert's last three piano sonatas, composed during the summer of 1828, borrow from or are modeled on works by Beethoven. Schubert may have been insecure about this particular musical form and subsequently turned to Beethoven's works for help. Detailed examples of Schubert rondos that may have been modeled on Beethoven rondos support this hypothesis.

Works: Schubert: Sonata in C Minor (780), Sonata in B Flat Major (780), Sonata in A Major (782-86), Rondo in A Major for Piano Duet, Op. 107 (788-93).

Sources: Beethoven: Thirty-two Variations on an Original Theme in C minor, WoO 80 (780), String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 130 (780-82), Piano Sonata No. 16 in G major, Op. 31, No. 1 (782-86), Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor, Op. 90 (788-93).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Stravinsky's use of conventions involves the defeat of the expectations set up by those conventions. The reference to earlier conventions may or may not involve thematic allusions. Pulcinella is based upon borrowed materials while the Symphony in C is not. In the case of the symphony, however, the presentation of the first theme (in its I-II-V sequence) does recall the presentation of the first theme in Beethoven's First Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In examining the composition and performance of musical works, the question of persona is raised: whose persona does the music represent--that of the composer, the performer, or (in the case of vocal music) the character portrayed by the performer? With respect to musical borrowing, the relevant question is: whose voice or persona is speaking in the borrowed material, the original composer's or the borrower's? In the case of self-borrowing by a vocal composer, it is the composer's own voice, rather than that of the poet whose text he or she originally set, that speaks through the borrowed material (p. 41). In an instrumental transcription of a vocal work, the vocal melody retains its original textual associations, thereby preserving the original composer's voice despite the removal of the text (pp. 76-78). When the situation is reversed, as in a popular vocal arrangement of an instrumental classic, the original composer's persona is still felt, as is the case with arrangements of Chopin and Tchaikovsky melodies (p. 45). Concerning the transcription of an existing instrumental work for a new instrumental combination, the integrity of the transcription (its preservation of the original composer's voice) rests on its use of a restricted choice of instrumentation (p. 108). Lastly, folk-tune or anthem borrowings can seem ridiculous if they are too obvious, where the original composer's voice completely overpowers the borrower's persona, disrupting the new piece. Puccini's use of The Star-Spangled Banner in Madama Butterfly is a prime example of this (p. 162).

Works: Brahms: Chaconne in D Minor by J. S. Bach (arranged for piano left hand); Busoni: Chaconne in D Minor by J. S. Bach (arranged for piano); Liszt: Liebestraum No. 3, Sonnets of Petrarch; Puccini: Madama Butterfly ; Webern: Ricercar a 6 voci by J. S. Bach (arr. for orchestra).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

The practice of sound recycling, defined as the repurposing of sonic material, challenges and reconfigures the psychological models used to understand sound perception, Audio Scene Analysis in particular. Auditory Scene Analysis posits that in the perception of auditory information, complex sounds are parsed into segregated streams arising from distinct sources. The track Do While from Oval’s 1995 album 94 diskont provides a case study for discussing how sound recycling works in terms of sound perception. Do While, an example of “deconstruction electronica,” is composed of uncredited borrowed sound material and technological traces of a skipping CD. By using the frameworks of rhizome and assemblage (both adapted from network theory), the borrowed material is recontextualized into new forms. The resulting collage renders acoustic symbols of the medium (CD album) ambiguous. Technological listening, or the awareness of technological process over musical meaning, also affects works like 94 diskont and Vladimir Ussachevsky’s Wireless Fantasy (1960), which alters a recording of Wagner’s Parsifal with the distinctive soundscape of short wave radio. When considered through these frameworks, musical borrowing challenges the model of ASA by introducing a fluid relationship between the awareness of sound and the awareness of the technology mediating sound.

Works: Oval: Do While (159-161); Vladimir Ussachevsky: Wireless Fantasy (161).

Sources: Wagner: Parsifal (161).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Within a wider survey of Beethoven's compositional methods, the author discusses the composer's reworkings of his own previous material (chapter 5, 59-74). Beethoven's distinctive style can be said to derive to a large extent from a stock of musical ideas that recur throughout his work; these may be rhythmic motives and harmonic progressions, or larger-scale tonal patterns and formal devices. Consideration of sketch material is particularly helpful in understanding this, as it shows how many ideas that were initially rejected in one piece would be "salvaged" for the purposes of another. Beethoven tended to borrow in a more detailed fashion from unpublished material, whereas reference to previously published works was usually considerably more general.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 (62), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (62), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (64), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 ("Waldstein") (65), Bagatelle in A-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 7 (66), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (66).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1800s

Arthur Sullivan, had he been free of the repressive Victorian mood, would have been one of Europe's greatest composers. However, the philistine repugnance of the English towards expressed emotion forced him to treat his serious opera aspirations in a farcical manner. Instead of developing his own operatic talents, he relied upon burlesquing or copying other masters including Schubert, Donizetti, and Bellini. This imitation was extended to his serious works, including melodic derivations from Mendelssohn.

Works: Sullivan: The Light of the World (11), Princess Ida (11), The Yeoman of the Guard (11), Ivanhoe (12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

This very general article on Tchaikovsky's symphonies makes note of several instances of borrowing or modeling, especially in terms of quoted folk songs (first and last movement of the Second Symphony) and operatic influences. The latter concern mainly the last three symphonies, including distinctively operatic phrases, repeated climaxes mounting almost to hysteria, sudden brutal interruptions, and others. The finale of the Sixth Symphony may possibly be modeled on the last act of Verdi's Otello, emulating the atmosphere and orchestration of Otello's appearance.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4 (27, 42), Symphony No. 3 (32-33, 255), Symphony No. 2 (33, 35f.), Symphony No. 6 (40), Symphony No. 1 (40, 255).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (27); Folk song: Down by Mother Volga (32); Tchaikovsky: Undine (33, 39), Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Op. 80 (40).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This is the companion volume to Copland: 1900 Through 1942. References to musical borrowings occur throughout the text. Much of the borrowing now focuses on associative connections for film scores. Apart from outright arrangements or music intended for student performers, there are few pieces that incorporate American folksongs past The Tender Land (1954). Much of Copland's borrowing in this period is of stylistic traits rather than direct quotation. Self-borrowing is most common in the later works.

