Jazz today can be considered part of the avant garde movement of the early twentieth century. One of the common characteristics of the avant garde is pastiche, a characteristic jazz shares, particularly in improvisatory virtuosic solos. The purpose of such pastiche is to call into question the distinction between high and low art. Soloists such as James Moody, Lester Young, and Louis Armstrong regularly quoted other works from both the classical tradition and the popular tradition. Juxtaposing a jazz melody with a quotation from the classical tradition provides irony for the listener, who will understand at least that the quotation comes from an entirely different genre of music. A list of several examples is included.

Works: James Moody, Body and Soul (92, 104); Louis Armstrong, Ain't Misbehavin' (93); more in footnotes.

Sources: Percy Grainger, Country Garden; George Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Jazz in Hollywood films creates a context for the formation of a stylized representation of African-American culture, beginning with The Jazz Singer (1927). American myths regarding white ethnics and African-American sexuality are assimilated through the borrowing of African-American music, specifically jazz, as used in director Alan Crossland's The Jazz Singer (1927) and Paul Whiteman's King of Jazz (1930), and later in Alfred E. Green's The Jolson Story (1946) and Luis Valdez's La Bamba (1987). Spike Lee's Mo' Better Blues portrays the larger tradition in which the trumpet is a crucial signifier of masculinity, by borrowing from the music of Louis Armstrong and Miles Davis. In contemporary films, jazz has been configured to signify elegance and affluence as an art form through borrowings from Ellington, Armstrong, Nat King Cole, and Carmichael.

Works: Charles Wolcott: score to Blackboard Jungle (9); Taj Mahal: score to Zebrahead (101); Alfred Newman: score to No Way Out (102); Hugo Friedhofer, Edward B. Powell, and Marvin Hatley: score to Topper (256); Franz Waxman and William Lava: score to To Have and Have Not (261).

Sources: Max C. Freedman and Jimmy DeKnight: Rock Around the Clock (9); John Coltrane: Say It Over and Over Again (102); Duke Ellington: In a Sentimental Mood,Sophisticated Lady (102); Nat King Cole: When I Fall in Love (247); Hoagy Carmichael: Old Man Moon (256), I Am Blue (261).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1600s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Liszt's Salve Polonia, published in 1884, has long languished in obscurity, overshadowed by the composer's Hungarian rhapsodies. This Polish rhapsody, however, deserves more attention, especially for its incorporation of two Polish national themes. First, Liszt placed the Polish national hymn, Boze, cos Polske in the opening Andante pietoso section. In the second and final section, the Polish national anthem Jeszce Polska nie zgiela appears. Liszt had already composed much of the music from Salve Polonia in his unsuccessful efforts to complete an oratorio, Die Legende vom heiligen Stanislaus.

Works: Liszt: Salve Polonia (34, 36).

Sources: Kurpinsky: Boze, cos Polske (34-36); Oginsky: Jeszce Polska nie zgiela (34-35).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

While the early works of Severo Bonini demonstrate a fidelity to the style of early monodists like Giulio Caccini, an exposure to the music of Monteverdi, especially his early operas Orfeo and Arianna, caused the Vallambrosian monk to break from these models in search of a Monteverdian style of musical expression. In his Lamento d'Arianna, Bonini sets Rinuccini's text in a manner modeled after Monteverdi's version. Just as in Monteverdi's lament, for example, the text is set syllabically with the same pauses and phrasing that create a rising sense of affective intensity. Bonini, like Monteverdi, allows the music to be governed by the poetic meter and text emphasis. Bonini and Monteverdi also both emphasize the same words, though through differing musical techniques; Monteverdi uses repeated notes over the same word or syllable while Bonini composes ornamental turning figures for the important points in the text. The monk's allegiance to Monteverdi is further proven in his Discorsi, which praises the opera composer's style and beautiful musical concepts. Thus, his admiration manifests itself most clearly in an instance of modeling on the same text by Rinuccini with a strikingly similar style of text expression and musical affect.

Works: Severo Bonini: Lamento d'Arianna (573-82).

Sources: Monteverdi: Lamento d'Arianna (575-81).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Index Classifications: 1500s

Despite the prevalence of nonsense syllable singing in a broad range of genres in music traditions around the globe, there is little in terms of aesthetic theory on the phenomenon. The eeph trope and eephing as a practice, found in several genres of American music in the early twentieth century, is one phenomenon that can help contextualize the larger practice of nonsense syllable singing. Unlike other nonsense syllables (such as fa-la-la), the phrase eepha-soffa-dill has a reported, albeit murky, origin with the blackface vaudeville duo Williamson and Stone in the 1890s. The phrase (in several spelling variations) first appeared in a 1902 recording by the Kilties’ Band of Canada, listed without a composer. It first appeared in sheet music in 1903, attributed to Harry Von Tilzer, Andrew Sterling, and Bartley Costello and dedicated to “the original Epha-A-Sof-A-Dill,” Frank Williamson. Five Tin-Pan-Alley songs published between 1903 and 1922 employ the eeph trope, demonstrating a fairly consistent lyrical and melodic convention. The phrase’s later appearance in Broadway tunes still suggests its origins with blackface vaudeville acts through its connotations of stuttering and baby-talk associated with offensive stereotypes of African Americans. Gene Greene’s recorded versions of King of the Bungaloos connect the eeph trope to a budding eephing practice, associating the eeph phrase with mouth percussion sounds. Imitations of Greene’s eephing style appear in several disparate recordings through the 1930s as the eephing practice diffuses into other musical genres. Jimmy Riddle’s 1963 country hit Little Eefin Annie demonstrates how Greene’s eephing practice is absorbed by country music’s nonsense syllable tradition. Riddle’s version of eephing drops the eeph phrase and attaches Greene’s eephing mouth percussion to similar syllables. Although the eephing tradition is similar to the scatting tradition in that they are both nonsense syllable practices, conflating the two practices diminishes the significance of both. The development of the eeph trope into an eephing tradition from the 1890s onwards provides the context for the broader development of scat singing as an approach to vocal jazz.

Works: George M. Cohan: Cohan’s Rag Babe (347-348, 350, 353, 355), The American Ragtime (349, 353); Maurice Abrahams (music), Grant Clarke and Edgar Leslie (lyrics): When the Grown Up Ladies Act Like Babies (347-349, 357-58); Cliff Friend (music) and Billy Rose (lyrics): You Tell Her, I Stutter (349, 357-58, 362); Irving Berlin (as performed by Gene Greene): From Here to Shanghai (361); Jimmy Riddle: Little Eefin Annie (360-64)

Sources: Kilties’ Band of Canada (no listed composer): Ephasafa Dill (Iffa Saffa Dill) (1901-1902) (346); Nick Brown: Iffa-Saffa-Dill (A Negro Oddity) (346); Harry Von Tilzer (music), Andrew Sterling and Bartley Costello (lyrics): Ephasafa Dill (346-47); Charles Straight (music) and Gene Greene (lyrics) (as performed by Gene Greene): King of the Bungaloos (354-357); Butter Boy (performer): Old Aunt Dinah (363); Harmonica Frank Floyd: Swamp Rock (363)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Berlioz probably derived the title to his Symphonie fantastique from a scene in Act IV of Ossian ou Les Bardes, by LeSueur, in which the words simphonie fantastique were printed in the full score. Similarities, both orchestral and programmatic, between the two works strengthen the connection.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

There are three primary categories in which Tarantino uses pre-existing music in his films: main themes and underscoring, incidental diegetic music, and diegetic music chosen by characters. While it is tempting to view Tarantino’s use of dated music in his credit themes as distorting filmic conventions of soundtrack and temporal location or as a postmodern smirk, in reality it can function as an authentication of characters’ identity, as audio-visual counterpoint, and as an authorial statement on the film’s tone and mood. Each of Quentin Tarantino’s major films, Reservoir Dogs,Pulp Fiction, and Jackie Brown, features a scene in which a character selects and plays a piece of music. Such scenes differ from other uses of diegetic music in that they foreground the process of music selection, thus granting characters power to control the score and allowing the selection to represent and illustrate characters or situations. Young audiences of Tarantino’s films will empathize with these foregrounded musical situations, witnessing how an act similar to their own private, mood-related engagement with music is projected onto other characters. This empathy also has an impact on record sales: if youth are able recognize the act of private, mood-boosting engagement with music, they are also likely to enjoy the music itself.

Works: Quentin Tarantino (director): soundtrack to Jackie Brown (188-93, 198-201), soundtrack to Reservoir Dogs (188, 191, 193-96, 202), soundtrack to Pulp Fiction (188, 191, 196-201).

Sources: The Delfonics: Didn’t I (Blow Your Mind This Time) (189-91); Dusty Springfield: Son of a Preacher Man (191, 200); Urge Overkill: Girl, You’ll Be a Woman Soon (191, 200-201); Stealers Wheel: Stuck in the Middle with You (191, 202); Bobby Womack: Across 110th Street (192-93); George Baker Selection: Little Green Bag (193-96); Dick Dale: Misirlou (196-97); Roy Ayers: soundtrack to Coffy (198-99).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

The field of modern competitive barbershop singing is in a state of crisis over falling membership and popularity, and repertoire is one variable being considered as a means of increasing the appeal of barbershop music. This particular genre tends to blur the distinctions between composer, arranger, and performer. As a result, the product of that network, the musical work, acquires an equally fluid identity. A question of ownership arises: what is "the work" and to whom does it belong? Arrangements vary in their fidelity to an original published tune, and a certain amount of improvisation or rearranging is expected in barbershop, at the very least in the form of tags or codas at the end of a chart.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Ragtime took the United States by storm in the early twentieth century, and Charles Ives incorporated ragtime elements into numerous works. Nevertheless, a closer examination of musical and biographical evidence reveals the composer’s ambivalent and even contradictory attitude towards the genre. On the one hand, Ives demonstrates an enthusiasm for ragtime through his bold embrace of a genre associated with African Americans in a racially divided era. On the other hand, this positive engagement is at odds with the tone of his writings, which often dismissed ragtime as inferior to art music and Protestant hymns. The disparity can be explained by considering the popularity of ragtime during Ives’s youth, how he reworked his early ragtime-based pieces later in life, and the significant time lapse that often occurred between composing a piece and writing about it. Four Ragtime Dances also reflects this ambivalence, and the work can be interpreted either as a statement of progressive inclusivity or of racial inequality. This diversity of hearings is possible because Four Ragtime Dances engages with many types of musical friction—sacred and secular, classical and popular, and racial—and in this regard the work reflects the inherent “messy quality” of Ives’s music in general.

Works: Ives: Four Ragtime Dances (24-46), Central Park in the Dark (46-47).

Sources: George Minor: Bringing in the Sheaves (26, 31); Edward Rimbault: Happy Day (26); Lewis Hartsough: I Hear Thy Welcome Voice (26, 31); Joseph E. Howard and Ida Emerson: Hello! Ma Baby (46-47).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone, Daniel Rogers, David G. Rugger

Index Classifications: 1800s

Surface thematic resemblances between Richard Wagner'sWesendonck-Lieder and his operaTristan und Isolde indicate that the songs were borrowed from in the composition of the later opera. Deeper and more subtle relationships between the two, however, indicate that the songs were studies for the opera, and were parodied in more profound ways, as well. In addition to resetting three sections of "Träume" in the Love Duet with very few alterations, Wagner uses a similar voice-leading pattern in the first sections of the two pieces, an ascent through an octave (Eb to Eb). He also explores bVI and bIII as tonal areas in both sections. In the second sections, Wagner uses bVI as a pivot, retains the same basic harmonic scheme, and employs the octave ascent (Eb to Eb) once again. In terms of the opera as a whole, bVI and bIII figure prominently after the occurrence of the Love Duet. All of these relationships combine to indicate that Wagner employed a kind of parody technique in Tristan.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Hip-hop’s joining together of samples to create a sonic whole is not done to express a “postmodern” stance mocking the linearity and rationality of modernism, but is done to honor black funk musicians of the past, especially James Brown and George Clinton. “Live” in black culture can mean “excellence,” and in recordings connotes a live-performance aesthetic which is contrary to the polished sound of the recording industry. Brown and Clinton sought to create this live aesthetic in their recordings through crowd noise and other signifiers of live performance. Comparing James Brown’s Make It Funky to Public Enemy and producer Hank Shocklee’s Fight the Power (which samples the Brown track) shows that the funk ideals of the 1970s are utilized in hip-hop. Thus, “live” in hip-hop is not in a binary with recorded sound, but is an act of “re-memory,” or a piecing together of a history by “remembering” critical pieces of the past.

Works: Eric B &Rakim: I Know You Got Soul (117); Janet Jackson: That’s the Way Love Goes (118); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (119-20).

Sources: James Brown: Papa Don’t Take No Mess (118), Make It Funky (119).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Members of the Bach family copied out each others music and also borrowed musical ideas from one another in their compositions. Several instances of the latter practice are noted. Instances include the similar treatment of a hymn tune and the direct borrowing of musical ideas.

Works: Johann Bernhard Bach: Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend (366), Suite for Solo Violin and Strings in G Minor (366); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (366); Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach: Einchöriges Heilig in C Major (369); Johann Sebastian Bach: Organ Concerto in D Minor (370); Johann Christoph Friedmann Bach: Die Kindheit Jesu (372), Wachet auf ruft uns die Stimme (372); Johann Christian Bach: Violin Sonata in B flat, Op. 10, No. 1 (372); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mit fried' und Freud' ich fahr dahin (372).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

See abstract for English version, "The Structure of Beethoven's Diabelli-Variations," The Musical Quarterly 50 (October 1964): 496-503.

Index Classifications: 1800s

The structure of Beethoven's Diabelli Variations, Op. 120, as a whole might be considered a macrocosm of the structure of the waltz theme by Anton Diabelli. Many previous composers have ended their variation sets with a return to the opening theme; the thirty-third and final variation, a minuet, can be thought of as Beethoven's transformation of this theme to a higher sphere, acting as a crowning epilogue or coda. This leaves thirty-two variations, corresponding to the thirty-two measures of the theme. The waltz theme is symmetrically organized into eight four-measure groups. Likewise, the thirty-two variations can be described as a set of eight groups of four successive variations, related by sequences of tempi, meter, texture, and character.

Works: Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (496-503).

Sources: Anton Diabelli: Waltz (498-503).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Just as certain architectural styles are spread over several cultures, we find "international" melodies scattered in manuscripts all over Western Europe. They mostly originated in France and later were adapted musically (variants) and textually (variants and contrafacta) to their new surroundings. Gennrich discusses contrafacta of monophonic liturgical chants (such as the famous sequence Laetabundus exsultet fidelis chorus), of liturgical motets (O Maria, maris stella/Veritatem), sacred motets and conductus (Agmina milicie celestis omnia), and of Latin songs (Bulla fulminante sub judice tonante). Gennrich is not always able to clarify the priority of identical melodies with different text, but provides the music and its sources wherever possible.

Works: Allein Gott in der Höh (German Chorale 265-66); anonymous: Mei amic e mei fiel (267); O Maria, Deu maire, Deus t'es e fils e paire (267); Adam de St. Victor: O Maria, stella maris (267); anonymous: Glorieuse Deu amie, dame de pitié (268-72); Johannes Rodericus: O Maria, maris stella (268-72); anonymous contrafacta: Or hi parra (273-78); O Gras tondeus (274-78); Frölich erklingen (274-78); Gautier de Coinci: Hui enfantez Fuli fiz Dieu (273-78), L'amour dont sui espris (331-40); anonymous contrafacta: Fille de Dieu, ben as obras (280-81); Diable, guaras non tormentes (280-81); Auiatz, seinhors per qual razon (279-81); Philippe le Chancelier: Agmina milicie celestis omnia (281-96), Bulla fulminante (325-30); anonymous: De la virge Katerine chanterai (283-96); L'autr'ier cuidai avoir (283-96); Philippe le Chancelier: Li cuers se vait de l'ueil plaignant (322-24); anonymous contrafacta: Seyner, mil gracias ti rent (322-24); Veste nuptiali (235); Blondel de Nesle: L'amour dont sui espris (331-40); Ma joie me sement de chanter (is a contrafactum of Walter of Châtillon's Ver pacis aperit, or the other way round, 342-43); anonymous: Ar ne kuthe ich sorghe non (346-47).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Gennrich briefly discusses the relation between some French songs and their Latin contrafacta. While it is often difficult to decide whether the chanson (Kanzonentypus) or the Latin song is the contrafactum, the priority of the French version becomes obvious as soon as formes fixes (rondeaus, virelais) are involved. Some Latin poems did not come down with music. References to French refrains, however, indicate to which melody the poem belongs. These refrains appear with a certain consistency of time and place and thus help dating and localizing related pieces. Gennrich provides the music of the songs discussed and cites their appearances in the manuscripts.

Works: Anonymous: Crescens incredulitas (190); Adam de la Bassée: Olim in armonica (190); anonymous contrafacta: Flos preclusus sub torpore (192-95); Amis, quelx est li mieux vaillanz (192); Povre veillece m'assaut (192-95); Parit preter morem (196-201); Adam de la Bassée: Nobilitas ornata moribus (201); anonymous contrafacta: Veni, sancte spiritus spes omnium (201); Ecce nobilis (202-3); Nicholai sollempnio (203-4); Ille puerulus (205-6); Universorum origo (206).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Gennrich discusses not those refrains that are repeated after each couplet of a song (chansons à refrain), but those that exist sometimes as isolated very short pieces, sometimes interpolated in other works. They mostly have their own melodies and were created by the poets with a particular intention. Later these refrains were borrowed (with or without music) in chansons avec des refrains, long poems (such as the Cour d'Amour and the Roman de Renart le Nouvel), and motets, usually at the beginning and at the end. Sometimes they even adopt another text (contrafactum). According to Gennrich, refrains are neither folk songs nor parts of them. They were, however, originally conceived as refrains and not designated as such merely because they appear in several pieces. The end of the article includes a list of motet-refrains.

Works: Jacquemart Gielee: Renart le Nouvel (366); Mahius li Poiriers: Cour d'Amour (367); Messire Thibaut: Roman de la Poire (367); Anonymous: Salut d'Amour ((367-68); refrains "Qui aime Dieu et sa mere" (373); "Sache qui m'ot" (373); "Cui donderai je mes Amours, mere Dieu" (373); "Ne vous hastés mie, bele" (373); "Pitiés et Amours, pour mi" (373); "Amours ne se done, mais ele se vent" (374); Si come aloie/Deduisant/Portare (374); Haro! haro! je la voi la/Flos filius eius (377); Je quidai mes maus/In seculum (377); Je m'en vois/Tieus a mout/Omnes (378).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The motet enté emerged from the trope tradition. First, the motet was a poetic effort, underlaying preexisting clausulae with new text. Often poets took advantage of musical repetitions, supporting them with closely related texts that thus became suitable for quotation, i.e., they acquired refrain character. Later these motets served as models for the newly composed motet enté where refrains (text and melody) were taken as points of departure and textually and musically troped.

Works: Anonymous motets Ja n'amerai autrui que vous/Pro patribus (243-44); J'ai trouvé qui m'amera/Fiat (244-48); Hé! ha! que ferai?/Pro patribus (251-52); Li dous termines m'agrée/Balaam (253-54).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Gennrich discusses the reuse of popular songs in motets and of parts of motets as popular songs, providing transcriptions and including the variants. The features of the chanson largely determine the priority (chanson or motet): if the textual and musical structure of the chanson correspond, Gennrich assumes it to antedate the motet. The following list represents the author's view of priority.

Works: Richard de Fournival: Chascun qui de bien amer, borrowed from the motet Chascun qi de bien amer/Et florebit (13-16); motets Onques n'amai tant con je fui amée /Sancte and Onques n'amai tant con je fui amée/Sancte Germane borrow Richard de Fournival's chanson Qnques n'amai tant que jou fui amée (16-20); anonymous: En non Dieu, borrowed from the motet En non Dé, Dex/Ferens pondera (21-23); Ernoul le Viel: Por conforter mon corage, borrowed from the motet Por conforter mon corage/Go (24-29); Robert de Reims: Quant voi le douz tens venir, borrowed from the motets Quant voi le douz tens venir/Latus or En mai quant rose/Quant voi le dou tans venir/Latus (29-33); Robert de Reims: Main s'est levée Aelis, borrowed from the motet Main s'est levée Aelis/[Et tenuerunt] (34-35); Robert de Reims: Quant fueillissent li buison, borrowed from the motet Quant florissent li buisson/Domino (35-37); Jehan Erart: Mes cuers n'est mie a moi, borrowed from the motet Mes cuers n'est mie a moi (38-39, 76); motet Fine Amurs ki les siens tient/J'ai lonc tens Amurs servie/Orendroit plus c'onkes mais borrows the anonymous chanson Orendroit plus qu'onques mais sont li mal d'amer plaisant (67-69); motet Sans penseir folur aç servi tote ma vie/Quant la saisons desireie/Qui bien aime a tart oblie borrows the anonymous chanson Quant la saisons desirée (69-72); motets De mes Amours sui souvent repentis/L'autr'ier m'estuet venue volentés/Dehors Compigne l'autr'ier and Par une matinée/O clemencie fons/Dehors Compigne l'autr'ier borrow the anonymous chanson Dehors Compignes l'autr'ier (72-76); motet Boine Amours mi fait chanter/Uns maus savereus et dous/Portare borrows the anonymous chanson Uns maus savereus et dous.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: General, Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Written for the one-hundred-and-twenty-fifth anniversary of Mendelssohn's death in 1972, Kochan's Mendelssohn-Variationen for Piano and Orchestra constitutes a musical homage on two different levels. It takes as its theme that of Mendelssohn's Variations Serieuses, which itself pays homage to Bach in its use of the B-A-C-H motive. Kochan acknowledges his 'second generation' homage by using a quotation from an aria in Bach's St. Matthew Passion (a work that Mendelssohn championed) as a 'hidden theme' that is developed alongside, and combined with the main theme throughout the course of the piece.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Borrowing classical music in Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) games can accomplish several purposes. Although much early video game music was newly composed, such as now classics Legend of Zelda and Super Mario Bros., it was not the only option available to video game composers. In the case of Captain Comic, the classical music functions mostly as a backdrop. Captain Comic’s entire soundtrack is made of classical music, but ultimately fails as a soundtrack because the classical pieces have little to no connection to the on-screen action. Pirates!, on the other hand, makes use of the cultural codes of Baroque music as a way of setting a historical time period as well as differentiating between different classes of characters. In Pirates!, the player can choose the location and time period; though the Baroque music in the soundtrack (Handel’s Water Music and Bach’s Toccata and Fugue in D minor) are outside of all optional time periods, they still lend the game a historical frame and a certain amount of “seriousness.” These pieces associated with upper-class characters contrast with newly composed nationalistic styles in popular Baroque idioms for the taverns in different cities. Finally, all iterations of Tetris use Russian music, either classical borrowings, folktunes, or newly composed songs to tie the game back to its Russian origins.

Works: Brøderbund (manufacturer): Battle of Olympus (40, 45); Color Dreams (manufacturer): Captain Comic (41-43, 49); Ultra Games (manufacturer): Pirates! (41, 43-45, 49); Nintendo (manufacturer): Tetris (41, 46-49); Tengen (manufacturer): Tetris (46-49).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor BWV 565 (40-42, 45); Handel: Suite in D Minor (41); Mozart: Piano Sonata in A Major, K. 331 (41); Rimsky-Korsakov: “Flight of the Bumblebee” from The Tale of Tsar Saltan (41-42); Johann Strauss: The Blue Danube, Op. 314 (41); Schubert: Marche Militaire, Op. 55, No. 1 (41); Wilhelm Friedemann Bach: Allegro non troppo, Fk. 203 (41); Handel: Water Music, Suite No. 1 in F (43-45); Johann Sebastian Bach: Two-Part Invention in G major (44); Tchaikovsky: The Nutcracker (46, 49); Ivan Larionov: Kalinka (46); Anonymous: Korobeiniki (46).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Ruggero Leoncavallo’s account of the creation of his most famous opera, Pagliacci (1892), distorts and obscures the work’s history in order preserve its legacy against charges of overt influence, borrowing, and plagiarism. In the “Appunti,” his incomplete autobiography dictated in 1915, Leoncavallo misrepresents several aspects of the genesis of Pagiacci, including its initial presentation to impresarios and the source of the libretto. Leoncavallo additionally obfuscates earlier fragments of an abandoned opera based on De Musset’s La Coupe et les lèvres. Several passages composed for La Coupe were reused in Pagliacci. The most apparent case is Leoncavallo’s reuse of the cantabile “Esprits! Si vous venez m’annoncer ma ruine” from La Coupe as “Sperai, tanto il delirio accecato m’aveva” in Pagliacci. Moreover, it is evident that Leoncavallo had planned to use “Espirits” in the final scene of Pagliacci while planning the libretto. However, Leoncavallo consistently ignores this self-borrowing and emphasizes originality in his own history of the opera. It is probable that this avoidance was a way for Leoncavallo to preemptively deny charges of plagiarism, a standing concern in Italian opera. In another act of self-historicizing, Leoncavallo attached Pagliacci to the verismo tradition in order to preserve his legacy as a composer.

Works: Leoncavallo: Pagliacci (240-49)

Sources: Leoncavallo: fragments from La Coupe et les lèvres (240-49)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A bibliography on musical borrowing, commenced by J. Peter Burkholder and David C. Birchler, now continues under Burkholder’s supervision at Indiana University. This collaborative project focuses on scholarship pertaining to western art music that describes what musical borrowing means in relationship to the pieces represented within the publication. Bibliographic entries comprise a citation, an annotation, and a list of works that borrow musical material from other sources and are discussed in some detail in the publication. [Editor’s note: The bibliography is now this online bibliography and extends to jazz, popular music, and film music. Most annotated entries include a list of sources borrowed from as well as a list of works that borrow.]