Works: Aaron Copland: The North Star (film score) (15-16), Appalachian Spring (32-33), Variations on a Theme by Goosens (61), The Cummington Story (film score) (62-63), Third Symphony (68-69), Tragic Ground (unfinished) (76, 166-67), The Red Pony (film score) (88-91), The Heiress (film score) (98-107), Old American Songs (166-67), The Tender Land (220-21), Three Latin-American Sketches (273), Dance Panels (275-76), Music for a Great City (333-34), Emblems (343-44), Happy Anniversary (261)

Sources: Song of the Fatherland (16); Internationale (16); Simple Gifts (32-33, 166); Aaron Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (68), Tragic Ground (88) Something Wild (film score) (333-34); I Got Me a Cat (76); So Long, Old Paint (90); Giovanni Martini: Plaisirs d'Amour (100, 106); Daniel Decatur Emmett: The Boatmans's Dance (166); The Dodger (166); Long Time Ago (166); The Little Horses (167); John G. McCurry (attrib.): Zion's Walls (167, 220-21); The Golden Willow Tree (167); Robert Lowry: At the River (167); Ching-a-Ring Chaw (167, 220); Amazing Grace (343); Happy Birthday (361, 375).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman, Felix Cox

Within the context of a comprehensive autobiography, numerous musical borrowings are considered. The majority of pieces quote or paraphrase American folksongs; these are named when known. Other types of borrowing include arrangement, variations, settings, and self-borrowing. Copland also mentions instances of borrowing in the music of his colleagues.

Works: Aaron Copland: Dance Symphony (86, 163), Vitebsk (160-63), Statements for Orchestra (236), El Salón México (245ff), Second Hurricane (261), Billy the Kid (279-80), Billy the Kid (suite) (284-85), John Henry (291), Lincoln Portrait (342ff), Las Agachadas (355), Rodeo (357), Four Dance Episodes from Rodeo (363); Virgil Thomson: The Plow That Broke the Plains (357, 388n19).

Sources: Aaron Copland: Grohg (86, 163); James W. Blake and Charles B. Lawlor: The Sidewalks of New York (236); El Mosca (246); El Palo Verde (246); La Jesusita (246); La Malacate (246); The Capture of Burgoyne (261); Great Grand-Dad (280, 284-85); The Chisholm Trail (280, 284); Git Along Little Dogies (280, 284); Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie (284, 354); John Henry (291); Stephen Foster: Camptown Races (342-43); Springfield Mountain (The Pesky Sarpent) (342-43); Ground Hog (357); Old Paint (363, 388n19); If He Be a Buckaroo by Trade (363); Sis Joe (363, 354); Bonyparte (363); McLeod's Reel (363); The Man on the Flying Trapeze (367).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman, Felix Cox

Varying definitions and expectations about the fantasy as a genre have resulted in a devaluation of both Tchaikovsky and his music, but a survey of nineteenth-century fantasies and an examination of definitions of the term show that the techniques for which Tchaikovsky is often criticized in his symphonic works were consistent with a contemporary understanding of the fantasy. The term “fantasy” was applied to works based upon their design rather than their use of borrowed or original material. There are four main processes that are important to the fantasy: the overall structure’s relationship to established forms, developmental processes within the fantasy, types of interruption, and methods of linkage. Methods of linkage are especially important because of the fantasy’s discontinuous nature, and in works based on existing themes, transitional passages tend to link incongruous sections. Historically, fantasies have been divided into various categories, including a four-fold typology by Czerny that considered the “Fantasia Forming a Pot-pourri” as his fourth category; this category consisted of “beautiful melodies of favorite operas, tastefully and connectedly strung together.” These fantasies were valued for their use of variation in linking passages. Marx also considered the musical potpourri as a type of fantasy. The melodies in Francesca da Rimini resemble many of the motives found in Wagner’s Die Walküre, and while the works share topical similarities such as forbidden love, the strong resemblances may be read as acknowledgement of Tchaikovsky’s desire to free himself from the expectations of conventional symphonic form.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (170, 181-88).

Sources: Wagner: Die Walküre (183-85).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

In the midst of the English Victorian era’s focus on propriety, commercial theatres found ways to cater burlesque to the respectable bourgeoisie. Theatre managers promoted their offerings to middle-class tourists by removing sexual innuendo and references to drinking, lower-class subjects, and social satire. The 1860 production of Lucrezia Borgia! included more operatic numbers than previous performances, because it was assumed that the middle-class audience would have been familiar with continental opera. The English burlesque practice of interpolating various numbers grew out of the need to restructure and abridge Italian operas to fit English lyrics and audiences. Burlesques typically kept the arias with the most memorable melodies, while substituting dialogue for the action scenes and adding popular songs to increase interest. The production of Little Don Giovanni, although staged elaborately and requiring higher ticket prices, included a wide variety of numbers, including parlor songs and music-hall songs, reflecting the diverse nature of the English middle-class. The songs it used were those that listeners would have been able to play on the piano. Robert the Devil, on the other hand, drew mostly on operetta numbers. The juxtapositions of “high” and “low” music in mid-Victorian burlesque was intended for variety, and not as much for political commentary or satire. Tables describe the origins of every number in each of the three burlesques discussed.

Works: Anonymous: Lucrezia Borgia! (burlesque) (82-88, 91-95), Little Don Giovanni (88, 95-102), Robert the Devil (89, 102-6).

Sources: Donizetti: Lucrezia Borgia (83); Mozart: Don Giovanni (88); Meyerbeer: Robert le diable (89).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Franz Liszt’s Deux Polonaises provide a case study demonstrating the combined interpretive power of and dynamic interplay between intertextuality and multiple subjectivities. These two piano works are intertextually related to other musical works (especially other polonaises) and to a literary work: Liszt’s biography F. Chopin. Throughout F. Chopin, Liszt develops a narrative of Polish music and culture leading up to Chopin, who fully embodies the Polish character. Liszt’s Deux Polonaises relate to F. Chopin’s narrative and alludes to many different styles, genres, and composers through multiple subjective voices. The opening of Polonaise I has clear similarities to Chopin’s Polonaise in E-flat Minor, Op. 26, No. 2, and throughout the work there are stylistic allusions to Chopin and Michał Kleofas Ogínski. The subjective voices in Polonaise I are the musical narrator, the musical subjects (militaristic style and the sentimental style), and the performer, who all interact to construct a history of the genre in the manner of F. Chopin. In Polonaise II, Liszt suggests the subjectivities of soloist and orchestra. These voices are also related to the construction of Polish history by way of funeral march references. In particular the concept of Polish messianism, the believe that Poland was an innocent victim of foreign powers that will rise again, plays out in the soloist perspective winning out against the orchestral. Again, this reading is suggested by an intertextual connection to F. Chopin. The combination of intertextuality and subjectivity in Deux Polonaises reveals how abstract musical drama is developed in nineteenth-century piano music.

Works: Franz Liszt: Polonaise I (121-23, 126-35), Polonaise II (124-25, 135-45), Polonaise brillante (135-36)

Sources: Chopin: Polonaise in E-flat Minor, Op. 26, No. 2 (122, 126-27), Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1 (124, 135-37); Michał Kleofas Ogínski: Polonaise No. 10 in D Minor (127-128), Polonaise in A Minor (128-29); Carl Maria von Weber: Polacca brillante (135-36); Liszt: Polonaise brillante (135-36), Funérailles (139-40)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The recontextualization of pre-existing classical music within film brings complexity and ambiguity to film. Four reasons for this ambiguity are as follows: the music's original meaning may be indeterminate; the process of extracting and recontextualizing music increases ambiguity; audiences understand music in different ways; and awareness that the music was not originally written for the film creates distance between the music and straightforward interpretation. Since Rachmaninov's Second Piano Concerto is pre-existing but does not have an agreed upon meaning, it can be understood in film through several different codes and interpretations (including conventional cinematic musical codes), making it more complex than newly composed scores. In Détective, the disjunction between the visual film and the short well-known classical music excerpts does not allow the use of cinematic musical codes, but it does produce complexity.

Works: Martin Scorsese (director): Sound track to Raging Bull (21-23, 28); David Lean (director) and Noel Coward (writer/producer): Sound track to Brief Encounter (23-26, 28-29); Jean-Luc Godard (director): Sound track to Détective (26-29).

Sources: Pietro Mascagni: Cavalleria rusticana (21-23); Rachmaninov: Piano Concerto No. 2 in C-sharp Minor (24-26); Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B minor (Unfinished) (27); Wagner: Rienzi (27).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Folk songs have long been a vehicle for political activism, and quotations of traditional American protest songs in contemporary art music can serve the same call-to-action function, as exemplified by Frederic Rzewski’s 1979 solo piano ballad Which Side Are You On?. Many of Rzewski’s compositions are explicitly political in nature, expressing outrage toward abuses of power and an affinity for Marxist ideology. Which Side Are You On? is a setting of the union song from the 1930s about the violent struggle to unionize coal mines in Harlan County, Kentucky. Rzewski’s setting opens with disjointed fragments of the tune (at least 205 in total) presented in all twelve keys. At the midpoint of the piece, the fragments begin to rhythmically (but not tonally) join in larger portions of the tune. After that, the performer is instructed to begin improvising in a “sudden radical change” for the same duration as the notated music, representing the other “side” of the struggle, the failure to collectively organize. An eight-measure statement of the entire folk tune in its original key of B minor concludes the piece, creating a clear musical symbol for the power of unionization and solidarity. Through his skillful use of folk tune quotation, Rzewski is able to communicate a political message in an accessible, distinctive way.

Works: Frederic Rzewski: Variations on “¡El Pueblo Unido Jamás Será Vencido!” (56), Long Time Man (56), Which Side Are You On? (62-66).

Sources: Traditional: El Pueblo Unido Jamás Será Vencido (56), It Makes a Long-Time Man Feel Bad (56); Florence Reece (lyricist): Which Side Are You On? (62-66).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

The intabulations of Giovanni Antonio Terzi show how ornate intabulations do not necessarily aim to obscure structural elements of their models. Even when instrumental music was gaining automony in the early to mid-sixteenth century, lutenists continued to pay homage to vocal models by reflecting vocal practice in their intabulations. There is a significant correlation between specific words and phrases of the model and the ornamentation used in Terzi's intabulation. Terzi pays homage to the model by ornamenting structurally, that is, by placing ornaments consistently upon a recurring feature of the model or using the same embellishment at points of imitation. In his intabulations, Terzi does not only borrow motivic elements from the model for the ornamentation, he also develops new figuration independent of the model. While the development of figuration, the introduction of new motives and the paraphrasing of melodies obscures some elements of the model, Terzi highlights the structural elements of the model by leaving heads of phrases unembellished, by using consistent figuration at points of imitation, and by drawing attention to the textual rhyme through his placement of ornaments. Hence, Terzi shows respect to the model both through the elaboration and the preservation of structural elements of the model.

Works: Terzi: Intabulations of Non mi toglia il ben mio (179), O bella ninfa mia (184), Quando fra bianche perle (184), Caro dolce ben mio (185), Leggiadre ninfe (186), Quando i vostri begli occhi (189), S'ogni mio ben 'havete (191), La Diodatina (192-93), Liquide perle (195).