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Folk songs most accurately reflect the spirit of a people, and art music is an extension of the spirit of the folk song. Three ways composers use folk songs are: "(1) verbatim, as a musical germ from which to develop a composition; (2) verbatim, but having no particular relation to the musical structure; (3) as suggestion--toward the composition of folk-like themes expressive of the folk spirit."

Works: Haydn: Symphony in D Major (583); Weber: Der Freischütz (584); Schumann: Rheinweinlied (585); Brahms: Academische Festoverture (585); Grieg: Humoreske Op. 6, No. 2 (586), No. 1 of Aus dem Volksleben Op. 19 (586), Ballade Op. 24 (586), Improvisata Op. 29 (586), Norwegian Dances Op. 35 (586); Glinka: Life to the Czar (587); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 2 (587), String Quartet Op. 11 (587), Piano Concerto in B flat Minor, Op. 23 (587), Marche Slav (587); Borodin: Prince Igor (588), Steppenskizze (588); Rimsky-Korsakov: Fantasie, Op. 6 (589), La Pskovitaine (589), Antar (589), Sinfonietta, Op. 31 (589), La Grand Paque Russe (589); Stravinsky: Firebird (589), Petrouchka (589); Smetana: Die Brandenburger in Böhmen (589), Das Geheimniss (589), Aus meinem Leben (590), Tábor (590), Aus Böhmens Flur und Hain (590); Dvořák: Slavonic Dances (590), Hussitska Overture (590); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsodies (590), Mazeppa (590), The Battle of the Huns (590), Hungarian Coronation Mass (590), St. Elizabeth (590); Pedrell: Los Pirineos (591); Bizet: L'arlesienne (592).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1700s

The L'Homme armé Masses were probably written by Caron, not Busnoys as Richard Taruskin suggests (1984). This conclusion is based upon an accumulation of melodic similarities between Caron's music and the Naples Masses, a criterion that is far more persuasive than the structural relationships Taruskin uses to support his argument. Melodic features are the distinctive signature of a composer, while structural relationships are a form of intellectual exercise, useful only in terms of determining a composer's level of musical education.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Evidence suggests that the six anonymous L'Homme armé masses of Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40, were composed by Firminus Caron. Certain head motifs and closing formulae that appear frequently in the Naples masses may be found more often in Caron's work than that of any other composer. Tables and numerous musical examples support Caron as the stylistic origin of these masses. Sources for these features are found in several of Caron's masses and chansons. The masses of the Naples manuscript are of Burgundian origin. Charles the Bold (then Count of Charolais) spent two weeks in Amiens during in 1466, during Firminus Caron's tenure there, giving him the opportunity to become familiar with these masses and subsequently transmit them to Naples.

Works: Anonymous?/Caron?: Six Masses on L'Homme armé (passim); Johannes Ockeghem: D'un aultre la (8): Anonymous: Tart ara quaresme (8).

Sources: Anonymous: Cent mille escus (8); Firminus Caron: Le despourveu (13, 23), Missa Jesus autem transiens (14, 15-17, 20-23), Missa L'Homme armé (17-23).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Strauss tended to compose his operas in four stages: (1) musically annotated libretto, (2) sketchbook, (3) piano-vocal score, and (4) orchestral score. Strauss kept a sketch book with him at all times, working and reworking motives into new forms. Some motives can be traced through a series of different works.

Works: R. Strauss: Sinfonia Domestica (181), Der Rosenkavalier (181), Don Quixote (182), Elektra (182).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

The 1570 revisions to the Missale Romanum as a result of the Council of Trent forced a complex process of updating the music in the Graduale Romanum to conform to the new liturgy. These musical changes were overseen at the local level, introducing an as-yet unrecognized textual and musical diversity within the newly regulated liturgy. On December 4, 1563, the Council of Trent ordered the creation of restored versions of several liturgical missals, and to execute this decree a papal monopoly was declared for certain printers. However, corresponding revisions to the plainchants in the antiphoner and gradual were not considered until 1577. The project to centralize musical practice was soon abandoned, leading to many different revisions of the Graduale Romanum published by different printers without papal oversight. Each edition of the revised Graduale took a slightly different approach to modifying existing chants to fit the new missals and five foundational sources demonstrate this variety: Leichtenstein 1580, Gardano 1591, Giunta 1596, Medici 1614/15, and Ciera 1621. For certain chants, editors of these sources cut different melodic segments and recreated cadences differently for newly excised repeated text. Added text was also set to different music in each edition. In a few cases, editors of the new Graduale editions revised chant melodies even when portions of the text were unchanged. These revisions were transmitted locally, leading to the creation of several branches of Graduale revisions clustered around the foundational publications. The true influence that the Council of Trent had on the chant repertoire was not a top-down revision of chant melodies but an invitation for many sources to edit the repertoire. Therefore, the scholarly convention of labeling graduals printed after 1587 as “Post-Tridentine” should be expanded to include the musical and textual diversity of this period of revision introduced in the early 1570s.

Works: Liechtenstein (publisher): Graduale Romanum (Venice, 1580) (342, 344-48, 350-52, 362-6); Angelo Gardano (publisher), Andrea Gabrieli, Ludovico Balbi, and Orazio Vecchi (editors): Graduale Romanum (Venice, 1591) (341-47, 348, 350-52, 355-60, 362-65); Giunta (publisher): Graduale Romanum (Venice, 1596) (342, 344-48, 350-55, 357-59); Medici (publisher), Felice Anerio, Francesco Soriano, et al. (editors): Graduale Romanum (Rome, 1614/15) (341-46, 348, 353-59, 365); Ciera (publisher): Graduale Romanum (Venice, 1621) (344, 353-59)

Sources: Giunta (publisher): Graduale Romanum (Venice, 1499/1500): Iubilate deo omnis terra (340-43), Iubilate deo universa terra (340, 343-49), Dextera domini (349-53), Iustitiae domini (353-60), Insurrexerunt in me (360-65)

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Stylistic analysis of Satie's music remains underdeveloped, due at least in part to the ineffectiveness of traditional analytical approaches. Any analysis of Satie's music, like that of Debussy or Ives, must take into account the "juxtaposition of multiple layers of aesthetic meaning," including the literary and the pictorial. The piano suites composed in 1913-14 provide a focus for studying Satie's creative ideal and the connection (as in the case of Ives) of that ideal with a particular sonic environment. Satie's use of sounds and tunes from his own world brings meaning to the new piece. Satie's use of existing material not only serves expressive purposes, but also provides a creative stimulus. Appended is a list of "Quoted Tunes in Satie's 'Humoristic' Piano Suites."

Works: Satie: Heures séculaires et instantanées (3), Descriptions automatiques (4), Vieux sequins et vieilles cuirasses (6), Embryons desséchés (17), Croquis et agaceries d'un gros bonhomme en bois (23), Chapitres tournés en tous sens (25), Sports et divertissements (30).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

The distinction between quotation and allusion has long been problematic. Four conditions must be met for a quotation: (1) The pitch pattern corresponds to a preexisting pattern in the musical literature (rhythm does not have to reflect this correspondence); (2) the composer sets this pattern in relief; (3) it can be documented that the composer was familiar with the work or passage in question; and (4) the extramusical context of the composer's work is reflected by that of the quoted work. These four conditions may be applied to Elgar's Second Symphony, in which Wagner's "Preislied" from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg is either quoted or alluded to. The correspondence of Wagner and Elgar is literal and thus condition 1 is met. In fulfillment of condition 2, Elgar treats the motive in question extensively and separately from the two other principal ones. It can be documented that the composer was familiar with the work or passage in question, thus condition 3 is met. Finally, a quotation of the "Preislied" in the Second Symphony could have three possible extramusical meanings, as a symbol of artistic freedom, as "an homage to two departed Wagnerians," and as a love letter to Mrs. Stuart-Wortley, "a brilliant and deeply sympathetic woman with a fine understanding of artists." Since all four requirements are met, we have to speak of quotation in Elgar's Second Symphony.

Works: Elgar: Second Symphony (231, 237-40); "Enigma" Variations (232-33).

Sources: Wagner: "Preislied" from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (231, 233-40); Mendelssohn: Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (232); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (232-33).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Jazz has always been a music of mixture that borrows from other traditions, encompassing both free and fusion styles. Examples of musical borrowing and reworking are more overt in jazz fusion which draws on references from rock, popular, ethnic, and classical traditions, creating hybrid jazz styles that appealed to wider audiences. Miles Davis played an important role in propagating jazz fusion with his commercially successful album Bitches Brew (1970), which combined rock and jazz idioms. Davis continued the fusion aesthetic in his work for the film Jack Johnson, in which his producer producer Teo Macero spliced bits from Davis’s performance of Shh/Peaceful and inserted them into Davis’s Yesternow for the score to achieve a new and disjunct sound. Sampling proved a commercially viable technique for other groups as well, including A Tribe Called Quest and Us3. However, these bands were more parasitical than fusion (unlike Miles Davis) because they stole catchy licks and grooves from older jazz styles to use as raw material, rather than sources of style or new ideas.

Works: Miles Davis: Yesternow (327); Jaco Pastorius (performer): Donna Lee (330), God Bless the Child (332); A Tribe Called Quest: The Low End Theory (334); Bill Laswell: Panthalassa: The Music of Miles Davis 1969-1974 (335).

Sources: Miles Davis: Shh/Peaceful (327); Charlie Parker: Donna Lee (330); Billie Holiday and Arthur Herzog, Jr.: God Bless the Child (332).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

[See chapter 7, "Borrowed Material."]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Although there are few examples in Jean-Philippe Rameau's vocal Oeuvre of self-borrowing, there do exist numerous instances of this technique in his operatic symphonies. There are two primary sources for borrowed material: pieces that he had already published for solo harpsichord, with or without other instruments; and symphonies from earlier operas. Borrowing of material for symphonies was especially prominent during revivals of existing operas. Rameau's technique of self-borrowing is fundamentally different from that of Bach and Handel in that the original and new work tend to serve similar functions.

Works: Rameau: Les Fêtes de Ramire (54-55), Les Fêtes d'Hébé (55), Les Indes galantes (55).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1700s

A jazz performer’s improvisation on a given model can provide insight into that performer’s understanding of the model’s essential elements. What the performer preserves, avoids, and manipulates from the model can indicate not only that performer’s competency, but also their inventiveness. Django Reinhardt’s 1939 recording of Isham Jones’s I’ll See You in My Dreams is one such example. In the context of a rhythmically repetitive structure, Reinhardt creates variety by alternatively highlighting and obscuring phrase boundaries. In cases of the former, Reinhardt includes chromatic turns at midpoints and endings of choruses. In cases of the latter, Reinhardt repeats rhythmic motives across phrases. Additionally, Reinhardt’s use of paraphrase and thematic improvisation demonstrates a deep understanding of the melody from Jones’s model. When paraphrasing, Reinhardt preserves between one and six measures of the melody; longer paraphrases, however, are rare. In thematic improvisations, Reinhardt highlights an important large-scale melodic connection in one of two ways. In the first, he foregrounds the connection as a short melody and plays it repeatedly; in the second, he increases the technical virtuosity of his improvisation while maintaining the melodic outline of the model.

Works: Isham Jones (composer) and Django Reinhardt (performer): I’ll See You in My Dreams (41-58).

Sources: Isham Jones: I’ll See You in My Dreams (41-42).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

French literary translator Mimi Perrin’s vocalese songs for her vocal jazz group, Les Double Six, offer a unique perspective on the interrelationships between music, language, and culture through her adoption of literary translation aesthetics in a musical practice. Vocalese is a vocal jazz practice in which a singer sets lyrics to an instrumental solo and transforms it into a song. While this practice was not invented by Perrin, what sets her versions apart is the careful way she writes her lyrics so that the vocal sounds produced by the singers mimic the instrumental sounds of the source material. Perrin composed her vocalese by first translating instrumental sounds into phonemes: saxophone attacks become labiodental fricatives, brass attacks become alveolar plosives, and so on. The semantic meaning of the text is secondary to the process of translating instrumental sounds into French phonology. In translation terms, what Perrin does is a kind of homophonic intersemiotic translation, approximating the sounds of a non-linguistic text but not necessarily its meaning. This contrasts with contemporary American vocalese composer Jon Hendricks, who begins with a semantic connection to the instrumental pieces he sets rather than a phonemic connection. To non-French-speakers, Perrin’s translations provide a sonic experience somewhere in between hearing (but not understanding) a French text and hearing nonsense scat syllables. The aesthetics of literary translation further inform what Perrin does with her music. In order to capture the rhythmic feel of swing, Perrin modifies her French with an unusual number of elisions and monosyllabic words, even to the point of confusing some French speakers. Beyond their importance as metaphorical translations of instrumental music, Perrin’s vocalese songs exemplify the cross-cultural translation and adaptation at the heart of global jazz culture.