Sources: Rore: Non mi toglia il ben mio (179); Palestrina: O bella ninfa mia (184); Nanino: Quando fra bianche perle (184); Gabrieli: Caro dolce ben mio (184); Marenzio: Leggiadre ninfe (186), Quando i vostri begli occhi (189), Liquide perle (195); Striggio: S'ogni mio ben 'havete (191); Guami: La Diodatina (192).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

The 1978 NBC "docudrama," The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash, is a humorous satire of the music and history of the Beatles. According to Schopenhauer, an amused reaction arises as a response to the "recognition of incongruity between a representation and a concept." Thus, for a listener to experience an amused response to musical satire, he or she must possess "stylistic competencies" that allow for the recognition of the congruity-incongruity dialectic in the music. The fictitious Rutles's Hold My Hand is modeled on three Beatles songs, and it incorporates elements of lyrics, pitch, rhythm, harmony and instrumentation from the sources. Evidence of modeling in Ouch!, a parody of the Beatles' song, Help!, is found in instrumentation and in formal and harmonic similarities to the source. The harmonic parallelism is such that a dialogue between Ouch! and Help! emerges, which is facilitated by diminution of the model's harmonic rhythm and partial reordering of the harmonic progression. Leonard Meyer's theory of style, in combination with the semiotic theory of intertextuality, can become a powerful analytic device in explaining musical satire. The humor arises from the listener's recognition of the model and the clever alterations and juxtapositions of the original material. This recognition must take place on three different levels of specificity: dialectic or general style (e.g., British invasion), individual idiom (e.g., early Beatles style), and intraopus style or the style within a single work (e.g., the style of Help!).

Works: Neil Innes: Hold My Hand (124-32), Ouch! (133-37).

Sources: John Lennon and Paul McCartney: I Want to Hold Your Hand (124-32), She Loves You (124-32), All My Loving (124-32), Help! (133-37).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey, Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The term "cover" does not accurately describe the history behind or motivations for an artist recording a previously recorded song. In the 1950s, listeners did not make the same associations between song and singer that they make today; therefore re-recording a song was not understood as a reference in any way to the earlier artist. "The music itself" existed independently of its realization; therefore multiple versions of a song could circulate and not be considered to be referential. Re-recording a song that was circulating at the time was known as "hijacking a hit." It was not until Elvis re-recorded older R&B records that were no longer circulating that the cover song in the modern sense of the word came into existence.

Works: Chuck Willis (songwriter), Derek and the Dominos (performers): It's Too Late (151-52); Otis Redding (performer): It's Too Late (151-52).

Sources: Chuck Willis (songwriter and performer): It's Too Late (150-52); Otis Redding (performer): It's Too Late (151-52).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Index Classifications: 1400s

Since its premiere in Gershwin's 1930 musical Girl Crazy, the song I Got Rhythm has been performed, arranged, and recorded countless times. In these subsequent realizations of Gershwin's song three approaches can be identified in which the original material is treated as (1) a song played and sung by popular performers, (2) a jazz standard, a piece known and frequently played by musicians in the jazz tradition, and (3) a musical structure, a harmonic framework upon which jazz instrumentalists have built new compositions. These new compositions, called contrafacts, include examples such as Duke Ellington's 1940 Cotton Tail, Charlie Parker's 1940 Steeplechase, Parker and "Dizzy" Gillespie's 1945 Shaw 'Nuff, and many others. Tables listing titles of Parker I Got Rhythm contrafacts and recordings of I Got Rhythm contrafacts (up to 1942) are included.

Works: Ellington: Cotton Tail (229-30), Parker: Steeplechase (232), Red Cross (232), Moose the Mooche (233), An Oscar For Treadwell (233); Parker and Gillespie: Shaw 'Nuff (239).

Sources: Gershwin: I Got Rhythm (213-44).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Composers can expand their musical possibilities by borrowing samples of pre-existent music. For instance, Noah Creshevsky's Borrowed Time samples music from the twelfth to twentieth centuries. By incorporating a variety of disparate samples, one can represent the multicultural society in which we currently live. The revolution of technological media has made sampling equipment readily available. Creshevky's compositional processes have changed in reaction to this technological shift, in that the samples used are often so short in duration as to obscure their origins. Sampling an entire stanza from an aria would be a quotation, belonging to composer and librettist, but sampling just a syllable is an unidentifiable form of sampling and musical borrowing. Whether in times of bounty or scarcity, composers should borrow music, for there is plenty to go around.

Works: Noah Creshevsky: Borrowed Time (91, 96).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Franz Liszt's 1859 variations on the theme from J. S. Bach's cantata Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12 effectively transforms Bach's structurally and tonally restrictive passacaglia theme into a large-scale, goal-oriented work. The theme is short and harmonically closed and thus has the potential to be repetitive and static. To create forward momentum, Liszt incorporates the suspensions of the theme into many of the variations and dovetails many phrases, a technique used by Bach, to drive the piece forward and conceal the regularity of the repeating passacaglia theme. Additionally, he creates large-scale form and goal direction by ending the set of variations with a statement of the chorale from Bach's cantata, providing a focal point for the developmental process. Liszt turns the genre of the Baroque passacaglia into a more Romantic theme and variations genre by incorporating a more pianistic texture, chromatic harmony, and freer use of the theme as the variations progress. While this work is four times longer than Bach's set of variations in the cantata, the overall structure of the new work reflects the narrative of the original, which can be construed as Lizst's method of paying homage to Bach.

Works: Franz Liszt: Variations on a Theme from "Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen," S. 180 (37-49).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12 (37-49).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

In The Dreams and Prayers of Issac the Blind for Klezmer Clarinet and String Quartet, Osvaldo Golijov uses musical imitation and quotation to present the history of Judaism. Each of the three movements presents a different language of Judaism: Aramaic in the first movement, Yiddish in the second movement, and Hebrew in the third movement and postlude. In order for music to be considered klezmer, three elements have to be presents: gustn (modal scales), instrumentation (subdivided into melody, harmony, and rhythm sections), and the use of dreydlekh (ornamentation), all of which are present in this piece. In addition, Golijov quotes Jewish prayer tunes and liturgy. The ornamentation in the first movement is a stylistic allusion to klezmer music, and Golijov uses a wide variety of klezmer ornamentations. In the second movement, Golijov quotes the klezmer tune The Old Klezmer Band (also known as Odessa Bulgar). The final movement is an instrumental adaptation of K’vakarat.

Works: Osvaldo Golijov: The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac and the Blind for Klezmer Clarinet and String Quartet, Yiddishbbuk (6), Ayre (8); Giora Feidman: Viva el Klezmer (43).

Sources: Anonymous: Dybbuk (39), Avina Malkeinu (39-40); Giora Feidman: The Old Klezmer Band (Odessa, Bulgar) (43); Anonymous: Mi Sheberakh (44), K’vakarat (45-49).

Index Classifications: 2000s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Although there are many documents attesting to the first performance of Bach's Cantata No. 21, BWV 215, there is conflicting evidence about how it was composed. Bach had three days notice of the visit of the elector of Saxony to compose this work. Because of this short time frame for composition, many scholars have argued for Bach's need to borrow from his previous works. However, the majority of earlier scholars have disagreed as to which parts are borrowed and from which compositions. Several types of evidence demonstrate that there is in fact very little borrowing in this cantata. In other pieces with proven cases of borrowing, Bach's handwriting is neat in passages of parody because melodies are simply copied. In certain passages of BWV 215, Bach's handwriting is of the same character as other known first drafts of works, and there are continuation sketches, which do not appear in borrowed movements. Changes from the autograph score to the final version of BWV 215 reveal that the autograph written for the Elector's visit was an initial stage in the composition process. The formative changes made between these two versions are found in both instrumental and vocal lines. In most cases of Bach's parodies, the majority of corrections are in the vocal lines because they are being reworked to fit new words. Considering how quickly other cantatas had to be composed early in Bach's first few years in Leipzig, one should not be surprised at how quickly he was able to compose the new material in BWV 215.

Works: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (137-38, 152, 159-60), Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (138), Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (139-51).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 16, Es lebe der König, der Vater im Lande, BWV Anh. 11 (138), Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (139).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Modern ideas of the trope are an ill-informed effort to provide a single definition to the variety of musical forms introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. What are today called "tropes" actually served different functions and may be grouped into different types. Fourteen early troper manuscripts are listed. Introit tropes (as well as those for Offertory and Communion) are new compositions, both in text and melody, added to the official chant. Often these are of considerably greater size and complexity than the original chant. Gloria and Sanctus tropes involve new compositions, but the official melodies may be roughly the same age as the tropes. The Agnus Dei is such a new liturgical form that it is difficult to separate the "official" text, much less the melody. So-called Kyrie tropes may well be integral parts of the composition of the Kyrie itself. Texting of pre-existing melismas did occur, especially in the Alleluia, but these instances are infrequent and usually of later origin. It is particularly erroneous to describe the sequence as a trope of its Alleluia.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Borrowing in eighteenth-century opera is so common that these works can be defined by individual performances, not a written score. However, by analyzing these works in written form as they compare to their sources of music and libretti, much can be learned about the compositional process of adapting materials. Vivaldi's Tamerlano is an excellent example of this. There are many related libretti on this story from the early eighteenth century. Certain adaptations of these libretti share large structural features. Handel's Tamerlano preserves the distribution of arias between characters found in Gasparini's Il Bajazet. Shared performers between works sometimes cause the choices of borrowed and retexted sections in arias. Vivaldi's Tamerlano has additional text because of his self-borrowing of a chorus from Farnace. He also adds different text to the music of arias from his earlier operas. By changing rhyme schemes and only keeping key words, he adapts the aria to a completely different scene and affect. This process also changes where important melismas are placed and therefore which parts of the music are emphasized. Vivaldi also repeats this process with arias by other composers, but in these cases misses the subtle harmonic relationships with the text used by the original composer.

Works: Vivaldi: Tamerlano (276-79, 283-311); Handel: Tamerlano (277, 281-82), Cantone (291, 294); Francesco Gasparini: Il Bajazet (277, 281).

Sources: Francesco Gasparini: Tamerlano (277-79), Il Bajazet (277); Vivaldi: Farnace (284, 288-89, 294, 305), L'Olimpiade (286-88), Giustino (288-94), Orlando finto pazzo (309); Hasse: Siroe re di Persia (297-301); Geminiano Giacomelli: Merope (301-5).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Vivaldi lived in an age in which plagiarism was openly condoned, so it is not surprising that borrowing of material should represent an important aspect of his output. This practice was largely provoked by the incessant demand for novelty in the opera house and also accounts, at least partly, for the legendary speed at which he composed. Vivaldi compiled several operas from arias by composers such as Hasse, Giacomelli, Leo, Handel, Pergolesi, and Vinci, linking them with newly composed sections of recitative. Occasionally, as in Rosamira of 1738, he claimed the composition as his own. Vivaldi's constant re-use in his operas of material from his own compositions is perhaps most obvious in his introductory sinfonias and concertos. Instrumental and vocal works frequently share the same ritornello material, although it is often impossible to tell which was written first. The most common type of borrowing is the revival of earlier operatic material. Usually it is restricted to individual arias and excludes the preceding recitative. Although in many cases arias are re-used without alteration, except perhaps for new words, in other instances the musical text itself is changed. Sometimes a borrowed aria appears in a similar dramatic context, but in many cases the contexts are different, and often it seems to be one particular idea in the text that suggests the borrowing. Occasionally, ensembles are also adapted for re-use.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

The music of seminal Los Angeles hardcore punk band Black Flag is a (sometimes tenuous) testament to the fluctuating nature of racial identities and communities and has potential to rouse its listeners from complacency with racial hegemony. Black Flag’s song White Minority, first recorded in 1978, is an example of the complicated nature of racial politics in LA punk. Lyrically, the song expresses racist paranoia, attracting critiques of racism in the LA punk scene. However, the band has claimed that the song is meant to be sarcastic and darkly ironic, a reading supported by the fact that the two singers who recorded the song for Black Flag were Jewish and Puerto Rican respectively. Other songs more directly express the band’s anti-authority politics. Black Flag’s rewrite of rock song Louie Louie, released in 1981, sonically voices a multiethnic and multiracial resistance to white supremacy. The strained and painful vocal performance by the band’s third singer, Dez Cadena (who soon after quit the band due to vocal stress), can be read as a metaphor for straining against the limitations faced by nonwhite youth in a situation of white ethnic dominance. The original recording of Louie Louie, with lyrics about Jamaican sailors and inverted cha-cha-cha rhythm, is itself emblematic of the hybridity inherent in rock and roll. Black Flag’s version dramatically rewrites the love song into an antisocial rant performed with an air of ambivalence. The verses use completely new text, and the organ solo is recast as a harsh, atonal guitar solo. In adapting the rock and roll classic, Black Flag continues a tradition of boundary crossing and dialogue between white, black, and brown working-class rock musicians. The new direction of Black Flag’s sound in the mid-1980s further expresses an ethic of boundary crossing and resistance with the band’s adoption of elements of free jazz.