Works: Mimi Perrin (lyricist and arranger): Blues in Hoss’ Flat (93), Doodlin’ (94), La complainte du bagnard (94-95), Les quatre extra-terrestres (96-97), A Night in Tunisia (99) Un tour au bois (99-100); Jon Hendricks (lyricist and arranger): Doodlin’ (93), Moanin’ (95); Four Brothers (97)

Sources: Count Basie Orchestra: Blues in Hoss’ Flat (93); Horace Silver: Doodlin’ (93); Bobby Timmons: Moanin’ (94-95); Jimmy Giuffre: Four Brothers (96-97); Dizzy Gillespie: A Night in Tunisia (99); Quincy Jones: Walkin’ (99-100)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The South-Grappelli recordings of Bach's Double Violin Concerto with Django Reinhardt in 1937 were, in addition to an aesthetically adventurous experiment, a socio-political statement based on the diverse musical and cultural backgrounds of the performers. The recordings were organized by Charles Delaunay, who convinced the reluctant violinists to record Bach's score without rehearsal. The first recording corresponds highly to the score: only a handful of ornamentations decorate the violinists' notes, and Grappelli omits some of his part. The second recording involves a much freer interpretation of the Bach original by both violinists, and Reinhardt's accompaniment is highly altered. In both cases, most of Bach's music was omitted so that the recordings could fit on a 78 rpm disc.

Works: Stéphane Grappelli and Eddie South: Interprétation Swing du Première Mouvement du Concerto en Re Mineur de Jean-Sébastien Bach (336-40, 351-54), Improvisation sur le Première Mouvement du Concerto en Re Mineur de Jean-Sébastien Bach (336-40, 351-54).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Concerto for Two Violins in D minor, BWV 1043 (335-54).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

The solo baritone's recitative intervention in the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony has often been interpreted as a commentary on the instrumental discourse of the symphony, but a newer interpretation of the recitative hears the baritone's words as a call to song in both a literal and idealized sense. Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" tune, which is borrowed from his setting of Bürger's poem Gegenliebe and was also used as the basis of his Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, provides added layers of meaning, especially in relation to the poetic sources. The connection between Bürger's Gegenliebe and Schiller's An die Freude is provocative when considering that both Schiller and Goethe rejected Bürger as a poet who failed to keep any sense of the "general" within his poetry. By using the Gegenliebe tune for An die Freude in the Ninth Symphony, Beethoven brings Bürger's folksy nature aesthetic and advocacy of simple, diagetic song (as heard in the laundry or sitting rooms) to bear on Schiller's abstract idealism of song. In addition to investigating the song-like aspects of the Finale, the effects of silences are also explored as folk elements and compared with Beethoven's settings of Johann Gottfried Herder's poetry.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125.

Sources: Beethoven: Gegenliebe (60-63), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (60-62).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Vaporwave, a genre of surreal music built on collages of background music and highly processed vocals that is popular in online forums, produces an audio-visual aesthetic of remembering for the sake of remembering that can be understood through theories of nostalgia and catharsis. The music of vaporwave artist 18 Carat Affair and discussions of vaporwave music on Reddit forums provide a case study. Vaporwave music is characterized by repetitive structure, slow speed (70-90 beats per minute), self-conscious sampling, and heavy reverb effects. It emerged in the early 2010s as one of many genres of heavily intertextual electronic music circulating exclusively in online networks. The main aesthetic of vaporwave music is memory play through compensatory nostalgia, or nostalgia dealing with fuzzy memory in a landscape of media saturation. The music of 18 Carat Affair exemplifies the vaporwave aesthetic, sampling music from late 1980s and early 1990s consumer entertainment (such as the 1992 Sega Mega Drive videogame Streets of Rage II) and using digital processing to add a veil of lo-fi reverb. There is a deliberately liminal quality to vaporwave’s presentation with artists obfuscating the origins of sampled material and confabulating the sonic past. Vaporwave also often deals with memory play and nostalgia associated with cultural trauma. By digging up the waste products of consumerism—old VHS tapes, advertisements, corporate training videos, and similarly disposable media—vaporwave processes the chronic obsolescence and emptiness of consumer culture. At the heart of vaporwave is the extensive repurposing of Muzak to evoke the lingering unease of the artistically “dead” consumerism often associated with the brand. Vaporwave extends the modernist modes of fractured memory and collage present in the Dada and Surrealist movements of the early twentieth century. The visual style of vaporwave art mimics the collage techniques of Dada, Surrealism, and subversive Video Art from the 1950s-1970s. The visual and musical collage aesthetics of vaporwave constitute a process of remembering deformed by the collective trauma of the collapse of memory in corporate capitalist society.

Works: 18 Carat Affair: Home Box Office (105), New Jack City II (105)

Sources: Bill Conti: Theme from Dynasty (105); Yuzo Koshiro: Soundtrack for Streets of Rage II (105)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications:

In a survey of Chabrier's works for piano, features of his style that foreshadow the styles of later French composers are noted. The use of unresolved seventh and ninth chords is a technique later incorporated by Debussy and Ravel. In a more general sense, a number of pieces by Chabrier seem to be linked to pieces by Ravel. These pieces are listed in a table in the concluding section of the dissertation.

Works: Poulenc: Le Bestiaire (85); Maurice Ravel: Jeux d'eau (83), La Valse (15), Menuet antique (46), Valses nobles et sentimentales (15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

It has long been established that Mozart borrowed melodies and other musical procedures from Handel’s works. The borrowings found in Mozart’s Requiem are of particular note, as scholars have debated several possible pieces by Handel and other composers as Mozart’s sources. A closer musical analysis suggests that specific movements from Handel’s Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline, HWV 264, Joseph and his Brethren, HWV 59, and possibly Samson, HWV 57, served as Mozart’s templates for several parts of his Requiem. Handel’s influence may also be present in other late Mozart works, a possibility which thus far has been largely unexplored in music scholarship. In Die Zauberflöte, one can trace echoes of Handel’s Funeral Anthem and “The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba” from Solomon. Mozart may have taken inspiration from Jephtha when composing Don Giovanni, although there are also striking resemblances between the opera’s Act II finale and Mozart’s own incidental music to Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345. Finally, while scholarship has frequently highlighted the influence of Bach’s counterpoint on Mozart’s “Jupiter” Symphony, the final chorus from Alexander’s Feast might have been a direct model for the coda in the symphony’s fourth movement. Both works utilize a distinctive procedure of stringing several fugue subjects in succession before presenting them together in counterpoint, and there are noticeable parallels in the two movements’ thematic materials. As important as it is to acknowledge Mozart’s musical debt to Handel, scholars must nevertheless resist the temptation to make value judgments or qualitative comparisons between their works that imply the superiority of one composer over the other .

Works: Mozart: Requiem in D Minor, K. 626 (219-29, 241-42), Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 (229-34), Don Giovanni, K. 527 (234-36), Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551 (“Jupiter”) (236-40).

Sources: Handel: Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline, HWV 264 (219-26, 228-33, 241-43), Joseph and his Brethren, HWV 59 (226-28), Samson, HWV 57 (227-28), Solomon, HWV 67 (233-34), Jephtha, HWV 70 (236); Mozart: Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345 (236); Handel: Alexander’s Feast or The Power of Musick, HWV 75 (237-40).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Numerical analysis is a useful tool in determining the relationship between paraphrase and model. This tool is used by numbering the notes of the model. Since the notes of the derived composition use the notes of the model in order, a more detailed map of the relationship between the two is possible. Melodic repetition may be included within structural elongations of pitches. Additionally, the model may undergo transposition. Interpretation of certain passages as transpositions of the model may also help solve certain problems in the application of musica ficta.

Works: Josquin des Prez: Missa Pange lingua (111-17).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Mendelssohn was the first to incorporate ideas from Beethoven's late works into his own compositions. For example, his Piano Sonata in E major, Piano Fantasia in F sharp Minor, and String Quartet in A Minor (1826-1833) make use of Beethoven's last piano sonatas and string quartets. Yet these pieces of Mendelssohn involve a high degree of novelty. For instance, a recitative in the Piano Sonata in E Major, which resembles the third movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 101, is used as a fugue subject. Mendelssohn's borrowing from Beethoven may also be construed as a unique reinterpretation of their less accessible models for the Biedermeier age.

Works: Mendelssohn: Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 6 (272-77), Fantasie for Piano in F sharp Minor, Op. 28 (272, 277-78), Fantasia for Piano in E Major, Op. 15 (272, 279-80), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13 (280-84).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101 (272, 275), Piano Sonata in B flat Major, Op. 106 (276-77), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 (276, 278-79), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, Op. 81a (278), Piano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2 (278), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 (280-84), String Quartet in B flat Major, Op. 130 (282-83).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Only the text of the Köthener Trauermusik has come down to us, and scholars (including Schering and Smend) have considered whether the Köthener Trauermusik is a parody of the St. Matthew Passion or the other way round. By comparing the texts and examining their application to the music of the arias and accompagnato recitatives of the St. Matthew Passion, it can be shown that the text of the Köthener Trauermusik displays great unity and conviction in terms of choice of words and rhetorical techniques, whereas in the text of the St. Matthew Passion corresponding passages seem forced or illogical and include grammatical inaccuracies, suggesting that it was adapted from the Trauermusik rather than the other way around. The two texts, however, most probably were written within a few weeks, which can be concluded from outside circumstances (p. 108). The fact that in adapting the Köthener Trauermusik to the St. Matthew Passion Bach may have made considerable changes to fit the new text makes tracing parody delicate. Thus a negative procedure is applied: if the musical versions of the St. Matthew Passion (the earlier one as found in the "Altnickol" Ms. and the later definitive version) antedate the Trauermusik, we should not find any passages in the passion that better fit the corresponding text of the Trauermusik. Several such passages may be found, however, especially in the "Altnickol" version. Furthermore, it is clear that Bach tried to collate text and music better in the definitive version of the St. Matthew Passion. All these findings make it possible to reconstruct a succession of numbers in the Köthener Trauermusik that makes sense in all respects.

Works: Bach: St. Matthew Passion.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

The soundtrack of indie video game hit Untitled Goose Game (2019, House House) is a dynamic music system that adapts pre-recorded performances of six Debussy Préludes to react in real-time to players’ actions in the game, borrowing aesthetic language from silent film to create a novel approach to video game music. In Untitled Goose Game, the player controls an unruly goose wreaking havoc in an English-style village. The game’s slapstick humor sensibilities, in particular the ways that the music interacts with on-screen action, were inspired by both silent film music and Carl Stalling’s cartoon scores for Disney and Warner Bros. Debussy’s Préludes were selected for the soundtrack because they sounded like early twentieth-century silent film music to the developers, and the dynamic music system was meant to sound like a pianist Mickey-Mousing the player’s actions. To create this effect, the game’s composer, Dan Golding, recorded both “high energy” and “low energy” performances of six Préludes and split them into single-beat stems (the longest only 478 milliseconds). Depending on the players’ actions, either the “high energy” or “low energy” stem could be triggered in succession, rendering virtually infinite possibilities. While the soundtrack for Untitled Goose Game was inspired by cinema and animation, the technical possibilities of video games allowed it to take a different approach to musical adaptation.

Works: Dan Golding: soundtrack to Untitled Goose Game (9-14).

Sources: Debussy: Préludes Book 1, No. 12, Minstrels (9-14); Préludes Book 1, No. 5, Les collines d’Anacapri (9-14); Préludes Book 2, No. 9, Hommage à S. Pickwick Esq. P. P. M. P. C. (9-14); Préludes Book 1, No. 9, La serenade interrompue (9-14); Préludes Book 2, No. 19, Feux d’artifice (9-14).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Quotation in music is often considered without exploring the context of the quoted material. Many of Beethoven's overtures follow the model of the French overture, which requires one or more quotations from the stage music. Material which is recognizably from another piece but is altered in some way is placed in the category of "adaptation," which is defined as the removal of a piece of music from its original context and conforming it to a new environment and function. This may require a new context (transcription); transposition and new instrumentation (such as placing material from a piano sonata into a chamber music piece); or new words, this last condition being termed "parody." Parody is discussed extensively with the relationships between the Joseph cantata, Leonore, and Fidelio, and between the Choral Fantasy and the Ninth Symphony. A more exhaustive investigation is necessary to determine the true extent of Beethoven's creative methods in terms of quotation, adaptation, and parody.