Works: Black Flag: Louie Louie (73-78)

Sources: Richard Berry: Louie Louie (73-78)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Fortuna desperata, one of the most popular chansons of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, survives in more than thirty sources and in thirty-one distinct settings. Although it has been attributed to Busnois, its strophic form and Italian text separate it from most of Busnois's other chansons, making this attribution doubtful. Of the twenty-four surviving cantus firmus settings of the chanson, two rather unusual practices occur with some frequency. The tenor is transposed from its original Lydian mode to Phrygian in five pieces, and the borrowed material from the chanson is combined with another pre-existent melody and/or text in thirteen pieces. Both of these practices may be explained by the application of symbolism related to the goddess Fortuna. Although Lydian is the mode most frequently associated with Fortuna, the transposition of the mode may reflect the image of Fortuna turning her wheel. In the pieces in which the Fortuna cantus firmus is combined with pre-existing material, there are strong correlations between the myth of Fortuna and the added (or implied) texts, and these added texts give further meaning to the new work. These new meanings, as well as the overall popularity of Fortuna desperata, provide examples of trends in late fifteenth-century humanist thought.

Works: Josquin: Fortuna d'un gran tempo (8); Martini: Fortuna desperata (9); Greiter: Passibus ambiguis (9, 13, 14, 17); Senfl: Fortuna ad voices musicales (9, 13, 17-18); Anonymous: Consideres mes incessantes (13, 15); Breitengraser: Fortuna desperata (13); Senfl: Nasci, pati, mori (15), Ich steund an einem morgen (15), Es taget vor dem Walde (15); Isaac: Bruder Conrat (15); Jachet: Ave mater (16); Senfl: Virgo prudentissima (16), Herr durch dein Blut (17); Isaac: Sancte Petre ora pro nobis (17); Anonymous: Zilbadone (17).

Sources: Busnois(?):Fortuna desperata (7-8).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Two motets composed by Heinrich Isaac around 1500—Inviolata integra et casta es Maria and Alma redemptoris mater—exemplify compositional techniques used by Isaac and his contemporaries to combine newer styles of imitative polyphony with the older cantus firmus practice. Between the two motets, three approaches to the cantus firmus are demonstrated: canonic cantus firmus, long-note cantus firmus, and chant paraphrase. The structure of Inviolata is based on modules comprising the canonic cantus firmus and other repeated melodies. The cantus firmus is a light paraphrase of the original sequence. The strict, regular module structure allows for the recreation of the missing contratenor 2 part with very little free counterpoint. Isaac also uses a module structure for Alma redemptoris mater, the cantus firmus of which alternates between paraphrase and long-note treatment. In this case, most modules come in the form of chunks of four-voice music repeated exactly, repeated and transposed, or cadential formulas. Non-imitative modules of paired voices are also used. In addition to these modules, Isaac uses non-modular compositional techniques such as stretto fuga. Beyond these small-scale compositional devices, both motets exhibit large-scale formal structures through repetition. By extrapolating Isaac’s possible compositional process from the modular construction of these two motets, it can be concluded that his process of composing with a cantus firmus is very similar to his composing without a cantus firmus.

Works: Heinrich Isaac: Inviolata integra casta es Maria (235-46), Alma redemptoris mater (246-63).

Sources: Anonymous: Inviolata integra casta es Maria (235-46), Alma redemptoris mater (246-63).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Josquin's Je me complains should be interpreted as a mock lament because the last line of text and music is a quotation from a bawdy ditty La belle Tricotée, a tune famous since medieval times. The tune Josquin borrows is also used in three other works, all of which are written to different words but in most cases hold the text "la tricotée fut par matin levée" in common. These pieces include the tenor part of a three-voice chanson from the mid-fifteenth century in Bologna Q. 15, a contratenor part from a three-voice quodlibet in Escorial IV.a.24, and an upper voice of La tricotea Samártin la vea, a Spanish reworking of the tune. The term "tricotée" has often been translated as "knitting," but it is actually a term applied to a lively dance from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries.

Works: Josquin: Je me complains (1-8); Anonymous: Belle tenes moy la promesse/La triquotée est par matin levée (3), Rolet ara la tricoton/Maistre Piere/La tricotée (3), La tricotea Samártin la vea (3-4).

Sources: Anonymous: La belle Tricotée (1-8).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The fact that no contemporary accounts credit Monteverdi with the musical setting of Francesco Busenello's L'incoronazione di Poppea creates a number of problems in analyzing the work's stylistic unity. An important consideration, however, is that Monteverdi may have been one of a number of composers collaborating in the composition of Poppea, rather than its sole musical contributor. Many of the work's musical qualities demonstrate characteristics of a younger post-Monteverdian generation. Of a number of possible collaborators, Benedetto Ferrari and Francesco Sacrati seem to be the most likely candidates. Indeed, two sinfonie in Poppea can be located in an altered (or borrowed) form in Sacrati's La finta pazza, while "Pur ti miro" from the opera's last scene can be textually (and possibly musically) connected to Ferrari. Thus, Sacrati and Ferrari figure as the potential composers of the many anomalous sections of Monteverdi's last Venetian opera and, most significantly, its last scene.