Works: Beethoven: Overture to Zur Weihe des Hauses, Op. 124 (172-74), Overture to Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (172-73, 175, 183-84), Overture to König Stephan, Op. 117 (172-73), Overture and drafts to Leonore (171, 187-89), Fidelio (171-72, 187-89), Overture to Egmont, Op. 84 (174), Overture to Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (171, 174-75), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (175), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3 (175), Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20 (175), Piano Variations, Op. 35 (176), String Quartet in C Minor, Op. 18, No. 4 (177-78), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (178), Missa solemnis (179-80), Grosse Fuge, Op. 133 (181), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 (182), Sring Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (182), Diabelli Variations (182-83), Blümchen der Einsamkeit, Op. 52, No. 4 "Maigesang") (184, 186), Chorfantasie, Op. 80 (189-95), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (172, 194-95), Lied aus der Ferne, WoO 137 (186), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (176).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

In the middle third of the fifteenth century, contrafacta of Italian, French, and Netherlandish works frequently appear in Germany. Two more contrafacta in the Lieder of Oswald von Wolkenstein can now be added to the six already known. Both poems, Mein herz das ist versert (No. 101 in the Wolkenstein Edition) and Weiss, rot, mit praun verleucht (No. 111) are set to a work from the Italian Trecento, Landini's ballata Questa fanciulla. Although No. 101 is not a literal translation of the Italian text, the two poems show similarities in content. Wolkenstein is also influenced by the verse form (the "endecasillabo") of his Italian model. He preserves only the bipartite structure of the ballata, while the overall form is removed from its refrain model. Finally, in both Wolkenstein manuscripts only the tenor has a text, a purely German feature characteristic of the "Tenorlied." Thus Landini's ballata, in which the tenor had a supporting function, was transformed in Germany into a song for tenor and an upper-voice accompaniment.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

It is clear that Mendelssohn emulated Beethoven’s late string quartets, particularly the Op. 132 String Quartet in A Minor, in his String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13. While he decided to explore certain compositional methods and techniques from Beethoven, he used them to further his own musical ideas in the piece. Op. 13 is more intense than Mendelssohn’s earlier works, but still conveys a different a mood than the Beethoven piece. Beethoven’s quartet is characterized by lack of stability and contradictory fragments, with the work’s narrative crisis somewhat resolved at the end. While Mendelssohn’s theme does not imitate the stops and starts of Beethoven’s, it resembles Beethoven’s theme in contour and harmonic ambiguity. Most of Mendelssohn’s themes are more complete and regular. However, he begins by morphing a single motive into the theme in a Beethoven-like manner. Like the Beethoven piece’s struggle between the march theme and the sustained theme, Mendelssohn’s piece also includes a contrapuntal tension between two themes. These characteristics of Beethoven’s late works were controversial in his time, and Mendelssohn’s more measured and structured interpretation of those elements in his Op. 13 was his own commentary on those works.

Works: Mendelssohn: String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13.

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor, Op. 132; Mendelssohn: Sinfonia in F Minor, Op. 11 (110-14).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

That Stephen Foster's style was indebted to folksong is unquestioned. However, the source of folksong is not the Negro spiritual as has been assumed, but the folk tunes of England. This is proved by an analysis of structural harmonies. The pattern I-IV-I-V I-IV-I-V-I found in about thirty percent of Foster's songs resembles the seventeenth-century ground Passamezzo Moderno. Thus, Foster's folksongs demonstrate a strong connection to this popular bass pattern rather than to American folk sources.

Works: Foster: The Voice of Bygone Days (136), The Little Ballad Girl (138), Cora Dean (139).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

[Has an extensive discussion of some of the major families of art-song reworkings, De tous biens plaine, Fors seulement, Fortuna desperata, and J'ay pris amours.]

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Sampling techniques in popular music give credence to Walter Benjamin's theory of the "age of reproduction." Recent trends in popular music have seen the resurrection of older popular music through two means: new digital reproductions of otherwise unavailable records; and the integration of samples from older music into new music. There are so many references in today's pop music that we now have references to references of original sources. Authorship and authenticity are problematized in the process. Some popular artists claim that samples and references preserve a popular music archive, but by reproducing these sounds digitally, the human element of original production is lost.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

During his 1828 tour, Nicolò Paganini gained a reputation as a romantic virtuoso that to the present day has obscured the influences of Italian comedy on his compositions, in which his groundbreaking techniques often suggest not rarified virtuosity, but rather farcical gestures and drama. For example, Paganini's imitations of animal sounds surpass mere mimicry and imply comic character types, and his evocations of human voices can suggest operatic dialogue (and in the case of Scène amoureuse, modeling on "Là ci darem la mano" from Mozart's Don Giovanni). Paganini's many variation sets, often upon themes from operas familiar to his audiences, further demonstrate his ability to transform a snippet of borrowed material into a compelling and self-contained drama through rapid changes in register and special effects, which are characteristic of a category of his works that can be called mélange. Recognizing Paganini's apparent debt to the aesthetics as well as the music of opera buffa, farsa, and grottesco ballet in his mélanges helps explain the often unoriginal and seemingly ridiculous nature of his mélanges.

Works: Paganini: Scène amoureuse (382-83, 397), Le streghe (383-85, 390-92, 401-2, 415), Nel cor più mi sento (386-87), I palpiti (387); Robert Schumann: Carnaval (409-412).

Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni (382); Rossini: Di tanti palpiti (387); Franz Xaver Süssmayr and Salvatore Viganò: La noce di Benevento (390-92); Paganini: Carnival of Venice (397-99, 410-12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Music in film plays a key role in depicting point of view. Pre-existing songs may be used to provide ironic commentary, as music may be planted to specifically complement the action onscreen. Stanley Kubrick's Eyes Wide Shut shows Kubrick's increasingly sophisticated use of pre-existing music as he skillfully combines music and image. Four kinds of music are used in this film: a Shostakovich waltz, a Ligeti piano suite, a newly composed score, and pre-existing songs. The Ligeti is used to underscore objective events, while the newly composed score by Jocelyne Pook underscores jealous fantasies. Music goes beyond signifying moods and emotions in Eyes Wide Shut, also pointing out Kubrick's narrational agency.

Works: Stanley Kubrick (director): Sound track to Eyes Wide Shut.

Sources: Dmitri Shostakovich: Jazz Suite, Waltz No. 2 (7-9); György Ligeti: Musica Ricercata (9-13); Jimmy McHugh and Dorothy Fields: I'm in the Mood for Love (16); Isham Jones and Gus Kahn: It Had to Be You (16); Wayne Shanklin: Chanson d'Amour (16); Victor Young and Edward Heyman: When I Fall In Love (16); Harry Warren and Al Dubin: I Only Have Eyes for You (16); Mozart: Requiem (17); Liszt: Nuages gris.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Musical borrowing is discussed within the context of a theoretical discourse on film music, particularly in part I (chapters 1-5). Early and contemporary film music has drawn on several 19th-century genres, including English musical theater (for melodrama) and Wagnerian opera (for leitmotif). Two different yet complementary theories can be used to consider the affective roles of music in film: the semiotic concept of ancrage, in which music anchors the instability of visual signification, and the psychoanalytic theory of suture, which explains the ability of film music to create subjectivity in spectators. The late-19th-century musical aesthetic in the film scores of Max Steiner proves particularly significant in the effect his scores have had on subsequent film composers.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: David Oliver

Gioachino Rossini gained fame and developed his compositional style during his Neapolitan years (1815-1822), yet many of these works were once thought to be lost. The discovery of the manuscripts of several non-operatic Neapolitan works (the cantata Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo, four other cantatas, and the Messa di Gloria) reveals much about Rossini's compositional style. All of these works, especially Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo, contain a significant amount of self-borrowed material, most likely because they were made hastily for specific occasions. The self-borrowing comes in several types: setting a melody to a new voice part, borrowing from two separate sources, keeping the same medium (such as deriving a chorus from another chorus), changing the medium (such as deriving a trio from a chorus), modeling on an earlier composition, and paraphrasing an earlier melody into a new melody.

Works: Rossini: Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo (317-25), Cantata for One Voice and Chorus, Omaggio umiliato a Sua Maestà (317-318, 325-327, 331), Cantata for Three Voices and Chorus (317, 328-330), Messa di Gloria (318, 331-39).

Sources: Rossini: Sigismondo (321), Ciro in Babilonia (321), L'Equivoco stravagante (321), Tenor concerto aria (321), Il Barbiere di Siviglia (321-25, 331), Torvaldo e Dorliska (321-22), Aureliano in Palmira (321), Il Turco in Italia (321), La Scale di Seta (321-22), Demetrio e Polibio (323), Cantata for One Voice and Chorus (330), Matilde di Shabran (331), Mosè in Egitto (336); Haydn: Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser (329).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Techniques of unification in early fifteenth century cyclic masses and mass pairs run far deeper than simply the use of a common motto or tenor. Other musical relationships such as clef combinations, signatures, finalis, number of voices, and mensurations also provided unity. Examples from the MS Bologna, Museo Civico, Bibliografia musicale, Q15, olim Liceo Musiciale 37 (BL) show several techniques of unification. Two Gloria-Credo pairs and one mass cycle by Johannes de Lymburgia show strong use of motto technique. A Gloria-Credo pair by Hugo de Lantins is related by the working out of tenor repetitions more than by motto pairing. An anonymous Gloria-Credo pair (BL 105-107) features what might be called an extended motto technique, in which borrowed canonic material is developed differently between the two movements.

Works: Johannes de Lymburgia: two Gloria-Credo pairs (BL 121-24 and 165b-167) (210-13), Mass fragment (BL 193-96) 213-15), Mass (BL 161-65) (215-18); Hugo de Lantins: Gloria-Credo pair (BL 86-87) (218-222); Anonymous: Gloria-Credo pair (BL 105-107) (222-31).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

There is rarely a single best version for Rossini's operas, since in the first half of the nineteenth century, Italian opera was treated as a collection of individual units which could be rearranged, substituted, or omitted depending on varying local conditions. This dissertation examines all the authentic versions of fourteen operas by Rossini in printed or manuscript sources in order to establish the correct texts for the works. An authentic version is defined as one with which Rossini can be shown to have been directly connected in the capacity of composer, director, or arranger, or one that he personally approved for inclusion in his operas but was composed by somebody else. Although not dealing primarily with borrowing, this dissertation examines Rossini's reuses of his own music in great detail, since he frequently made use of this practice in his operas or in later versions or revivals of the same work. Rossini's self-borrowings are viewed as an important characteristic of his compositional style and as a result of his time and milieu.

Works: Rossini: L'inganno felice (166-172, 190), Tancredi (198-200), L'italiana in Algeri (247), Il barbiere di Siviglia (276-79, 293), Otello (313-14), La Cenerentola (338-39), La gazza ladra (358), Armida (381), Mosè in Egitto, Moïse (307, 434), Maometto (456), Semiramide (490), Le Comte Ory (508), Guillaume Tell (524).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

The archetype of Rossini's overture is defined in order to test attributions of dubious pedigree from his first period of compositional practice (1808-1813). Rossini's self-borrowings in his overtures are examined indirectly but in great detail since they are a very prominent characteristic of his compositional style and can help to solve matters of authorship. An alternate overture to La scala di seta is shown not to be by Rossini on the basis of its borrowing technique. This overture quotes in full two melodies that will appear in later operas by Rossini and Gossett shows that Rossini never uses melodies from an earlier overture in the body of a future opera unless he intends to preface the latter with the same overture. A table with comments about Rossini's self-borrowings is shown on page 15.

Works: Rossini: Zelmira (3), Otello (7, 8), Il Turco in Italia (8), Sigismondo (8), Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (8), Matilde di Sahbran (8), Il barbiere di Siviglia (12, 18), La cambiale di matrimonio (14, 15, 24), L'inganno felice (14), Ciro in Babilonia (14), Il signor Bruschino (15, 24, 25), Adelaide di Borgogna (15), Tancredi (15), Aureliano in Palmira (18), alternative overture to La scala di Seta (22), Bianca e Falliero (22), Le siège de Corinthe (30), L'equivoco stravagante (30, 31).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Bernstein has been concerned with theological meaning in his symphonic works. The acceptance of faith in God is consistently associated with a specific motive (a descending fourth followed by the further descent of a whole- or half-step). This motive invariably appears in the closing and/or opening moments of a work. It appears in Symphony No. 1 (Jeremiah), Symphony No. 2 (The Age of Anxiety), the "Spring Song" from The Lark, Symphony No. 3 (Kaddish), Chichester Psalms, Mass, and Dybbuk. The use of this particular motive may be related to Bernstein's youth since it is common in the liturgy of the High Holy Day music and is also present (as a final cadence) in the Three Festivals of Sukkoth, Passover, and Shavuot. The motive then, "could seep into and take hold of the impressionable mind of a growing musician." It is probably an unconscious association on the part of Bernstein.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Fryderyk Chopin’s Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 contains musical material borrowed from two songs by Franz Schubert, which can be contextualized by the role of the Parisian salon and Schubert’s reception in France. The subject of Chopin’s Prelude is a song without words, depicting two personas (the singer and the piano) who struggle and ultimately fail to recapture a distant song. As Chopin made his entry into Parisian salon culture in the 1830s, Schubert’s music was also being discovered in Paris thanks to the efforts of Franz Liszt and opera singer Adolphe Nourrit, both of whom Chopin associated with. One of the earliest Schubert lieder to reach French salons was Nacht und Träume, D. 827 (published 1825). The textural layout of Chopin’s Prelude strongly resembles the opening of Nacht und Träume, specifically the phrase “Heil’ge Nacht” (holy night). Chopin augments the dissonance of the model, inverting Schubert’s poetic “dream.” Chopin also borrows from another Schubert lied: Der Wanderer, D. 489 (published 1821). Specifically, Chopin borrows the tune of the phrase “mein geliebtes Land” (my beloved land). A second brief motive could also relate to the phrase “wenig froh” (little joy). In alluding to these two Schubert songs in a convoluted manner in his Prelude, Chopin evokes the realm of dreams, a frequent theme in his music. The dream analogy helps to explain the two performer personas in the piece as existing within the mind of the dreamer. The narrative of a troubled performance can further be read as a metaphor for a wanderer’s journey toward an imaginary homeland. The Prelude’s harmonic journey toward (but failing to reach) the “Polish key” of A major supports this reading. A “program” for the Prelude can be created by superimposing the text of the borrowed Schubert songs onto Chopin’s song without words. It is possible that, given the culture of musical reworking in Parisian salons, listeners would have recognized Chopin’s borrowed material and genre bending. Rather than treating the Schubert fragments as quotations, Chopin recontextualizes them to create a multi-layered musical and metaphorical narrative.

Works: Chopin: Prelude in A Minor, Op. 28, No. 2 (12-32)

Sources: Schubert: Nacht und Träume, D. 827 (12-15, 25-26), Der Wanderer, D. 489 (17-20, 25-32)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Vocalese, as referred to in jazz, is the name for a vocal composition created by setting newly composed lyrics to music taken from existing recordings of jazz instrumental music, including the improvised solos. The resulting compositions often require a high degree of vocal virtuosity because the singer is performing music that is not idiomatic for the voice. This practice, which began in the early 1950s and remains popular today, has been unjustly marginalized by most jazz critics, mainly because it does not involve improvisation. Some examples of vocalese are Eddie Jefferson's 1952 Moody's Mood for Love, based on James Moody's I'm in the Mood for Love, Jefferson's version of Charlie Parker's Now's the Time, Jefferson's version of Dizzy Gillespie's Night in Tunisia, and John Hendrick's version of Gillespie's Night in Tunisia.

Works: Jefferson: Moody's Mood for Love (292-94).

Sources: Moody: I'm In the Mood for Love (292-94); Parker: Now's the Time (291); Gillespie: Night in Tunisia (292-93).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Grant argues that Bruckner and Mahler are dissimilar in many respects, which he enumerates, and suggests that the linking of Mahler with Richard Strauss might be more meaningful. Their influence was reciprocal. Part of the last song in Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen may be seen as the ancestor of the final duet in Der Rosenkavalier, and the off-stage fanfares in the outer movements of Mahler's First Symphony may have suggested the off-stage fanfares in Ein Heldenleben. Strauss also influenced Mahler, with apparent connections between Ein Heldenleben and the last movement of Mahler's Eighth Symphony; the neuroticism of Salome and parts of Das Lied von der Erde and the Ninth Symphony; and "wandering" solo violin passages in Strauss's Don Juan and Ein Heldenleben and similar solo violin passages in Mahler's Eighth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

To both exemplify contemporary musical practice and expose the limitations of older music, Abbé Vogler presents a Verbesserung, or revised version, of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater in his analytical and critical commentary Betrachtungen der Mannheimer Tonschule (1778-81). Though Pergolesi's Stabat Mater had received favorable reviews throughout the 1750s, negative criticism began to emerge around 1774. Taking advantage of this reversal of opinion, Vogler revises Pergolesi's work to show the "enlightened" musical idioms of his day. Vogler's revisions are based on a system of scientific laws explained in his Tonwissenschaft und Tonsetzkunst (1776), a handbook which discusses consonances and dissonances, intervals, chords, scales, and rules for composition. Noting errors in Pergolesi's treatment of harmony, key, and rhythm, Vogler offers several corrections. Pergolesi's irregular patterns and displaced rhythms are exchanged for more regular and periodic writing. Textures are modified by giving the accompanimental parts more varied and individual roles. In opening and closing ritornellos, Vogler often omits repetitions of motives and sharpens the contrast between themes. Although the overall shapes of movements and phrases can undergo significant changes, Vogler usually keeps the original vocal line intact. Overall, Vogler's revisions provide more regular phrasing and a slower-moving bass and allow for more interchange between the inner parts. These alterations, alongside a thicker texture, richer harmonic support, and stronger cadential progressions, transform the style of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater into music of a modern idiom. This, in turn, provides a tangible link between the musical theory and practice of Vogler's time.

Works: Georg Joseph (Abbé) Vogler: Revision of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater, found in Betrachtungen der Mannheimer Tonschule.

Sources: Pergolesi: Stabat Mater.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Richard Strauss and Hugo von Hofmannsthal’s 1924 “reform and modernization” of Beethoven’s Die Ruinen von Athen invokes the mythology of Beethoven and classical Greece as ideals that need to be restored in post-war German culture. Before Ruinen, Strauss and Hofmannsthal had collaborated on numerous ballet projects, blending Hofmannsthal’s philosophy of dance as regeneration and Strauss’s connection of dance with nostalgia. The collaborators’ reworked Ruinen von Athen developed as an amalgamation of Beethoven’s 1801 ballet Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus and incidental music for the play Die Ruinen von Athen, two works about the loss of art and culture. Strauss’s largest compositional contribution to the project comes in the melodrama, in which Strauss quotes Beethoven’s Third and Fifth Symphonies. The melodrama presents Beethoven as interpreted by Strauss, who emphasizes a heroic, Nietzschean interpretation of Beethoven. Strauss explored similar ideas of metaphysical longing in earlier works such as Eine Alpensinfonie, and the philosophical underpinnings of these works and Ruinen continued to be relevant throughout Strauss’s career. Despite its commercial failure, Die Ruinen von Athen represents an important aspect of Strauss’s artistic philosophy, calling for the rebirth of German culture in the spirit of Beethoven and ancient Greece.

Works: Richard Strauss and Hugo von Hofmannsthal: Die Ruinen von Athen (636-653)

Sources: Beethoven: Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (637-39), Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (637-39), Symphony No. 3 in E-Flat Major, Op. 55 (637-39, 645-53), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (637-39, 645-53)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Schoenberg and his circle were quite opposed to a return to past forms to compensate for the problems of composing in a new harmonic language. Yet, at least some of them desired a return back to some compositional techniques of the past; for example, Webern wished to return to a polyphonic manner of thinking. Berg is no exception, and he demonstrates this in Wozzeck, the Kammerkonzert,Lulu, and the Violin Concerto. In each of these compositions, Berg employs cantus firmus technique, specifically chorale variations. The primary motivator in the treatment of the cantus firmus stems from his desire to produce dramatic action, even in the non-operatic works, and to provide meaning for the texts uttered by the characters in his operatic compositions. Berg's treatment of the chorale variations includes fugato, diminution, canon, and other various types of counterpoint. Furthermore, in the passages examined here, Berg creates the accompanying voices from the cantus firmus, allowing for greater unity in a contrapuntal context.

Works: Berg: Wozzeck (57-58), Kammerkonzert (58-59), Lulu (59-62), Violin Concerto (62-65).

Sources: Bach: Es ist genug (63).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Spain’s rap music scene was influenced by the dramatic increase of immigrants who settled in the country at the beginning of the twenty-first century, particularly immigrants from Africa. Because music is widely considered the most important medium for articulating black identities, the music of Spanish MCs Frank T and El Chojín are effective case studies for us to examine how rap artists carve out identities for themselves and others. Paul Gilroy explores such diasporic trends from Africa across the Atlantic, but his model is not broad enough to include other routes of cultural exchange or non-Anglo-Saxon experiences. Therefore, a more nuanced reading of Gilroy’s idea of a Black Atlantic as the Spanish Black Atlantic makes room for nationality beyond race. The hip-hop performed within this Spanish-black conceptual space is less about creating new texts than about creating new meanings and interpretations of existing texts.

Works: Frank T: An Optimist and a Dreamer (516), To Timeless Music (516), Humor Negro (516), Better Than You, Worse Than You (516), Afrika (517); El Chojín: Things That Happen, That Don’t Happen and That Should Happen (516), He’s Crazy (516), N.E.G.R.O. (516), Sólo para adultos (517), No More (Málaga version) (518); Violadores del Verso: Only Solace Remains (517).

Sources: Louis Armstrong: We Have All the Time in the World (515); Eddie Bo: On Work (516); Anonymous: Damn, Bro’/Bad Luck (516), Skills (516), Things that Happen (516); Jimi Hendrix: Voodoo Child (Slight Return) (516); The Spinners: It’s a Shame (516); David Axelrod: The Warning Talk (Pt. 4) (516); Galt MacDermot: Harlem by Day (516); Riz Ortolani: Teresa L’illusa (516); Bob Cranshaw and Donald Byrd: House of the Rising Sun (517); Baro´n Ya bu´ k-lu and Frank T: Mama Afreeka (517); Charlie Parker: Cosmic Rays (517); Raphael: No Matter What They Say (518).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Nepalese “mix music” utilizes the latest technologies to produce music which borrows sound bites and sonic styles from both foreign popular music and indigenous music. These “mixes” rapidly juxtapose musical styles without an organizing form, and seek to celebrate sonic multiplicity instead of idiomatic unity. Yet despite the sonic similarity or sameness of the new work and its source materials, the meaning of the new music becomes different from that of the sources’ cultural and contextual meanings. These differences in meaning are illuminated through ethnographic methods, as can be seen in Nepalese heavy metal and in Nepalese mixes.

Works: Mongolian Hearts: Unbho Unbho (178-79); Brazesh Khanal: Deusee rey extended mix (180-82).

Sources: Anonymous: Deusee rey (180).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Puccini's musical borrowing from Verdi can be best understood through an analogy to the "mirror image" from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There. The mirror image of Verdi's Don Carlos (1867, 1884) appears in Puccini's one-act opera Suor Angelica (1918), on the levels of characterization, declamation, timbre, tonality, and dramatic syntax. A comparison between the scenes of La Zia Principessa and Angelica in Suor Angelica and Philip and the Grand Inquisitor in Don Carlos illuminates Puccini's imitation, modeling, and recomposition techniques. Puccini's female-dominant characterization contrasts to Verdi's more "masculine" cast. Puccini used Verdi as a model for the dramatic relationship between the characters, atmosphere, action, particular arrangement of scenery, monologue, dark vocal sonorities, and tonal development. The greatest similarities are in the middle sections of the two scenes when the characters explore their most intimate desires both musically and dramatically. Puccini's scene can be seen as a reincarnation and a contrafactum of Verdi's. Like his contemporaries Schoenberg, Stravinsky, and Bartók, Puccini struggled with ways to "remake the past" as he experienced conflict with his own musical lineage.

Works: Puccini: Suor Angelica.

Sources: Verdi: Don Carlos.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

The importance of drums in hip-hop is often overlooked, but the drums establish the groove, emphasize the vocal style, and enhance the music beyond its vocal content. Ingrid Monson's discussion of repetition in African diasporic musics and Olly Wilson's concept of the heterogeneous sound ideal in African and African American musics can both be applied to the sonic role of drumming. Both sampling and drum machines play integral roles in hip-hop drumming, but the drum machine is more flexible than a sample because drum machines allow subtle changes to the beat without the necessity of a live performer. A Tribe Called Quest's Everything Is Fair, for example, mimics the delivery of Clyde Stubblefield's drum break in James Brown's Funky Drummer, but incorporates further syncopation and a pause before the downbeat emphasis.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Everything Is Fair (268-70).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (261-63, 268-70).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Background information on the Dies Irae sequence notes no records of the melody's origins and attributes the text to Thomas of Celano. Composers have used the chant in two ways: (1) as an integral part of their settings of the Requiem Mass in its proper context; (2) in secular works, often in a debased form to help create the appropriate diabolical or supernatural atmosphere. Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique was the first in a Romantic trend of using this theme associated with death and the last judgment in its most terrible aspects. The character of the melody's significance has changed significantly from its original connotation. Composers of the Romantic era used the melody for its associations with terror and dread, while ignoring the message of hope that is also explicit in the words. Some manifestations of the Dies Irae melody served as models for other composers to follow. One example is Liszt's Dante Symphony, which influenced Mussorgsky's Songs and Dances of Death and Tchaikovsky's Francesca da Rimini. In the twentieth century, the tradition was kept alive by Sergei Rachmaninaov, who used the Dies Irae to represent evil spirits in the Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini.

Works: Berlioz: Requiem (135), Symphonie Fantastique (135-36); Alfred Bruneau: Requiem (135); Liszt: Totentanz (136, 137); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death (136); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (137); Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (137), In Dark Hell (137), Suite in G Major (137); Rachmaninoff: Tone Poem, Op. 29 (138), Symphonic Dances, Op. 45 (138), Symphony No. 3 (138), Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini (138); Vaughan Williams: Tudor Portraits (138).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang, Randy Goldberg

Joseph-Marie Lo Duca’s 1952 sonorized version of Carl Theodor Dreyer’s 1928 silent film La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc has been widely criticized for its alterations to Dreyer’s negatives, but its soundtrack, constructed primarily from recordings of Baroque music, has received considerably less attention. Much of the soundtrack was taken from two commercial LPs that championed the music of Tomaso Albinoni (including the fraudulent Adagio in G Minor). Some inclusions—particularly Alessandro Scarlatti’s Passion According to St. John, the only piece to be recorded exclusively for the film—have a clear resonance with the themes of the film. Others, like the three Bach organ chorale preludes, have a less clear textual motivation. Two apparently improvised organ pieces in Baroque style are also included in the soundtrack. From these recordings, Lo Duca separated out individual movements and rearranged the material to create a nearly continuous soundtrack. Other than a recitative used in the opening scene, Scarlatti’s Passion is only heard in the final fifteen minutes of the film, although there is no consideration for the text of particular movements. Most of the music is not closely related to the action on screen, highlighting common issues with using metrically predictable Baroque music in a film context. Some scenes, however, exhibit a more overt relationship between sound and visuals. For instance, the Agnus Dei chant is used diegetically during a ceremony of Eucharist. While Lo Duca’s methodology gives up control of fine-grained integration of sound and image, it does exemplify the phenomenon of aleatoric synchronization, whereby unanticipated correlations emerge between sound and image due to the ambiguity and “stickiness” of musical signifiers. This is demonstrated by the two scenes containing Albinoni’s Adagio in G Minor (actually composed by Remo Giazotto). Despite the film not being cut to the music, there are many close correspondences between the rhythm of the edit and the rhythm of the music during the courtroom scene. In a later scene in which guards mock Jeanne, the portentous Adagio creates tonal friction with the comedic visual tone, rendering it ironic rather than sympathetic. This aleatoric synchronization challenges the notion that a film’s visuals always outweigh the music and suggests a more complex relationship between the two domains.

Works: Joseph-Marie Lo Duca (compiler): soundtrack to La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc (30-42, 43-46); Peter Weir (director): soundtrack to Gallipoli (39)

Sources: Remo Giazotto (composer), Tomaso Albinoni (attributed to): Adagio in G Minor (30-33, 36-42, 43-46); Alessandro Scarlatti: Passion According to St. John (31-32, 43-46); Bach: Ich ruf’ zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ, BWV 639 (31-32, 43-46), Nun komm’ der Heiden Heiland, BWV 659 (31-32, 43-46), O Mensch, bewein’ dein’ Sünde gross, BWV 622 (31-32, 43-46); Anonymous (plainchant): Agnus Dei XVI (31, 33, 43-46); Vivaldi: Concerto for Two Violins and Two Cellos in G Major, Op. 4, No. 1, RV 575 (33, 43-46), Concerto in G Major, RV 275 (35, 43-46); Tomaso Albinoni: Sinfonia in G Minor, Op. 2, No. 6 (43-46), Concerto à 5 in D Major, Op. 5, No. 3 (43-46), Concerto for Oboe in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3 (43-46); Francesco Geminiani: Concerto Grosso in G Minor, Op. 3, No. 2 (43-46); Giuseppe Torelli: Concerto à 4 in G Major, Op. 6, No. 1 (43-46); Giovanni Battista Sammartini: Sinfonia in G Major, J-C 39 (43-46)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The physical act of practicing and performing “Obsession,” the first movement of Eugène Ysaÿe’s Sonata No. 2 for Solo Violin, uncovers meanings in the work related to both an obsession with Bach’s music and a physical possession by a demonic Bach in the vein of the devil-violin trope of virtuosity. The performed obsession with Bach begins in the opening figure of Ysaÿe’s sonata, a quotation of the opening to Bach’s E-Major Partita. From there, Ysaÿe continues into a rapid passage resembling the contour of Bach’s partita but one semitone off, suggesting an attempt to wrestle the musical line away from Bach. Ysaÿe continues to quote figures from Bach’s violin music throughout the movement. The obsessive effect of these quotations relies more on the muscle memory a seasoned violinist gains with Bach’s violin music than strictly mental memory. The piece feels like Bach more than it sounds like Bach, representing a more subtle and insidious influence from the venerated composer. Performing “Obsession” also calls to mind the history of the demonically possessed virtuoso violinist, most directly through frequent quotation of the Dies irae. Ysaÿe first quotes the Dies irae in a bariolage texture, evoking the physical sensation of playing Bach’s distinctive bariolage passages without sonically evoking Bach. In combination, the aural quotations of the Dies Irae and the physical quotations of Bach’s violin music can create the experience (in performance) of being demonically possessed by Bach. The irreverent nature of the Bach quotations further evokes this “rock-star” virtuoso feeling. This kind of embodied musical analysis underlines the importance of considering the body when theorizing about music.

Works: Eugène Ysaÿe: Sonata No. 2 for Solo Violin, Op. 27 (65-76)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Partita for Violin No. 3 in E Major, BWV 1006 (66-70, 72-76), Sonata for Violin Solo No. 2 in A Minor, BWV 1003 (69-70); Attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (71-76)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1600s

Cover versions of songs invite analysis of the effects of musical change, particularly when cover versions cross lines of gender, sexuality, race, place, class, and language. For example, Judy Collins's cover of Bob Dylan's Just Like a Woman can be read as a monologue, a lesbian version, an address to another woman, or a strict rendition of the original because Collins does not change any of the gendered pronouns from Dylan's original lyrics. Additionally, covers across race lines may either appropriate stylistic elements from the original or rewrite the cover version in a different style. International or cross-language covers often designate English as the hegemonic norm and raise questions about the use of another language as merely an exotic type of instrument. A discography of all music discussed is included.

Works: Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Thelma Houston (performer): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Communards (performers): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Roberta Flack (performer): Just Like a Woman (52-53); Bob Dylan (songwriter), Judy Collins (performer): Just Like a Woman (53-54); John Gluck, Wally Gold, and Herb Weiner (songwriters), Bryan Ferry (performer): It's My Party (54); Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Elvis Presley (performer): Hound Dog (55-56); Little Richard (songwriter), Pat Boone (performer): Long Tall Sally (55-57); Hank Williams (songwriter), Ray Charles (performer): Your Cheatin' Heart (55, 57, 59-60); Paul Simon (songwriter), Simon and Garfunkel (performers): Bridge Over Troubled Water (58-59); Paul Simon (songwriter), Aretha Franklin (performer): Bridge Over Troubled Water (59).

Sources: Kenneth Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert (songwriters), Harold Melvin and the Bluenotes with Teddy Pendergrass (performers): Don't Leave Me This Way (52); Bob Dylan: Just Like a Woman (52); John Gluck, Wally Gold, and Herb Weiner (songwriters), Lesley Gore (performer): It's My Party (54); Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Big Mama Thornton (performer): Hound Dog (55-56); Little Richard: Long Tall Sally (55-57); Hank Williams: Your Cheatin' Heart (55, 57, 59-60); Claude Jeter (songwriter), Swan Silvertones (performers): Mary Don't You Weep (58-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

The move from quotation to integration can be summarized under four headings: (1) Out of the Past, (2) Out of the East, (3) Collage, and (4) Integration. The music of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was too close to composers' own time to be approached without an ironic detachment, so the much more distant past can be used without being labeled conservative. Plainsong melodies and twentieth-century techniques of variation are used by Peter Maxwell Davies to create un-fifteenth-century sounding melodies. For example, his opera Taverner uses the sequence Victimae paschali laudes, which is parodied and used as a symbol of the Resurrection. Davies uses plainsong to question his own music and methods and those of his contemporaries, in an attempt to convince himself of his work's genuineness. The East has exerted a marked influence on composers since 1950, including Messiaen, Cage, Reich, and LaMonte Young. The percussion-based ensembles in works by Boulez and Stockhausen have exotic Eastern resonances, but this influence has been seen less in works by Eastern composers themselves. Takemitsu, for example, seems to be more inspired by Debussy, Boulez, and Feldman than any particular Eastern orientation. Collages have been composed in order to test the present against the past, and vice versa, and to improve audience contact by providing a familiar subject. Cage's works of the 1960s, such as Williams Mix, Fontana Mix, Variations IV, and HPSCHD, were attempts to bring together real-world sounds and composed music (both live and on tape), often including much multi-media apparatus. Bernd Alois Zimmermann, however, often brings together musical worlds with the intent of setting the quoted material in relief, in direct contrast to the methods of Cage, whether it comes from Bach, Prokofiev, or Berg. Integration is similar in style to collage, but the two differ greatly in intent. In integration, the original material is suppressed in order to serve the new work, as is the case in the third movement of Berio's Sinfonia. The assembly of so many quotations is accomplished so well that the work may well be considered a new creation. Again unlike Cage, the work is an organized picture of disorder, rather than disorder itself. Stockhausen's Hymnen is also an integration, this time of national anthems. Recordings of various anthems are intermodulated within each other, setting up juxtapositions of the anthems. Hymnen sets up a stream of electronic sound around, between, and through the presentation of the anthems, seemingly drifting from one region to another.

Works: Messiaen: Couleurs de la cité céleste (190-91), La Transfiguration de Notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ (191, 196); Peter Maxwell Davies: Taverner (190, 192), Alma redemptoris mater (191), String Quartet (191), Blind Man's Buff (192), St. Thomas Wake (192), First Fantasia on an In nomine of John Taverner (192), Second Fantasia on an In nomine of John Taverner (192-93), Worldes Blis (192-93), Ave maris stella (193), Prolation (193), St. Michael Sonata (193), Symphony (193), A Mirror of Whitening Light (193-5); Jean-Claude Eloy: Equivalences (197), Faisceaux-diffractions (197), Kamakala (197), Shanti (197); Henze: L'autunno (197); Tristan (197); Stockhausen: Telemusik (199-200, 206-7, 210, 213); Cage: Credo in Us (200), Variations V (200-201), Fontana Mix (200), Theatre Piece (201), Variations IV (201); Cage and Lejaren Hiller: HPSCHD (201); Eric Salzman: The Nude Paper Sermon (201); Crumb: Ancient Voices of Children (202), Night of the Four Moons (202); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Die Soldaten (202), Antiphonen (202), Nobody knows the trouble I see (202), Présence (202), Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (202-3), Photopsis (203), Monologe (203-5); Michael Tippett: Symphony No. 3 (203); Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15 in A Major (203); Mauricio Kagel: Ludwig van (203), Variationen ohne Fuge (203-8); Stockhausen: Kurzwellen (206), Opus 1970 (206-7); André Boucourechliev: Ombres (206, 220); Berio: Sinfonia (207-9, 219-20); Stockhausen: Hymnen (210-13); Henri Pousseur: Echos de Votre Faust (213), Jeu de miroirs de Votre Faust (213), Votre Faust (213), Miroir de Votre Faust (213-14), Couleurs croisées (214), Les ephemeredes d'Icare (214), Mnemosyne II (214), Racine (214), Répons (214), Invitation à l'utopie (214), Icare apprenti (214), Die Eprobrung des Petrus Hébraïcus (214-15), Stravinsky au future (215), L'effacement du Prince Igor (215, 217); Peter Schat: Canto general (216, 218), To you (216); George Rochberg: Blake Songs (219), Contra mortem et tempus (219), Music for the Magic Theater (219), String Quartet No. 1 (219), String Quartet No. 2 (219), String Quartet No. 3 (219), Symphony No. 2 (219), Symphony No. 3 (219), Violin Concerto (219).

Sources: Machaut: Messe de Notre Dame (189); Plainchant: Victimae paschali laudes (190); Monteverdi: Vespers (191); Plainchant: Dies irae (193); Berg: Wozzeck (202); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (203); Mahler: Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (208), Symphony No. 4 in G Major (208); Henri Pousseur: Votre Faust (213); Stravinsky: Agon (215-16); Webern: Variations, Op. 27 (216).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Ralph Vaughan William’s Seventh Symphony, Sinfonia Antartica, is a reworking of his score to the 1948 film Scott of the Antarctic, and this connection reveals the relationship between the complex national mythology of Captain Robert Falcon Scott’s ill-fated 1910–1913 Antarctic Expedition and the diverse musical influences of Vaughan Williams’s late compositions. Sketchbooks suggest that Vaughan Williams began developing the score to Scott of the Antarctic before shooting on the film began, drawing on the popularity of the Scott Expedition during the Second World War and its strong association with English nationalism. Shortly after the film’s premiere, Vaughan Williams discussed reusing material from the score to create a symphony, which eventually premiered as Sinfonia Antartica in 1953. Sinfonia Antartica straddles the line between absolute and programmatic content, confounding some critics. Structurally, the five movements are framed in balanced symmetry centered around the third movement, “Landscapes.” Several cues from the film score are reworked into Sinfonia Antartica, giving their original narrative functions deeper spiritual purpose. The addition of the organ particularly works to elevate the Antarctic environment and the story of Scott’s expedition to metaphysical significance. The icy landscape draws people toward it but is ultimately desolate and empty, mirroring the existential crisis of faith in English art following World War II.