Works: Monteverdi (and others?): L?incoronazione di Poppea (23-54); Francesco Sacrati: La finta pazza (43-51).

Sources: Francesco Sacrati: La finta pazza (32, 43-51); Benedetto Ferrari (?):"Pur ti miro" (41-43, 51-52); Monteverdi (and others?): L?incoronazione di Poppea (45-46).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Index Classifications: 1600s

One Missa sine nomine, found in five manuscripts, has been attributed wrongly to the Continental composer Jean Pullois. This Mass has been noted as the earliest example of a Continental Mass cycle that uses cantus firmus technique to unify the movements. Indeed, the tenor parts of the five Mass movements feature striking, similar melodic lines, and thus the Missa sine nomine can be considered a cyclic cantus firmus Mass. However, it uses paraphrase technique, and this puts into question the attribution of the Mass to Pullois and the characterization of the Mass as Continental, as it has no Continental precedents. It is highly unusual that the Mass's malleable assimilation of the plainsong source would pre-date comparable Dufay cyclic Masses. Yet, attributing the Mass to Pullois would do just that. Because of this and other circumstantial manuscript source-related evidence, the Missa Sine nomine should be removed from Pullois's known repertory.

Works: Jean Pullois?: Missa sine nomine (41-59).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Short animations function differently from the feature length films currently focused on within the field of film music research, but examining how music works in these animated shorts can encourage us to rethink our conceptions of feature film music as well, including vocabulary and techniques. Image/sound hierarchy, the separation of soundtrack into dialogue/music/effects, and the diegetic/non-diegetic separation are all difficult if not impossible to apply to animation. There is also an economic angle to animations—Warner Brothers, anticipating the success of “talkies,” bought up several music publishing houses and strongly encouraged its workers, including those in animation, to use these in-house songs or works within the public domain. Hence, early Looney Tunes cartoons used all available songs to their full potential, leading to the “Merrie Melodies” series of cartoons using both hit music such as 42nd Street and flops like Manhattan Parade. The division of cartoons into a separate music-based series was not specific to Warner Bros.; Disney’s “Silly Symphonies” followed the same pattern, chipping away at the traditional hierarchy that placed image above music. Songs from musicals were often used in singing and dancing routines, where it becomes difficult to distinguish between dialogue and music. Likewise, rather than referring to a diegetic/non-diegetic distinction, it is often more useful to think of animation as isomorphic/iconic.

Works: Warner Bros. (studio): Young and Healthy (193), Shuffle Off to Buffalo (193), Three’s a Crowd (195), You Don’t Know What You’re Doin’! (195, 198), Hamateur Night (196), Rhapsody Rabbit (196), What’s Up, Doc? (196), Sinkin’ in the Bathtub (196), Hold Anything (198, 200), Smile, Darn Ya, Smile (198), Petting in the Park (199), Red-Headed Baby (201), Big Man from the North (201-2); Oskar Fischinger: Motion Painting No. 1 (202).

Sources: Mervyn Leroy: 42nd Street (193, 195); Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 (202).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Nicolas de la Grotte, a relatively unknown 16th-century court composer who was nonetheless held in high esteem by the society of his day, employed the technique of parody in his songs for five and six voices. Of his 21 songs included in Le mélange de chansons (1572), 17 are completely based on borrowed material. The majority of the parodies consist of a complete borrowed superius, with the lower parts rewritten, thus classifiable as employing cantus firmus technique. Distinctive alterations that La Grotte utilizes include (1) addition of a coda; (2) augmented note-values (used for expressive, text-painting purposes); and (3) textural enrichment (via syncopations).

Works: Nicolas de la Grotte: Avecques vous (176, 178-82), A ce matin (176, 180-83), Las voulez vous (176, 178-83), Sur tous regretz (176, 180-82, 186), Force d'amour (176, 183-86), Le coeur de vous (176, 183-84), Grace et vertu (176, 186), N'auray je jamais mieulx (176, 186-87), J'ay contenté (176, 187-88), Susane un jour (176, 188-89), Vivés en paix (176, 198-90), Dieu te gard (176, 190-92), Tout est vert (176, 190-92), Puisque j'ay belle amye (176, 190-92), Tout ce qu'on peut (176, 192-94), Je m'en vois (176, 192-96).

Sources: Lassus: Avecques vous (176, 178-82), A ce matin (176, 180-83), Las voulez vous (176, 178-83); Richafort: Sur tous regretz (176, 180-82, 186); Villiers: Force d'amour (176, 183-86); Sermisy: Le coeur de vous (176, 183-84), N'auray je jamais mieulx (176, 186-87), J'ay contenté (176, 187-88); Roquelay: Grace et vertu (176, 186); Didier Lupi Second: Susane un jour (176, 188-89; Anonymous: Vivés en paix (176, 198-90), Tout est vert (176, 190-92), Puisque j'ay belle amye (176, 190-92), Je m'en vois (176, 192-96); Doussera: Dieu te gard (176, 190-92); Rore: Tout ce qu'on peut (176, 192-94).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Index Classifications: 1700s

According to Charles Seeger, folk music represents the epitome of plagiarism. Since rap music relies so heavily on digital sampling, rap and folk music are therefore linked through similar processes of musical borrowing. The explanation for such borrowing is not plagiarism but a new definition of creativity: creativity as synthesis of existing materials. Rap and folk music are also extensions of oral traditions, which value synthesis over novelty.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Recording labels in Nashville demand that recording artists be singer-songwriters: that is, that musicians write and perform their own songs. Critics and fans believe that writing and performing one's own songs is the best measure of the legitimacy of a musician's abilities. This expectation ignores the potential value of cover songs and the interpretive skill of covering artists. Not only can a cover song provide a new interpretation of a song, but it may introduce music to new listeners who are unfamiliar with the original because of separation by time or genre. For covering artists, cover songs are important for three reasons: (1) the song has a proven track record of commercial success, (2) the song can act as a nod or tribute to an important influence on the artist, and (3) it can provide audiences with familiar music as they hear a new artist.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Francesca Caccini's "aria sopra la romanesca" Dove io credea le mie speranze vere is an invocation of Arianna's voice that seeks to contrast and challenge the more submissive and subdued lament of Monteverdi's Arianna. Placed at the center of her 1618 Primo libro delle musiche, Caccini's song is purposefully not a lament but in the style of an aria romanesca. Its ample borrowings from Rinuccini's text are organized in a way that portrays an unapologetic, self-confident statement of Teseo's blame as well as a warning to other women about the excesses and dangers of love. In contrasting Monteverdi's recitative-like compositional style with a subtly nuanced romanesca form, Caccini both conforms to the aesthetic norms of the Florentine Camerata and evokes an aura of widow-like constancy in the social context of Christine of Lorraine's court. These musical allusions to female circles, in an aria that presents a non-lamenting Arianna, form a polemical discourse with Monteverdi?s famous soliloquy of a decidedly un-empowered woman.