Works: Ralph Vaughan Williams: Sinfonia Antartica (118-34)

Sources: Ralph Vaughan Williams: score to Scott of the Antarctic (118-34)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Musical semantics and quotation have garnered considerable attention in music scholarship, but there are still several problems that must be addressed. The diversity of musical quotation techniques, the numerous ways they may relate to each other, and questions of how a quotation works within a new composition pose difficulties for researchers, who are at risk of overanalyzing or misinterpreting a work. To that end, scholars must demonstrate that a musical quotation in a new piece was intentional and purposefully placed for someone’s benefit or recognition (usually the intended listener or likely audience). Furthermore, musical quotation has a long, relatively unexplored history, with composers reusing existing music in practical ways (as well as other aesthetically driven ways) since the sixteenth century, and scholars must make distinctions regarding the different types and purposes of musical quotation, which can vary widely from era to era or even piece to piece.

For works composed prior to the twentieth century, quotations are “in tension” with the new material around it: noticeable and distinct, but still integrated, and the treatment of the borrowed material helps determine its meaning in the new context. A much larger problem arises in modern music from Mahler to Stockhausen, which employ so many different quotations and allusions from different historical eras and styles that it is difficult to tell which elements are “central” to the composition and which are “borrowed” or “foreign bodies.” Moreover, even when listeners have access to a composer’s input through program notes or commentary, they are often at pains to hear the individual quotations and borrowed materials. Modern-day pluralistic, collage-like pieces such as Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia pose new challenges for semantics, analysis, and interpretation, and there is still much disagreement among composers and scholars over how such music is to be understood.

Works: Jacquet de Mantua: Dum vastos Adriae fluctus (123); Andreas Zweiller: Magnificat (124); Clemens non Papa: Drei Magnificat from Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, Vol. 4 (125); Cipriano de Rore: Ancor che col partire (126); Adriano Banchieri: La pazzia senile (126); Francesco Rovigo: Magnificat “Benedicta es caelorum” (127); Georg Herner: Magnificat (127); Pietro Antonio Bianco: Magnificat (127); Stockhausen: Hymnen (130), Telemusik (130); Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (131-32).

Sources: Palestrina: Vestiva i colli (126); Lassus: Fleur de quinze ans (127); Jacob Regnart: Venus du und dein Kind (127); Giovanni Croces: Percussit Saul mille (127); Gustav Mahler: Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (“Resurrection”) (132); Richard Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier (132); Ravel: La Valse (132); Beethoven: Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 (“Pastoral”) (132).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: General, 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

During his studies with Zachow, Handel is known to have copied works by the Viennese organist and composer Johann Caspar Kerll. Handel's sketches for Messiah reveal that the double counterpoint at the opening of the fugue "Let all the angels of God" was derived from a canzona by Kerll (no. 14 of the modern edition). Considering this borrowing along with the self-borrowings from the Italian duets that have already been identified in Messiah may shed light on how Handel was able to compose the work so quickly.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Handel's last two compositions, the Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3, and the oratorio Jephtha, were both written in 1751 before he became blind, and both borrow from Franz Joseph Habermann's six masses, Op. 1. These borrowings and his sketches demonstrate Handel's compositional process in two of his prolific genres. Although some of these borrowings were identified in earlier editions of these works, Handel's borrowings in these two works are much more in depth than previously thought. Handel expands Habermann's themes for use as his own themes in this organ concerto, both in the early version of the work and his revision, which creates an equal dialogue between organ and orchestra unusual for his concerti. In Jephtha, Handel uses Habermann's themes to create his own fugue themes in the finale, as well as for many aria melodies. This work represents a more traditional and conservative use of borrowed materials in using borrowed melodies for contrapuntal elaboration. Handel used some of the contrapuntal techniques that Habermann had tried to use for the melodies. Since Handel thought Habermann's efforts were unsuccessful, he attempted to improve upon them in Jephtha. An appendix of the contents of sketches related to Jephtha is included.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3 (22:61-69, 23:27), Jephtha (22:61-62, 23:27-43).

Sources: Franz Joseph Habermann: Mass, Op.1, No. 5 (22:62-64, 23:29, 33), Mass, Op. 1, No. 2 (22:66-67, 23:37, 39-40), Mass, Op. 1, No. 3 (22:68-69, 23:37-39), Mass, Op. 1, No. 6 (23:29-32), Mass, Op. 1, No. 4 (23:29-34, 41), Mass, Op. 1, No. 1 (23:31, 37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Three battle Masses, Janequin's Missa La Bataille, Guerrero's Missa De la batalla escoutez, and Victoria's Missa pro Victoria, are based on Janequin's chanson La Bataille escoutez or La Guerre, and motives from or references to the model are shown to appear throughout the movements of all three. Transcriptions of the Masses by Janequin and Guerrero appear in the appendix.

Works: Janequin: Missa La Bataille (48-131, 251-94); Guerrero: Missa De la batalla escoutez (132-96, 295-348); Victoria: Missa pro Victoria (197-241).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Alfredo Colman

Mikoła Gomółkas’s Melodie na psałterz polski, his only surviving work, contains 152 short psalm settings which actively reflect the composer’s interest in Calvinist theology and humanistic philosophy. The settings can be divided into four categories. The first type of settings resembles Protestant chorales, with syllabic melodies and note-against-note accompaniment. The second type was influenced by the secular madrigal and chanson and features free polyphony. The psalms in the third category have more complex settings, with imitation between two or three voices. The last category of psalm settings was influenced by secular genres; pieces in this group either resemble German Lieder or are set in triple meter and have a dance-like character that is similar to an Italian villanelle. Several psalm settings also feature borrowed melodies from a variety of sources, including Gomółkas’s own music, Czech and German hymn books, Polish psalters, and Clemens non Papa’s setting of the Dutch Souterliedekens. Gomółka’s work showcases the cultural multiplicity of Polish society and the popularity of vernacular psalm settings in Poland during the 1500s.

Works: Mikołaj Gomólkas: Melodie na psałterz polski (15-22).

Sources: Clemens non Papa: Souterliedekens (18); Martin Luther: Ein feste Burg (18).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1400s

Schubert’s relationship to Viennese musical tradition and his use of conventional procedures has often been interpreted in scholarship as pure imitation or even plagiarism, and thus a foil to understanding him as a truly original composer. Instrumental music in Schubert’s Vienna, however, tended to be uniform and steeped in convention, and the procedures and structures for traditional genres like the symphony were well defined. To label Schubert’s supposedly “imitative” procedures as markers of plagiarism or lack of originality is to ignore the historical context and creative processes of Schubert’s musical world. Even so, a question arises over how to interpret evidence in Schubert’s symphonies that he modeled large sections or even entire movements after works by Mozart and Beethoven. In the first movement of his Symphony No. 2, for instance, Schubert features a false recapitulation (cued by the woodwinds) seemingly inspired by Mozart’s “Jupiter” Symphony, while the slow movement of Schubert’s “Great” C Major Symphony bears several strong resemblances to the Allegretto of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. While the symphonies composed during Schubert’s late teens can be viewed as the products of a symphonist in training, they also demonstrate some of Schubert’s lifelong stylistic individualisms, such as reminiscences of earlier composers’ music, or reworking traditional procedures from his models in unique and different ways. More general reminiscences can be found in later works such as the String Quintet in C Major, the opening of which can be heard as an extended reworking of the beginning of Haydn’s Symphony No. 97. More specifically, Schubert’s strategies for first-movement recapitulations in several symphonies reveal a composer who is steeped in traditional procedures, while simultaneously developing his own individual voice and seeking out ways to move beyond them.

Works: Schubert: Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major, D. 125 (301, 306-8), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, D. 125 (301), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (302), Rondo in B Minor for Violin and Piano, D. 895 (302), String Quintet in C Major, D. 956 (302, 304), Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D. 944 ("The Great") (302-6), String Quartet in A Minor, D. 804 (303), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (303), Die Götter Greichenlands, D. 677 (303).

Sources: Mozart: Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 (300-1), Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551 ("Jupiter") (300-1); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 16 in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1 (302), Violin Sonata No. 9 in A Major, Op. 47 ("Kreutzer") (302); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major, Hob. I:97 (302); Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 (302-3, 307).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

The popularity of the mash-up, a product of what Wired magazine has termed "cut and paste culture," can be evaluated with regard to Plato's Phaedrus. The idea of writing as a method of fixing an original performance maps onto recording technology and its practice of fixing an aural event in a recording. The mash-up manipulates a recording, undermines its originality and authority, manufactures copies from copies, and combines seemingly incompatible components. For example, Danger Mouse's Grey Album mashes the vocal track of Jay-Z's Black Album with instrumental samples from the Beatles' White Album. The mash-up also appears consistent with Theodor Adorno's assertion that most popular music is easily replicated and substitutable. Mash-ups delight in all of the elements deemed negative by Plato, such as plagiarism, inauthenticity, and repetition.

Works: Danger Mouse (Brian Burton): The Grey Album (490, 498, 502); Mark Vidler: Ray of Gob (491, 497-99).

Sources: The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Ringo Starr): The White Album [The Beatles] (490, 498); Jay-Z: The Black Album (490, 498); Madonna: Ray of Light (497-99); Sex Pistols: Pretty Vacant (497-99), God Save the Queen (497-499).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Transcribing jazz improvisations should entail more than note-by-note recording, especially for advanced performance students. Three additional steps reinforce the pedagogical benefits of transcription: an overall description of what occurs in an improvisation, an assessment of the musical parameters that the improvisation highlights, and an application of that assessment to creating improvisations in a similar style. Analyses of three interpretations of Body and Soul by Bill Frisell, Cassandra Wilson, and Keith Jarrett encourage three different approaches to improvisation. From Frisell, an improvisational model includes incorporating looping technology for repeating aleatoric motives. From Wilson, an improvisational model encourages a singer to replace the notes of a song while keeping its lyrics. Finally, from Jarrett, an improvisational model provides a performer with preset motives that can be manipulated with a large-scale formal trajectory in mind.

Works: Johnny Green: Body and Soul as performed by Bill Frisell (64-66), Cassandra Wilson (66-69), and Keith Jarrett (70-75).

Sources: Johnny Green: Body and Soul (61-62).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

In the fourteenth century, composers of the isorhythmic motet often borrowed the text of a preexisting composition's refrain and stated it at the beginning and/or end of a new composition. These pieces, called motet entées, often alluded to the musical structure and melody of the model as well. Composers sometimes used these quotations as a means of paying homage to another musician. (The most notable of these motets, Ciconia's Sus un fontayne, quotes three ballads by De Caserta.) By the end of the fourteenth century, the art of quotation died out in France, both in the literary and musical realms.

Works: Anonymous: Ma dame m'a congié douné, Dame qui fust si tres bien assenée (55, 61), Je la remirey, la belle greift (60), Pour vous revëoir (61); Andrieus: Armes, amours, dames, chevalerie (58); Anthonello: Dame d'onour (59); Bossu: Jeu du Pélerin (53); Ciconia: Aler m'en veus en strange paartie (62, 66); Sus un fontayne (62-6, 68), Le ray au soleil (65, 67), Quod jacatur (67); Deschamps: Qui saroit bien que c'est d'Amour servir (58); Devise: A bon droyt (65); Vitry: En Albion de fluns environnée (56); Dufay: La belle se siet (68); Franciscus: Phiton, Phiton, beste tres venimeuse (56); Froissart: Ne quier veoir Medée ne Jason, Je puis moult bien ma dame comparer (57), Tresor amoureux, En servant armes et amours (58); Machaut: On ne porroit pen ser ne souhaidier, Jugement dou Roy de Navare, Tant com je vivray, sans meffaire (54); Taillandier: Se Dedalus an sa gaye mestrie (56-7); Trebor: En seumeillant (58). Sources: Andrieus: Armes, amours, dames, chevalerie (58); Caserta: En remirant (62), En atendant (62,64-6), De ma dolour (62, 65); De la Halle: Tant com je vivray (54); De la Mote: Dyodonas (56); Froissart: D'armes, d'amours et de moralité (58); Machaut: Li Regret Guillaume, Comte de Hainaut (54), Se je me planig, je n'en puis mais (55), De fortune me doy plaindre et loer, Phyton, le mervilleus serpent (56), Ne quier vëoir, Je puis trop bien ma dame comparer (57), Prisonnés, Je la remirey sans mesure (60), Soit tart, tempre, main et soir (61), Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous (62); Vaillants: Par maintes foys (59).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1600s