Works: Works: Francesca Caccini: Dove io credea le mie speranze vere (442-47).

Sources: Claudio Monteverdi: Lamento di Arianna (437-47).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Plunderphonics—the technique of sampling and then dramatically editing those samples of existing music—challenges traditional notions of property rights, individual creativity, and originality, and thus calls for news modes of discourse. When recorded music becomes the sole source material for a new composition (the re-edited work), the concept of origination no longer matters; this radically subverts art music narratives of creative geniuses and autonomous artworks. Instead, plundering is a form of positive plagiarism that does not fit into the current modes of discourse on originality and property rights or existing copyright laws that emphasize the creation of a work by one author from nothing. Recording undermines the core of the classical art tradition because it bypasses notation, allowing the finished music itself to become the raw material of a re-edited work. Instead of creativity being the sole province of the composer in the art music tradition, recorded sounds and plundering place the impetus of creativity on the listener as new art can be made solely through listening without the constraints of notation. In order to better understand how musical plundering operates within popular and, more rarely, art music, we need to develop new frameworks of engaging with these issues of copyright and creativity.

Works: John Oswald: The Great Pretender (139), Plexure (153); Michael Jackson: Will You Be There? (139); John Coltrane (performer): My Favorite Things (142); John Cage: Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (145), Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (145), Imaginary Landscape No. 5 (145); Ottorino Respighi: Pina di Roma (145); Pierre Schaeffer: Etude aux tourniquets (145); James Tenney: Collage No. 1 (145), Viet Flakes (147); Frank Zappa: Absolutely Free, Lumpy Gravy, We’re Only in it for the Money (148); The Beatles: Tomorrow Never Knows (148), Revolution 9 (148); Stockhausen: Opus 1970 (148); The Residents: Third Reich and Roll (148), Beyond the Valley of a Day in the Life: The Residents Play The Beatles/The Beatles Play The Residents (149); Richard Tryhall: Omaggio a Jerry Lee Lewis (148).

Sources: Dolly Parton (performer): The Great Pretender; Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (139); Richard Rodgers (composer), Oscar Hammerstein II (lyricist): My Favorite Things from The Sound of Music (142); Elvis Presley (performer): Blue Suede Shoes (145); Jerry Lee Lewis: Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On (148).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Chamber pieces in the eighteenth century were often arranged for two keyboard instruments (whether two pianos, or a piano/harpsichord combination). These arrangements were prized for their ability to create sympathetic connections between family members or between teachers and students through mutual understanding, shared sentiment, and common experience. The concepts of “original” and “arrangement” were very flexible at this time, and it was common for a single piece to exist in different versions for different instrumental combinations. It was often easier in a domestic or teaching situation to find two keyboardists rather than a larger number of other players. The practice originated in players simply reading different parts from the original score, or writing out their own keyboard arrangements. Players also combined various keyboard instruments including forte-piano, harpsichord, clavichord, and others to create new timbres and contrasts. Sympathy was fostered between student and teacher and between family members playing keyboard duos by performing the same physical gestures, and by arranging the keyboards toward each other so that they could see each other’s facial expressions.

Works: Anonymous: Keyboard-duo arrangement of Johann Sebastian Bach, Trio Sonata in E-flat Major, BWV 525 (189-92, 208), Keyboard-duo arrangement of Johann Christian Bach, Quintets, Op. 11 (192-99).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Trio Sonata in E-flat Major, BWV 525 (189-92); Johann Christian Bach: Quintets, Op. 11 (192-99).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Although the tango originated in Buenos Aires, several Ashkenazi Jewish songwriters in Europe soon adopted this genre as their own, either by giving existing tango melodies new lyrics in Yiddish or by composing new ones. The Ashkenazi Jews soon exported their Yiddish tangos to cities like New York City and Buenos Aires, where they became staples of Yiddish theater and musical productions. During World War II and after, the tango became an especially symbolic and even painful genre for Jews, as Nazis sometimes forced prisoners in concentration camps to play tangos when other prisoners were killed. Despite this, the tango genre also offered Jewish prisoners a medium for expression and a tie to their heritage, and the familiar melodies allowed the prisoners to easily remember their new lyrics. For instance, songs like Kinder yorn and Makh tsu di eygelekh include musical gestures that allude to the tango, while the contrafact camp song Yiddish Tango was adapted and reworked from Shpil zhe mir a lidele in yidish as a song of resistance.

Works: Anonymous: Death Tango (116); Anonymous: Der Todesfuge (116); Dovid Beigelman: Kinder yorn (117), Makh tsu di eygelekh (117); Ruven Tsarfat: Yiddish Tango (118); Rikle Glezer: Es iz geven a zumertog (118); Anonymous: Niewolnicze tango (118); Mary Sorianu: Tango fun libe (118).

Sources: Eduardo Bianco: Plegaria (116); Julio César Sanders: Adios Muchachos (111); Ángel Villoldo: El Choclo (111); Dovid Beigelman: Ikh ganve in der nakht (114); Henech Kon: Shpil zhe mir a lidele in yidish (118); Herman Yablokoff: Papirosn (118); Gerardo Matos Rodríguez: La Cumparsita (118).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone