Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Falla's friend Pahissa provides an account of the development of the composer's musical life through a series of anecdotal descriptions of their encounters. Each of Falla's most significant works receives an independent, if brief, descriptive analysis, in which Falla's change from an evocative Spanish idiom to a more severe, abstract universal idiom is noted. The use of folksong quotations (which are mentioned without documentation) changes in accord with style changes. In earlier works, folksongs and folk sounds are used for their picturesque qualities. In the later works, they are subjected to classical developmental techniques.

Works: Falla: Four Spanish Pieces (50-53), Seven Popular Songs (76-79), El amor brujo (87-91), Nights in the Gardens of Spain (93-96), The Three-Cornered Hat (98-104), Hommage pour le tombeau de Debussy (112-13), El retablo de maese Pedro (126-29), Harpsichord Concerto (137-38), Homenajes (145-47).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Beethoven's homage to Napoleon in his Symphony No. 3 has been the subject of much debate and extensive research. Of all the movements in the symphony, it is the Marcia funebre second movement that provides the most telling evidence of Beethoven's allegiance to French Republican music of the 1790s. The passage beginning at m. 19 of the Marcia funebre seems to be a direct parody of a passage from Gossec's Marche Lugubre (beginning at m. 30). Yet most of the musical devices that Beethoven employs--such as the imitations of drumrolls, cadential unison passages, and lyrical hymnlike themes--are not overt borrowings, but rather represent a unique assimilation of conventions culled from the earlier tradition.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

The 1941 film Ivan was produced and directed by Sergei Eisenstein in Moscow, Russia, based on the life of Ivan the Terrible. The film's score, by Sergei Prokofiev, borrows heavily from Russian folk and ecclesiastical idioms to convey nationalistic sentiments. The Russian folk songs "Russian Sea" and "Song of the Beaver" are used and both a "round dance" and an ardent love song are modeled on the folk idiom. Humming of a liturgical chant results in a "devil's parody." Close modeling on the works of Rimsky-Korsakov are evident through the thematic material in his first opera, The Maid of Pskov, a narrative of Ivan the Terrible, and the similarities of folk idiom use in Act III of The Snow Maiden, where the woodland festivities begin with a "round dance" and "Song of the Beaver." Prokofiev may or may not have intentionally borrowed from the folk traditions or from Rimsky-Korsakov, but the fact that the score is so saturated with Russian folk and ecclesiastical idioms shows how conversant he was with his own musical heritage.

Works: Sergei Prokofiev: score for Ivan (179-81).

Sources: Russian traditional song: Russian Sea,Song of the Beaver (179); Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov: The Maid of Pskov,The Snow Maiden,The Tsar's Bride (179).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

This study is an excerpt from Pamer's Ph.D. dissertation (Vienna, 1922). In the first part, the author lists original folksongs Mahler reworked in his own songs (122-23) and discusses their melodic features (136-38). In the second part, Pamer discusses the influence of Mahler's early musical impressions (especially folksongs, military fanfares and marches) on his songs in terms of rhythm, meter and tempo changes, thematic construction, harmony, and tonality. On pp. 125-27 he mentions the re-use of some songs in Mahler's symphonies, giving a very rudimentary interpretation. The musical examples of this second part are mostly taken primarily from Mahler's works and seldom from the material that influenced him.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Pablo de Sarasate and Franz Waxman both composed fantasies for violin based on Bizet’s Carmen. Despite the similarities in thematic content and sectional structure, when compared directly against each other, Sarasate’s fantasy can be seen as highlighting the themes from the opera, while Waxman’s version focuses on the technical skill of the violinist. As both a genre and a style, the fantasy underwent a number of changes from its Baroque origins to the nineteenth century. As the genre developed, composers made fantasies increasingly virtuosic and added idiomatic passages that displayed technical prowess. Carmen proved to be an attractive subject for a violin fantasy because its many lyrical vocal melodies transferred easily to the violin. Sarasate and Waxman use many of the same themes from Carmen for their fantasies, but they ornament these melodies differently. Sarasate’s borrowing of melodies is more direct, as he maintains phrase structure and rhythmic values, while Waxman manipulates the melodies by changing rhythmic durations and adding interpolations. Unlike the Sarasate fantasy, each section of Waxman’s fantasy ends with a violin cadenza. Although Waxman borrowed many of the same techniques that Sarasate used, as a whole, the Waxman fantasy is more demanding of the player.

Works: Pablo de Sarasate: Carmen Fantasy (2, 5, 21, 25, 30-63); Franz Waxman: Carmen Fantasie (2, 5, 21, 25, 54-63).

Sources: Bizet: Carmen (1-3, 22-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Index Classifications: 1700s

Although Brahms is widely received as a champion of absolute music, he often transmitted programmatic clues to his intimate circle while publicly distancing his music from extramusical association, leading to a double reception history. One mode of private reception in Brahms’s music comes from clues left by Brahms in personal correspondence. In one instance, Brahms made references to rain and plagiarism to ensure his correspondents would recognize his song settings of Regenlied and Nachklang as models for his Violin Sonata No. 1 in G Major, Op. 78. Another mode of private reception is Brahms’s use of inscriptions in his autograph scores. Brahms also sent full poetic texts alongside some of his compositions sent to close friends and even received response poems for Opp. 118 and 119. One anonymous poem that Brahms distributed to close friends, a response to the Intermezzo in E-flat Major, Op. 118, No. 6, offers a programmatic reading of the piece that may suggest an affinity between its main theme and the Dies irae. With these extramusical aids, it is evident that much of Brahms’s music is private program music, and a more complete picture of Brahms can be found by studying the traces of this reception history.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8 (111), Violin Sonata No. 1 in G Major, Op. 78 (113-14), Violin Sonata No. 2 in A Major, Op. 100 (114), Intermezzo in E-flat Minor, Op. 118, No. 6 (122-23)

Sources: Schubert: Am Meer from Schwanengesang, D 957 (111); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (111); Brahms: Regenlied, Op. 59, No. 3 (113-14), Nachklang, Op. 59, No. 4 (113-14), Komm bald, Op. 97, No. 5 (114), Immer leise wird mein Schlummer, Op. 105, No. 2 (114); attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (122-23)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

[Focus on Ariadne auf Naxos, Die schweigsame Frau, and Capriccio.]

Index Classifications: 1900s

In bebop music, especially that of Charlie Parker, new compositions were created by composing new melodies to pre-existing chord progressions and forms. By analogy to contrafactum (the practice of fitting a new text to a pre-existing melody), which dates from the Middle Ages or earlier, this technique is called "melodic contrafact." The two most common songs or forms that provided the harmonic and formal material for contrafacts were George Gershwin's I Got Rhythm and the twelve bar blues. Many bebop contrafacts, like Parker's Ornithology,Perhaps, and Cool Blues, employed previously used improvisational "riffs" (short melodic-rhythmic passages). Pragmatic applications of the jazz contrafact include the "jam session," wherein musicians who did not regularly perform together would congregate and improvise on these familiar chord progressions, and recording sessions in which there was a very limited amount of time to record unrehearsed material. In addition, recording companies could avoid paying royalties to the composer of the source song because the chords of a song were not protected by copyright laws. Contrafacts and their harmonic innovations were an outgrowth of bebop ideology, which was characterized by Afro-centrism and emphasis on virtuosity.

Works: Bechet: Shag (3); Parker: Dexterity (3, 13), Ornithology (4, 17), Scrapple From the Apple (4, 13, 19), Now's the Time (4), Relaxin' at Camarillo (4), Klactoveedsedstene (4, 13), Billie's Bounce (4), The Jumpin' Blues (7), Perhaps (7-8), Cool Blues (8, 19); Gillespie: Dizzy Atmosphere (8), Salt Peanuts (9-10); Ellington: Cotton Tail (9); Sampson: Don't Be That Way (9), Carter: Pom Pom (10); Parker: Red Cross (12), Tiny's Tempo (12), Bongo Bop (13-14), Dewey Square (13), The Hymn (13), Bird of Paradise (13), Bird Feathers (13), Quasimodo (14-15), Parker/Gillespie: Moose the Mooche (17, 18), Yardbird Suite (17); Parker: Klaun Stance (18).

Sources: Gershwin: I Got Rhythm (3, 5, 8-13, 17); Kern: All the Things You Are (13, 18); Gershwin: Embraceable You (15); Kern: The Way You Look Tonight (18).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Scott Grieb, Eytan Uslan

Stanley Kubrick sampled over 400 recordings to create the score to 2001: A Space Odyssey, replacing original music by Alex North. While the soundtrack of pre-existing music would become quite popular, some denounced it for being arbitrary and cheaply exploiting classical music. Until recently, these issues have kept the music from being discussed as a musical score. Reading the entire soundtrack as a unit allows it to be understood as a chronological progression of harmonic languages that create unity throughout the film, which emphasizes structure and proportion both visually and aurally. Aural cues also underscore certain themes; for example, the opening of Also Sprach Zarathustra represents birth and becoming. Despite the patchwork form of the soundtrack, borrowed atonal and tonal harmonic streams are effectively utilized to create a score that intersects with the film's narrative.

Works: Stanley Kubrick (director): Sound track to 2001: A Space Odyssey.

Sources: György Ligeti: Atmosphères (448-50, 456-57), Requiem (452-53, 456-57), Lux Aeterna (456-57), Aventures (467-69); Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra (450-52, 455-56); Johann Strauss: The Blue Danube Waltz (453-56); Aram Khachaturian: Gayane (458-61); Mildred Hill: Happy Birthday (461-62); Harry Dacre: Daisy Bell (463-67).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

In his Trio Sonata in D Minor TWV 42:d11, Telemann appears to have borrowed directly from Johann Heinrich Erlebach's VI Ouvertures using the technique of "transformative imitation." This technique is defined as borrowing a motive or phrase from a respected model and adapting the material as part of a new composition, bringing a fresh, critical reading to the piece, and creating a new product. In his second movement, En Menuet, Telemann reworked the first four-bar phrase from Erlebach's Air Menuet I, creating a quasi-imitative texture that was not part of the original, and he also manipulated a cadential block of the model by placing it within the middle of a new phrase. Both of these borrowings helped transform the model from a simple binary form into an extended and highly developed rondeau form. In addition, Telemann may have borrowed from Erlebach in the opening Gravement, though he disguised this heavily through fragmentation and melodic elaboration. Telemann's method of borrowing in these passages mirrors his borrowing of material from the composers Fux and Campra in which he lifted short blocks of material, changed them slightly, and reorganized them within the context of new material.

Works: Telemann: Trio Sonata in D Minor for Two Treble Instruments, TWV 42:d11.

Sources: Erlebach: Overture No. 6 in G Minor from VI Ouvertures.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Telemann's Violin Concerto in B-flat Major and Handel's Overture in D, Ottone, and Sonata à 5 have significant interrelationships. Handel uses the orchestral ritornello opening of the third movement of Telemann's concerto for the fugue subject of his overture in D. Telemann's concerto works well as a source because its solo episodes hint at a fugal outline. Handel expands this subject into a formal fugue in his overture by changing and extending the countersubject. He uses the beginning of this subject again in the greatly extended fugue of the overture to Ottone. This practice of only using the beginning motive of a fugue without preserving other features is a common practice for Handel's borrowings. Although there are several other Handel works which use similar opening gestures, there is no evidence borrowing occurred in these cases. The borrowing between this Telemann concerto and these three Handel works is much more likely because of the personal correspondence and long history of borrowing between the two composers.

Works: Handel: Overture in D, HWV 337 (33-35, 37), Ottone, HWV 15 (33, 35-36); Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33), Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 12 (36).

Sources: Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33-35, 37-38); Handel: Sonata à 5, HWV 288 (33, 38-39); Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow: Keyboard Suite in B Minor (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

A recent study of the manuscript of Telemann's Flute Concerto, Kross Fl. G1 (TWV51:G2) in G major, reveals that the bass part does survive. This discovery allows a reconstruction of the piece. The headings on two solo part copies indicate that the concerto was intended for either oboe or flute solo. These findings make a more significant discovery: J. S. Bach borrowed literally the first three measures of Telemann's opening Largo to the beginning of the slow movement of his Keyboard Concerto in A-flat major, BWV 1056. More studies show that Bach borrowed this musical material prior to the Keyboard Concerto, namely in a D minor Oboe Concerto, and the opening Sinfonia to his Cantata of 1729, Ich steh mit einem Fuss in Grabe, BWV 156.

Works: J. S. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in A-flat Major, BWV 1056/ii (45).

Sources: Telemann: Flute Concerto in G Major, TWV 51: G2 (Kross Fl. G 1) (45).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

In his song cycle An die entfernte Geliebte, Beethoven shows awareness of the whole tradition of compositions written for "song circles" and writes to meet the conventional expectations of hidden symbolism. Specifically, the cycle contains reworked material from Ries's "An die Erwählte" from his Sechs Lieder von Goethe.

Works: Beethoven: An die entfernte Geliebte.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

The numerous variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the opera La Molinara demonstrate Paisiello's extensive and lasting influence throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century and serves as a touchstone for examining the trajectory of variations procedures during this time. Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" emerged in at least three contexts. First, singers elaborated upon the work, essentially creating their own variations. Second, opera fantasias and chamber music provided a ready forum for variations on the tune, especially in cities where La Molinara was well-received. Finally, the growth of the market for published arrangements prompted popular variations on the tune. Between 1790 and 1820, variations remained close to Paisiello's classical style, and arrangements from this period generally were for private use. After 1820, emerging virtuosos also took up "Nel cor più non mi sento," using expanded proportions and new techniques. Although variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" were readily available in sheet music form in the United States throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1850 its popularity had faded.

Works: Mr. Meyer, arr.: "Ah, Will No Change of Clime," from Inkle and Yarico (43-45); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (44-47); Beethoven: Six Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento," WoO 70 (47, 51-53); Josepha Barbara von Auernhammer: Six Variations for the Harpsichord on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (49-51); Joseph Gelinek: Six Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the Opera "La Molinara" for Harpsichord or Pianoforte (49-52); Felix Janiewicz: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53); Joseph Mazzinghi: Madam Catalani's Celebrated Air (53); Louis Drouet: Variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Fernando Sor: Fantasie pour la Guitare avec des Variations sur l'Aire de Paisiello "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Paganini: Nel cor più non mi sento (54-56), Giovanni Bottesini: Nel cor più non mi sento: Variazioni de Bottesini per Contrebasse (54-55); Mauro Giuliani: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" von Paisiello en Polonaise, Op. 113, for guitar and piano (55-56); Luigi Legnani: Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from "La Molinara" by Paisiello, Op. 16 (55-56); Bartolomeo Bortolazzi: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Mandoline und Gitarre, Op. 8 (55-56); Luigi Castellacci: Nel cor più non mi sento Nouvellement Varié, Op. 35 (56-57); Johann Wenth: Variations sur un theme de G. Paisiello de l'opera "La Molinara" (57); Johann Baptist Vanhal: Sechs Variationen über das Theme "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte (Violin) und Gitarre, Op. 42 (57-58); Friedrich Silcher: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte und Klavier (57-58); Theobald Boehm: Nel cor più, Op. 4 (57-58); Heinrich Neumann: Theme und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" (57-59); Johann Wilhelm Wilms: The Favorite Air of Hope Told a Flattering Tale (57-58); Charles Bochsa: Thema und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento," Op. 10 (59); Walter P. Dignam: Hope Told a Flattering Tale, E-Flat Cornet Air Varié (60).

Sources: Paisiello: "Nel cor più non mi sento," from La Molinara (43-62); Mozart: Piano Concerto in C Minor, K. 491 (49-50); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Pelnar shows that two separately notated parts in the Wolkenstein manuscript A (fols. 17r and 18r) belong together, constituting the song Frölichen so wel wir, which in turn is a contrafactum of the ballad Ay je cause destre lies et joyeux. In this and a second contrafactum (Frölich, zärtlich, lieplich based on the rondeau En tes doulz flans), Pelnar shows that in order to realize a better relation between the new text and the music, Oswald also made some melodic and rhythmic changes.

Works: Oswald von Wolkenstein: Frölichen so wel wir (26-30), Frölich, zärtlich, lieplich und klärlich, lustlich, stille, leise (31-32).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Jewish composer Giacomo Meyerbeer used Jewish musical and literary references in his operas. However, likely due to the anti-semitic tendencies in European culture in the nineteenth century, he did this almost without anyone noticing. In Jephtas Gelüdbe, Meyerbeer inserts a particular Jewish message, but the opera is generally devoid of Jewish music. Of interest regarding the inclusion of Jewish musical influences are Meyerbeer’s operas Les Huguenots, Le Prophète, and Vasco da Gama. In Les Huguenots, Meyebeer uses the stylistic elements of cantorial singing in arias. In Le Prophète, Meyerbeer includes a Kaddish, a Jewish prayer, as well as the Hebrew chant El Adon by Samuel Naumburg. By using Naumburg’s chant, Meyerbeer is following an old practice in which he honors other musicians by using their music. The opera Vasco da Gama includes a theme from the play Der Paria, which was written by Meyerbeer’s brother, Michael Beer, as well as a quotation from Halévy’s opera Charles VI, “Guerre aux Tyrans.” In addition to Jewish influences, Meyerbeer also self-borrows in his operas. For instance, in Les Huguenots and Le Prophète, Meyerbeer includes his own music from Jephtas Gelüdbe.

Works: Jacques Fromental Halévy: La Juive (43-44), Le Juif Errant (43), Noe (43); Giacomo Meyerbeer: Jephtas Gelüdbe (43, 45-46, 53), Les Huguenots (43, 46-47, 51), Vasco da Gama (43, 49-52), Le Prophète (43, 46-48); Anonymous: Zemirot Yisroel (47); Michael Beer: Streuensee (52), Clytemnestra (52).

Sources: Giacomo Meyerbeer: Jephtas Gelüdbe (46); Anonymous: Kaddish (47); Samuel Naumburg: El Adon (47-49); Michael Beer: Der Paria (49-52); Jacques Fromental Halévy: “Guerre aux Tyrans” from Charles VI (50).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Monophonic works identified in medieval sources as motets lie outside our traditional definition of the motet. Although not all monophonic motets were motets entés in the commonly understood sense of borrowing refrains, the concept of grafting (enté) between monophonic and polyphonic repertories was integral to this genre of monophonic motets, as attested to by both medieval theoretical sources and modern analysis. By relating monophonic motets to sampling in today's popular music, one can gain insights about the intertextual nature of monophonic motets and the ways in which they engage their audience through technology (notational) and literacy (musical and textual). For example, the motet D'amor nuit et jor me lo (F-Pn fr. 845), although recorded in nonmensural notation like the other monophonic motets in its source, has notational peculiarities that suggest that it was transcribed from a voice of a polyphonic work recorded in mensural notation. Moreover, "grafting," whether in music or in gardening, implies a sense of cultural refinement that raises the motet enté to a level of technical and intellectual superiority. These motets represent a moment of transition in recording technology (notation and literacy), drawing from both the trouvère tradition, which was monophonic and orally transmitted, and the motet tradition, which grew out of an intellectual and literate context.

Works: Anonymous: En non Dieu c'est la rage (646-49, 674), Quant plus sui loig de ma dame (654-44), D'amor nuit et jor me lo (652, 660-62), Onc voir par amours n'amai (663-64), Bone amourete m'a souspris (664-66), Han, Diex! ou purrai je trouver (672-74).

Sources: Adam de la Halle: Bonne amourete mi tient gai (664-66); Anonymous (from Le roman de Fauvel): Ve qui gregi deficiunt (672-74).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi, Kerry O'Brien, Virginia Whealton

Scholarship on hip hop sampling tends to describe the practice in terms of cultural memory and musical tradition, but these concepts are often left unexamined and uncontextualized and are not adequately tested against hip hop producers’ own commentary on their work. The early 1990s turn to jazz as a sample source in hip hop provides a case study to develop this theory. The emergence of hip hop sampling as a topic of academic study in the 1990s was predicated on contemporary scholarship on cultural memory and tradition, particularly works envisioning black musical practices as spaces in which socialized memories are performed, shaping the way sampling was understood in theory. The practice of jazz sampling emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s with groups like Gang Starr, De La Soul, and particularly A Tribe Called Quest. The new subgenre of jazz rap was initially understood as a link between generations, demonstrating that jazz and hip hop both stem from the same roots. Although some critics and practitioners likened hip hop to jazz in their sonic citations and underground status, the core hip hop audience saw a clear divide between hip hop and jazz, which was perceived as being stuck in the past. The theory of hip hop sampling as generational reunification is similarly complicated by the low opinion of hip hop held by the older generation in the 1990s. Concurrent to the emergence of jazz sampling was a resurgence of jazz music and the creation of a jazz canon, projects led by Wynton Marsalis and his associates. However, the vast majority of jazz music sampled by producers in the 1990s was not from Marsalis’s canon. Instead, commercially successful jazz records of the 1970s—the antithesis to Marsalis’s idea of canonical jazz—became the primary source of samples, likely owing to their prominence in the childhoods of hip hop artists. With these complications, the traditional understanding of sampling as writing history does not capture the nuance of the practice of jazz sampling in hip hop.

Works: Gang Starr: Jazz Thing (283, 286, 289, 296); A Tribe Called Quest: The Low End Theory (283-84, 295)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Cantus firmus masses with multiple borrowings were written by both contemporaries and precursors of Johannes Martini, a point J. Peter Burkholder failed to stress in his article on Martini (1985). In particular, Okegehm constitutes an important pre-Martini example of a composer writing cantus firmus masses with multiple borrowings. A chronology of borrowing practices may be established by examining who emulated whom. Regardless of the terminology chosen, the fundamental difference between masses with cantus firmi derived from chant and those derived from polyphonic pieces is that the latter preserve, literally or proportionally, the rhythm of the borrowed material, while the former do not. It is better on the whole, however, to use the term cantus firmus mass for all those works built around a borrowed melody.

Works: Févin: Missa Ave Maria; Martini: Missa Ma bouche rit; Obrecht: Missa Caput, Missa Fors seulement; Okegehm: Missa Fors seulement.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

At the origin of the L'homme armé tradition in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries is a group of four masses: Busnoys's L'homme armé, Okeghem's L'homme armé, Dufay's Missa L'homme armé, and Johannes Regis's Missa Dum sacrum mysterium. All four borrow elements from two chansons--Robert Morton's Il sera pour vous/L'ome armé, a polyphonic setting of the popular tune, and Okeghem's L'aultre d'antan, itself modeled upon Morton's setting. Modal procedure, mensuration, and similarities of melodic and contrapuntal design provide evidence of the borrowings. The masses by Busnoys and Okeghem show that one cantus firmus mass may be modeled on another, and thus the distinction between cantus firmus and parody masses is conceptual rather than compositional. Since Il sera pour vous originated in the Burgundian ducal court, Busnoys's mass is presumed the earliest. Okeghem most likely composed his mass soon after, judging by the treatment of material borrowed from the two chansons and by similarities to Busnoys's work. These borrowings are rooted in the rhetorical tradition of imitatio, a concept with which Busnoys, Okeghem, Dufay, and Regis were familiar.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

In typical discussions of Renaissance polyphonic repertoire, counterpoint and harmony prevailed as indicators of “tonal” structure, but investigating melodic considerations in conjunction with the eight church modes might reveal connections between these tonal structures. Josquin constructed his masses in one of three ways: incorporating a liturgical cantus firmus, incorporating a secular work, or basing the mass primarily on canonic devices. Cadences occur on structurally important pitches determined by the division of the octave into species of a fifth and fourth (final and co-final) as well as the tuba (recitation tone). Stranger tonal structures are created by either transposing the cantus firmus or highlighting an important pitch in the cantus firmus outside the expected tonal structure. The mode of the cantus firmus can confirm the modal structure of the work, as is the case with Missa de Beata Virgine which has different finals in the individual movements, reflecting the different finals of the borrowed chant melodies used in the work. Table 2 (203-20) includes detailed information on cadential plans in all twenty of Josquin’s masses.

Works: Josquin: Missa La sol fa re mi (202), Missa Una musque de Buscaya (202, 228, 237), Missa L’homme armé super voces musicales (202, 228-30), Missa Ave maris stella (202, 221-23), Missa L’ami Baudichon (221, 223-24, 228), Missa Ad fugam (221, 225-26), Missa Sine nomine (221, 227-28, 233, 237), Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae (228), Missa D’ung aultre amer (228), Missa Da pacem (228), Missa Gaudeamus (228, 231-36, 238), Missa Faisant regretz (228, 231-32), Missa de Beata Virgine (238-39).

Sources: Alexander Agricola: Si dedero (221).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

The discovery of a miniature score of Alban Berg's Lyric Suite annotated by the composer for Hanna Fuchs-Robettin confirms that a secret program existed for this composition. A detailed description of the annotated score indicates the personal significance of the compositional practices and musical language of the work, including use of musical quotations from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde, from Zemlinsky's Lyric Symphony (also text-related), and from Berg's own Wozzeck to convey the program. This discovery suggests that there is personal significance in Berg's compositional techniques in other works and raises questions concerning the unfinished third act of Lulu and the authenticity of source materials formerly considered reliable.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

The drama Lulu is the culmination of Berg's musical style. The great significance of the composer's personal life for the opera and other compositions is evident in his use of quotation. This takes the form of self-quotation (Wozzeck is quoted in Lulu) and of borrowing from other composers. The Lyric Suite quotes Zemlinsky's Lyric Symphony and Wagner's Tristan and Isolde, and the Violin Concerto quotes a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folksong. When borrowings are text-related, the unstated text is highly significant. Quotations are used to convey a program or for dramatic purposes.

Works: Berg: Lyric Suite (13-18, 256), Lulu (29, 256), Violin Concerto (255-57), Wozzeck (256).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

An extensive study of the infusion of popular elements into fin-de-siècle French music, showing how Satie and Les Six “adopted principles of parody, diversity and simultaneity from the cabaret, circus, fair, and music-hall, thus breaking down traditional divisions separating popular and classical forms of creative expression.” Appraises Satie’s appropriation of elements from Stravinsky’s music. Extensive discussion of musical borrowing in Parade, especially Irving Berlin’s That Mysterious Rag.

Works: Satie: Parade (112-52), Enfantillages pittoresques (169); Poulenc: “Le Dauphin” from Le Bestiaire (169), Mouvements perpétueles (170).

Sources: Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps (118, 122), “The Jackdaw” from Three Little Songs: Recollections of My Childhood (169-70); Irving Berlin: That Mysterious Rag (132-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Keith Clifton

Index Classifications: 1900s

Copland’s Duo for Flute and Piano places Native American sound images within a non-Germanic context, making the work a unique expression of his own time in the United States. Copland believed that the creation of a unique American composition school demanded liberation from Germanic tradition and ideals, thereby explaining his sentimentality towards the Mexican-Indian idiom. This work represents a culmination of Copland’s earlier stylistic trends, and is especially reminiscent of his 1940s “Americana style,” one that evokes the city and country as well as Native American musical elements. Copland believed that musical and cultural idioms are transmitted unconsciously to people in the locale. His manner of musical borrowing is transformative in nature, deriving new expressive layers from the original folk idiom. Rather than quoting directly, Copland borrows the general stylistic traits of the collective Native American sound images. The first movement of Duo for Flute and Piano is characterized by an opening and closing monophonic flute solo, creating an outdoor, pastoral quality. Copland manages to successfully infuse folk idioms into the work through the surrounding context and combined impact of the material such as the use of open fifths and snap-like figures, as well as other Indian musical gestures like meter changes and wide use of consonant intervals in descending motion. Copland’s music was able to resonate with listeners of the day due to the pervasive dissemination of Indian stereotypes in films, perpetuating and reflecting common public opinions on Native music in the 1970s. Copland also incorporates Stravinsky-like grace notes within an American musical landscape in the second movement. The third movement evokes a distinctly heroic quality due to the deliberate allusion to Beethoven’s “Eroica” Symphony while assuming a uniquely American character.

Works: Copland: Appalachian Spring (52), Duo for Flute and Piano (53).

Sources: Joseph Brackett: Simple Gifts (52); Copland: Symphony No. 3 (53); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (66); MacDowell: Indian Suite (67); Copland: Billy the Kid (68).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

The word "descantava" in a Provençal vida of the troubador Gui d'Uisel refers not to the addition of a descant, or upper melodic line, but rather to the practice of writing a satirical response to an existing poem. Such responses usually employed the same melodies, stanza structures, and rhyme schemes.

Works: Peire d'Uisel: Fraire en Gui, be'm platz vostra cansos (317-18); Peire Cardenal, Ar mi posc eu lauzar d'amor (319, 320), Rics hom que greu ditz vertat e leu men (319); Monk of Montadon: Be'm enoia s'o auzes dire (319-22).

Sources: Giu d'Uisel: Si be'm partetz, mala dompna, de vos (317-18); Guiraut de Bornelh: No posc sofrir qu'a la dolor (319, 320-21); Raimon Jordan: Vas vos soplei, domna, premieramen (319); Bertran de Born: Rassa tan cries e mont'e poja (319-22).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Mel Powell’s 1948 string quartet Beethoven Analogs was an important step in the development of his compositional voice, and its borrowing of Beethoven should be read not as a modernist parody but as an exercise in apprenticeship. In his lectures, Powell frequently used Beethoven Analogs as an introduction to the topic of “formal analogs,” a compositional strategy in which a new composition derives its structure from functionally equivalent units from an older model. In Beethoven Analogs, this means adapting the tonal ideas of Beethoven’s String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1, to an atonal context. For example, the structural effects of antecedent and consequent phrases and of tonal cadences are recreated by Powell with techniques such as octave doubling, double stops, and dynamic shifts. In the first movement of Beethoven Analogs, Powell adapts the sonata form of Beethoven’s first movement using tempo and texture changes analogous to Beethoven’s primary and secondary themes. Powell’s development section is less directly modeled on Beethoven’s. Instead, Powell uses a theme-and-variations structure possibly imported from his jazz training. The recapitulation represents Powell’s most overt departure from Beethoven’s model and mentorship. Powell approximately reverses the order of events in the exposition, a technique that is rare in Classical and Romantic sonatas and absent in Op. 18, No. 1. Ultimately, Beethoven Analogs takes Beethoven’s quartet as a jumping off point to explore musical energetics, syntax, and formal rhetoric. Powell continued to develop formal and expressive analogs throughout his career using what he learned from Beethoven and the F major quartet in Beethoven Analogs.

Works: Mel Powell: Beethoven Analogs (496-527)

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (496-527)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

[Need citations of individual articles.]

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

The motet Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare illustrates how composers of the late thirteenth century used and combined borrowed texts and tunes. The motetus is the rondeau Robin m'aime; the tenor uses a Portare chant fragment that contains a dual focus between the pitches c and g; and the triplum contains four fragments borrowed from an earlier motet. In Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare, the tonal plan of the motet is informed by the motetus, causing changes to be made in the tenor and triplum. Although the chant is often thought to be the "immutable foundation" upon which a motet is constructed, evidence shows that composers thought of it as merely one strand in the polyphonic web. The texts of this motet interact in such a way as to suggest linkages between Mary and the Cross, joy and sorrow, and the Song of Songs tradition of human love as a metaphor for divine love.

Works: Anonymous: Mout me fu grief/Robin m'aime/Portare (30-40).

Sources: Alleluia Dulce lignum (29-34, 38-40); Adam de la Halle: Robin m'aime (28, 30-31, 37-38); Four passages from Montpellier, Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire, Section Médecine, MS H.196 3, 37 (36-37).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Liszt sought to achieve union of form and content in his piano music, as discussed in detail according to genre, including his piano cycles, sonatas, ballades, etudes, and fantasias. The section "Ballades, Polonaises, Mazurkas, and Other Dances" examines works by Liszt that take Chopin as a model to pay homage to him. These genres that represent Chopin par excellence were neglected in Liszt's earlier works but became more prominent after Chopin's death in 1849, suggesting homage to the Polish composer. The middle section of Liszt's Polonaise No. 2 in E Major, for instance, is modeled on Chopin's Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1, referring to the thematic material accompanied by the characteristic polonaise rhythm from the corresponding section of the model, both capturing a martial quality. Liszt's first Ballade incorporates many elements from Chopin's works and styles, including his first Ballade, Op. 23, the Funeral March, and periodic phrasing unusual for Liszt.

Works: Liszt: Ballade No. 1 in Db Major (393), Polonaise No. 2 in E Major (393, 397).

Sources: Chopin: Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (393), Grande valse brillante, Op. 18 (393), Sonata No. 2 in Bb Minor, Op. 35 (393), Polonaise in A Major, Op. 40, No. 1 (393, 397).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

MacDowell knew Liszt’s Piano Sonata in B Minor well and was quite fond of the work. The use and treatment of recurring motives in his Eroica Sonata suggest the Liszt sonata as a model. MacDowell’s treatment and development of the musical motives in the Eroica Sonata follow procedures similar to those in the Liszt Sonata. Even though MacDowell’s sonata has a four-movement design, the basic structure is comparable to the one-movement Liszt sonata. The Piano Sonata in B Minor does not have any explicit programmatic meaning, but several authors have commented on potential programs due to the recurrence of thematic materials. MacDowell hinted at programmatic elements in his sonata, but did not definitively explicate a program; however, the use of recurring motives and their subsequent development suggests a program. In addition, the pianistic writing of the Eroica Sonata parallels some portions of the Liszt Sonata.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Eroica Sonata.

Sources: Liszt: Piano Sonata in B Minor (176-181, 186), Etudes d’exécution transcendante (179-80).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Index Classifications: 1500s

J. S. Bach’s chorale cantata Meine Seel’ erhebt den Herren, BWV 10, is unusual because it is also a Magnificat paraphrase, situating the work within both liturgical, poetic, and compositional traditions. The text is derived from Martin Luther’s German translation of the Magnificat (Meine Seele), making BWV 10 the only Bach chorale cantata based on a biblical text. It is also the only chorale cantata based on a Gregorian chant melody, the ninth psalm tone, rather than a chorale. Bach accommodates the irregular text of Meine Seele with the flexible psalm tone formula. The psalm tone melody is shorter and simpler than a typical chorale melody, and the reciting tone allows for variable phrase lengths. In the opening movement, Bach presents the Meine Seele melody twice, the only example of him doing so in a chorale-cantata first movement. The two presentations of the cantus firmus differ in rhythm, text accent, and key signature. The fifth movement duet also exhibits an unusual setting related to the distinctive nature of the psalm tone. The two halves of the vocal melody are unequal in length, and the psalm tone only appears in the trumpet. The Meine Seele text and melody also appear in the final movement of the cantata. Again, Bach employs an unusual compositional approach not only by setting two verses of the text to the same melody, but also by reharmonizing the second verse instead of repeating the same music as he does in BWV 178, 94, and 130. The special treatment Bach and his librettist gave to BWV 10 is consistent with the importance of the Magnificat in Leipzig and with Bach’s apparent vigor in taking up the compositional challenge of the chorale cantatas.

Works: J. S. Bach: Meine Seel’ erhebt den Herren, BWV 10 (47-61)

Sources: Plainchant: Ninth psalm tone (47-61)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Quotation in music is different from literary quotation. Most examples of musical quotation are accidental, but exceptions to this include self-borrowing, universally recognized excerpts, programmatic or evocative borrowing, or humorous allusions. All other conscious quotation is plagiarism. "Making a few possible exceptions where words are used, THERE IS NO QUOTATION IN MUSIC" (capitals original).

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (218); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (218), Quintet, Op. 16 (218); S. S. Wesley: Ascribe Ye Unto the Lord (218); Beethoven, Diabelli Variations (241); Reinecke: Variations for Two Pianofortes (241); Bach: Wachet auf, BWV 140 (242), Christmas Oratorio (242); Mackenzie: Dream of Jubal (242); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (265); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (265); Volkmann: Richard the Third Overture (265); Saint-Saëns: Henry VIII (265); Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen (266); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (266); Haydn: The Seasons (266); Mozart: Don Giovanni (267).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Parodies of pop music are popular features of late-night TV shows in both the United States and Germany, and their self-referential, autopoietic mode of communication makes parodies a commercial strategy for pop music itself. Such parodies especially flourish on YouTube. For example, the (illegal) YouTube upload of the 2005 Saturday Night Live sketch Lazy Sunday, a parody of The Message by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, became an early hit for the platform. Since its premiere, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon has regularly featured pop music parodies, and has regularly uploaded sketches to its official YouTube channel. The 2015 sketch Wheel of Musical Impressions featuring Ariana Grande and Jimmy Fallon is emblematic of this trend and is built on an unusual parody conceit: instead of altering the lyrics to the songs being parodied, Grande and Fallon alter their vocal timbres to mimic other famous pop singers. In Germany, comedian Jan Böhmermann fills the same pop music parody role as Fallon as host of ZDF Neomagazin Royale. His 2015 music video Ich hab Polizei parodies American gangsta rap by presenting the German police in musical and visual trappings of the genre. Another Böhmermann parody, Eine Deutsche Rapgeschichte, goes further in its parody of German hip hop with numerous references to popular German rap songs and rappers. As a global phenomenon, these late-night show pop music parodies rely on insider knowledge for their appeal and at the same time construct a canon of pop music through performance.

Works: Saturday Night Live: Lazy Sunday (217-18); Jimmy Fallon and Ariana Grande: Wheel of Musical Impressions (220-23); Jan Böhmermann: Eine Deutsche Rapgeschichte (227-29).

Sources: Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five: The Message (217-18); Traditional: Mary Had a Little Lamb (220), The Wheels on the Bus (220-21); The Weeknd: Can’t Feel My Face (221); Advanced Chemistry: Fremd im eigenen Land (227-28); Absolute Beginner featuring Samy Deluxe: Füchse (228); Fanta 4: Die da (229); Zugezogen Maskulin: Endlich wieder Beef (229).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Beethoven's influence on Chopin has been scarcely noted, partly due to the paucity of available data on Chopin's acquaintance with Beethoven. Yet Beethoven's presence is patent in Chopin's Piano Sonata in B flat Minor, Op. 35 (1839), where he bids Beethoven farewell; it is a rite of separation in which Chopin finds his own voice. The opening of the first movement refers to the opening of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111, but an interrupted cadence signals a sharp departure from it. That cadence has its closure in the funeral march that alludes to the funeral march of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 26, and signals the end of Beethoven's presence in the sonata. From that moment on, in the contrasting, nocturnal, trio section, Chopin affirms his own voice. Whereas the first three movements project a human struggle to achieve individuality, the inventive finale takes an ironic stance to that idea.

Works: Chopin: Piano Sonata in B flat Minor, Op. 35 (283-99).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 26 (285, 288-89, 294, 298), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111 (289-90, 298).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: General, Monophony to 1300, 1300s, 1400s

[Includes discussion of his divisions on grounds.]

Index Classifications: 1600s

Though Cavazzoni's canzona for keyboard entitled Plus ne regres has been previously connected to Josquin's Plus nulz regretz, a stronger case can be made that this piece was actually based on Josquin's Plusieurs regretz. In his version, Cavazzoni preserves the opening points of imitation and overall structure of the piece, using this as a point of departure for the composition. The melodic material in the opening is ornamented but clearly recognizable. This is clearly not a mere intabulation for keyboard, but a paraphrase or parody of Josquin's work.

Works: Cavazzoni: Plus ne regres.

Sources: Josquin: Plusieurs regretz.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Busnois's version of In meinem Sin is used in a sixteenth-century painting by Antoniszoon, entitled Banquet of Seventeen Members of the Civic Guard. Busnois's treatment of the melody is in turn interesting, for it illustrates an attempt at imitative counterpoint, the technique chosen instead of the more traditional cantus firmus structure. In Meinem Sin was a popular tune, existing in many languages, and was known throughout all levels of society.

Works: Anonymous: Bien soiez venu/Alleluya a mi faul canter (double chanson) (138-42); Gombert: Alleluya my fault chanter (1529) (142); Mathias Greiter: In meinem Sinn mir gefällt (143).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

The tune In meinem Sin and a second French version entitled Entre je suis en grant pensee are shown to serve as the melody for thirteen polyphonic compositions of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The similarities between the versions are discussed, as are the methods of their incorporation into the various compositions. In particular, Josquin's setting illustrates his preeminence among his contemporaries.

Works: Busnois: In myne zynn; Agricola: In minen sin; Isaac: In meinem sinn; Finck: In meinem sinn; Greiter: In mijnen sinn; Anonymous: In mynem zin; Schnellinger: Quodlibet; Josquin: Entre suis en grant pensee,Entre je suis; Prioris: Par vous je suis.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Scholars have often noted the exceptional character of Binchois's Files a marier but have not realized that the melody employed by Binchois is also found in an anonymous triple chanson, Robinet se veult marier/Se tu t'en marias/Helás pourquoy. The tenor of the quodlibet chanson, Se tu t'en marias, is borrowed in Binchois's chanson and supplies the text for Binchois's part, since the only surviving source does not provide it. Based on this newfound borrowing, the composition could possibly be referred to as a double chanson, Files a marier/Se tu t'en marias, as it parodies the learned motet genre by using a popular tune as a cantus firmus.

Works: Binchois: Files a marier (235-36).

Sources: Anonymous: Robinet se veult marier/Se tu t'en marias/Helás pourquoy (235-36).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Both Elgar and Mahler make use of march rhythms and military music (fanfares). The Finales of the two first symphonies are comparable is some respects. Elgar's Second Symphony includes a very Mahleresque passage. The end of Elgar's Falstaff is compared to the end of Mahler's Ninth Symphony. Both composers are viewed as expressing the "foreboding of terror which hangs over most of the art of the years 1900-14."

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Debussy has had different influences on different English composers. The pointillistic chords of Delius's In a Summer Garden are a French influence. Vaughan Williams's On Wenlock Edge is similar to Ravel's String Quartet, and his Pastoral Symphony will be seen as similar when placed alongside any work of Debussy's. Arnold Bax parodied Vaughan Williams in his Country Tune.

Works: Bax: Country Tune (601); Delius: In a Summer Garden (600); Vaughan Williams: On Wenlock Edge (600); Pastoral Symphony (600).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1300s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Considers the origin, reception and influences on Chabrier’s numerous operas, works eclipsed today by his keyboard and orchestral works. Extensive information on Chabrier’s obsession with Wagner, including the influence of specific Wagnerian operas on a wide variety of Chabrier compositions.

Works: Chabrier: L’étoile (17-19), Gwendoline (18-20), Pièces posthumes (19), Prélude pastoral (19), Souvenirs de Munich (19).

Sources: Wagner: Lohengrin (19), Der Ring des Nibelungen (19), Tannhäuser (19), Tristan und Isolde (19), Der Fliegende Holländer (20).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Keith Clifton

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications:

Index Classifications: 1400s

Although Craig Wright, Frank D'Accone, and Albert Seay have recently hypothesized an a cappella performance practice of liturgical and ceremonial music in the fifteenth century, borrowed tenors often pose problems for the application of this practice. In the final Kyrie of Dufay's Missa Se la face ay pale, one source has the incipit "tant je me deduis," a phrase that does not occur in the ballade and would probably not have been sung during the performance. In the tenor of Dufay's Missa L'homme armé, the canonic and retrograde version of the cantus firmus in the Agnus Dei makes it much more probable that the part was played by the organ or trumpet or vocalized without any text. Ockeghem's Missa L'homme armé also presents a problem because of his transposition of the cantus firmus by means of canons, creating a range of two octaves and a second throughout the Mass. Likewise, Obrecht's Missa Caput uses shifts in the pitch level of the cantus firmus. In these situations, an organ would have been the only instrument able to accommodate such a wide range. Another group of masses indicate the borrowed text in the tenor while the Mass text is present in the other voices, for example Dufay's Missa Ecce ancilla domini and Missa Ave regina caelorum, and Regis's Missa L'homme armé, Missa Haec dies quam fecit dominus, and Missa Pax vobis ego sum. Finally, English scribal traditions suggest the performance of the tenor either by the organ or by the voice singing the mass text.

Works: Dufay: Missa Se la face ay pale (5-8), Missa L'homme armé (5-8), Missa Ecce ancilla domini (18-19), Missa Ave regina caelorum (18-19); Ockeghem: Missa L'homme armé (9-12), Missa Caput (20); Obrecht: Missa Caput (13-17); Regis: Missa L'homme armé (19), Missa Haec dies quam fecit dominus (19), Missa Pax vobis (19); Anonymous: Missa Caput (20-23).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1400s

Nearly fifty extant masses and a few other pieces are based on the L’homme armé tune that probably dates from the first half of the fifteenth century. One of the earliest polyphonic settings of this tune, the combinative three-voice chanson Il sera par vous – L’homme armé located in the Mellon chansonnier, was most likely composed by Du Fay at Cambrai in Burgundy. Du Fay’s authorship of text and tune is consistent with his friendship with Symon le Breton (to whom the text refers in a jesting manner) as well as stylistic similarities with some of Du Fay’s other works. Shortly afterwards, Du Fay and Ockeghem each wrote masses based upon the L’homme armé tune, although it is unclear what relationship they have to Du Fay’s Il sera par vous – L’homme armé. These masses were probably written around the same time, as they borrow and pay tribute to the other through musical style or technical aspects. These three works, therefore, stand at the beginning of polyphonic composition based on the L’homme armé tune.

Works: Anonymous: Il sera par vous – L’homme armé (Mellon chansonnier) (314-18, 325-28); Busnois: Missa L’homme armé (326, 336, 351); Ockeghem: Missa L’homme armé (327-34); Du Fay: Missa L’homme armé (327-34).

Sources: Anonymous: L’homme armé (Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40) (307-9); Anonymous: Il sera par vous – L’homme armé (Mellon chansonnier) (314-18, 325-28).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

The "Es ist genug" aria from Mendelssohn's Elijah uses the aria "Es ist vollbracht" from J. S. Bach's St. John Passion as a model. The model was likely chosen because of their similar dramatic purposes: Mendelssohn's aria contains Elijah's desperate plea to God for an end to his life, and "Es ist vollbracht" depicts Jesus' emotions while dying on the cross. Mendelssohn also borrowed Bach's structural scheme, applying stark contrasts between the lamentational A section and the vigorous B section. Also in the shadow of "Es ist vollbracht," "Es ist genug" contains obbligato writing for low strings. In a more specific sense, both arias use a prominent descending sixth in the opening statement, and both statements are followed by a diminished seventh chord on the downbeat. The similarities not only illustrate Mendelssohn's indebtedness to Bach, but Mendelssohn's implication of the theological commonalities between Elijah and the St. John Passion.

Works: Mendelssohn: Elijah (24-26).

Sources: Bach: St. John Passion (24-26).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Muzio Clementi’s preoccupation with writing keyboard music for virtuosic display was only a passing phase in his long creative life. More characteristically, many of his piano compositions reveal the profound influence of J. S. Bach. Clementi’s fugal movement from the first Sonata of his Op. 5 draws harmonic, melodic, and stylistic materials from both the Prelude and the Fugue in B-flat minor from Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. The opening slow movement of Clementi’s Op. 34, No. 2, also shows Bach’s influence through its dramatic escalation of harmonic complexities and contrapuntal technique. Bach’s influence is further attested by Clementi's possession of the autograph of The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (the so-called “London Autograph”). It was this influence that led Clementi's contemporary critics to recognize the “German manner” of his music.

Works: Clementi: Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 2 (304-6), Toccata, Op. 11 (308-11), Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13, No. 6 (314-21), Sonata in G Minor, Op. 34, No. 2 (319, 322-23), Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 5, No. 1 (323-29).

Sources: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata, K. 133 (313); Johann Sebastian Bach: Prelude and Fugue in B-flat Minor, BWV 867, from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I (323-29).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

While the popularity of "World Music" is growing, many have criticized collaborations between Western and non-Western artists, such as Paul Simon's Graceland, as being exploitive of non-Western traditional music. However, these cross-cultural germinations actually serve as cultural bridges leading to greater levels of understanding. In the 1960s and 1970s many Western artists, particularly jazz musicians, attempted to achieve a synthesis between Western musical traditions and the music of Eastern, African, and South American cultures. By the late 1980s "World Music" was a staple of the record store, and artists such as Peter Gabriel, David Byrne, and Paul Simon were incorporating elements of non-Western music into their work. More recently, artists like Ry Cooder, Henry Kaiser, and David Lindley have sought out collaborations with non-Western musicians to create a blending of disparate music traditions. Cooder's A Meeting by the River blends elements and performance techniques of Hindustani music with the American musical idiom of Delta blues, and his Talking Timbuktu seeks to blend Delta blues with traditional West African music. Kaiser and Lindley traveled to Madagascar and Norway to create albums steeped in these traditions. Rather than being thought of as appropriations, the work of Cooder, Kaiser, and Lindley should be seen as collaborations that attempt to preserve the integrity of non-Western sources while blending them with distinctly Western idioms.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

In the 1980s, over one thousand songs have been written about Elvis Presley as an act of homage, parody, critique, commentary or interpretation, all of which use quotations from, references to, or imitations of his songs. These songs can be classified into four broad categories: deification, vilification, iconization, and demythification. The category of deification includes songs that juxtapose imagery of God or Jesus Christ with imagery associated with Elvis. The second category, vilification, includes songs that comment musically or lyrically on feeling betrayed by Elvis's drug use and subsequent demise. Iconization involves the stories, souvenirs, and songs of Elvis becoming associated as glorified, sacred, and permanent icons. Demythification involves songs and other media that comment on the commercialization of Elvis or counter popular Elvis myths.

Works: Paul Simon: Graceland (59, 62); Wall of Voodoo: Elvis Brought Dora a Cadillac (60); Mr. Bonus (Peter Holsapple): Elvis What Happened? (60, 65); Beatmistress/Diego [Death Ride]: Elvis Christ (60); Adrenalin O.D.: Velvet Elvis (60); Dead Milkmen: Going to Graceland (60, 70); Vandals: Elvis Decanter (61, 67); Mojo Nixon and Skip Roper: Elvis is Everywhere (61), Twilights Last Gleaming (61); Frank Zappa: Elvis Has Just Left the Building (61); Warren Zevon: Jesus Mentioned (61-62); Billy Joel: Allentown (62-63); John Hiatt: Riding with the King (62); John Fogarty: Big Train (From Memphis) (63); Elvis Costello: Brilliant Mistake (64); Robbie Robertson: American Roulette (64); Paul Westerberg [The Replacements]: Bastards of Young (64); Bono (Paul Hewson) and U2: Elvis Presley and America (64); Neil Young: My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) (65); Bruce Springsteen: Johnny Bye Bye (66); Chris Barrows and Dorsey Martin [Pink Lincolns]: Velvet Elvis (67); Scott Kempner: Listening to Elvis as performed by Syd Straw (68); Exene Cervenka and John Doe [X]: Back 2 the Base (68); Forgotten Rebels: Elvis is Dead (69); Pink Slip Daddy: Elvis Zombie (70); Sons of Ishmael: Elvis Incorporated (70); Elvis Hitler: Disgraceland (70); Peter Holsapple [dB]: Rendezvous (70).

Sources: Chuck Berry: Bye Bye Johnny (66); Otis Blackwell: Don't Be Cruel as performed by Elvis Prelsey (68); Lou Handman and Roy Turk: Are You Lonesome Tonight? as performed by Elvis Prelsey (68); Paul Simon: Graceland (70).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Ry Cooder's apprenticeship as a soundtrack specialist began in the 1960s in Southern California, where he was active in the blues and folk circles. Known primarily as a recording artist, Cooder is particularly adept at providing atmosphere for rural, Southwest, and Deep South settings; the three-inch, sawed-off sherry bottle neck he uses on slide guitar provides a rich tone that evokes the scorching heat and background dust of the American south. His music has been borrowed for several films depicting the rural South, and Cooder himself has compiled soundtracks for various feature length films and documentaries. Cooder's music first appeared in Blue Collar, directed by Paul Schrader, which borrowed Cooder's blues-based "Hard Working Man" in 1978 to depict auto workers' struggles with management and their unions. Later that year Cooder's 1970 song "Available Space" was used in Goin' South, directed by Jack Nicholson. Cocktail features Cooder's cover of "All Shook Up," and Steel Magnolias borrows Cooder's "I Got Mine" and Hank Williams's "Jambalaya" to convey a Cajun culture. Roger Donaldson's Cadillac Man makes use of Cooder's "The Tattler," as well as The Bee Gees's "Stayin' Alive," and Percy Mayfield's "Hit the Road Jack" to underscore Robin Williams's character's redemption.

Works: Jack Nitzsche and Ry Cooder: score to Blue Collar (57); Roger Donaldson: score to Goin' South (57); J. Peter Robinson, Jim Weidman, et al.: score to Cocktail (60); Georges Delerue: score to Steel Magnolias (61).

Sources: Ry Cooder: Hard Working Man (57), Available Space (57); Traditional: I Got Mine as performed by Ry Cooder (61); Ry Cooder: The Tattler (61); Hank Williams: Jambalaya (61); Otis Blackwell: All Shook Up as performed by Ry Cooder (60); Barry Gibb, Maurice Gibb, and Barry Gibb: Stayin' Alive (61); Percy Mayfield: Hit the Road Jack (61).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

American popular music in the 1980s and 1990s underwent a critical redefinition of what it meant to be original and creative, as cover songs and tribute albums flooded the market. Quotation, homage, apprenticeship, parody, allusion, and other forms of appropriationist techniques characterize this repertoire and give us a way to examine how culture and history are expressed and passed on. Cover songs grew from a shared cultural repertoire of secular and sacred tunes to the business of songwriting pairs such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin to tribute projects across different genres such as rock and avant-garde bands. Cover songs can be seen as a manifestation of cultural excess that prioritizes the reworking and repetition of existing songs over innovation. We can trace genealogies of performers and songwriters through a series of re-recordings, turning cover songs into living artifacts. This new wave of covers and tribute albums at the end of the twentieth century created a new standard for American popular music, supplanting the older generation of Cole Porter, Irving Berlin, and George Gershwin with Bob Dylan, Woody Guthrie, Paul Simon, and Elton John, among others.

Works: DNA: Oh Suzanne (8); Dread Zeppelin: Un-Led Ed, 5,000,000 (9); Tom Petty: I’ll Feel a Whole Lot Better (10); Roger McGuinn: American Girl (10).

Sources: Suzanne Vega: Solitude Standing (8-9); Byrds (performers): I’ll Feel a Whole Lot Better (10); Tom Petty: American Girl (10).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

Index Classifications: 1700s

The horn part of the second movement of Mozart's Horn Concerto in E-flat, K. 447, is essentially identical to that of Michael Haydn's Romance for horn and string quartet of 1795. As an alternative to Mary Rasmussen's explanation, Plath suggests that a horn player, who possessed only the horn part of the second movement of Mozart's concerto, prevailed upon Haydn to write an accompaniment.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Index Classifications: 1700s

Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s adaptation of Felix Mendelssohn’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream for the 1935 Warner Bros. production of the same title, as well as the publicity behind it, played a critical role in elevating film music and helped establish Korngold as a uniquely independent artist within the film studio system. Korngold’s involvement was specifically requested by the film’s director, Max Reinhardt, who had earned recent acclaim with his theatrical production of A Midsummer Night’s Dream at the Hollywood Bowl. Korngold was also much more involved on set than was typical of a 1930s film composer. Korngold made numerous cuts, edits, and reorchestrations of Mendelssohn’s original score in order to better fit the film edit and the darker tone that Reinhardt established in his direction. This is particularly evident in the film sequences “Nocturno” and “Fog Dance.” Additional music by Mendelssohn was also included by Korngold at various points throughout the film score. In promotional material for the film, Warner Bros. emphasized Korngold’s involvement with the music as a way of promoting Dream as a prestige film with serious artistic merit. Dream was billed as a film to really listen to as much as watch. Although the film itself received mixed reviews, Korngold’s contribution was lauded in the press, which helped to launch the Hollywood career of the influential film composer.

Works: Erich Wolfgang Korngold: score to A Midsummer Night’s Dream (218-28)

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: A Midsummer Night’s Dream (218-28); Neue Liebe, Op. 19, No. 4 (219), Symphony No. 3, Op. 56 (219), Scherzo in E Minor for Piano, Op. 16, No. 2 (219)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Musical citation and "grafting" in the late-fourteenth-century Ars subtilior chanson was much more prevalent than is currently believed. At that time, citation was viewed as an opportunity for composers to display their musical and intellectual erudition. A case study of three Ars subtilior chansons beginning with the words "En attendant" by Jacob de Senleches, Philippus de Caserta and Johannes Galiot demonstrates this point in a clear juxtaposition of the Ars subtilior chansons with the Ars nova work Esperance qui en mon cuer s'embat, which serves as a musical and textual source for all three chansons. The common musical material from which all three composers draw brings about a phenomenon of interrelated musical borrowing, which could have been caused by a collaborative compositional process for a common political or religious event relating to the Visconti and Valois families during the politic turmoil of the late fourteenth century. These works also fit into a larger spectrum of songs in French mainstream culture and were clearly products of a circle of composers who knew each other and communicated with each other about their work. In this context, points of musical allusion or citation were evident only in careful observation within a web of intertextual references. Thus, the practice of musical citation and allusion still flourished in the late fourteenth century, playing an important role in the works of Ars subtilior composers in a much more subtle way than previously thought by current scholars.

Works: Johannes Galiot: En attendant la douce vie (289-334); Jacob de Senleches: En attendant, Esperance conforte (289-334); Philippus de Caserta: En atendant souffrir m'estuet grief payne (289-334, 337-46).

Sources: Anonymous: Esperance qui en mon cuer s'embat (293-334, 346-63); Machaut: En amer a douce vie (294-334).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

The practice of intertextual citation and allusion in lyric poetry during the fourteenth century is also apparent both musically and textually in the Ars Nova chanson repertory. Examination of these songs provides new evidence that the practice of citation and allusion was more widespread, more developed, and more varied in its function than previously argued by scholars such as Ursula Günther. Furthermore, looking at cases of borrowing from this period allows one to consider contemporary significance and meaning of works, contacts between composers, and transmission of works. Uses of pre-existing music are noticeable in Mauchaut's Pour ce que tous mes chans fais, where he borrows the opening of the chace Se je chant as a way of conveying ironic humor. In the following Ars Subtilior generation, composers often quoted Machaut's lyrics or made references to his poems in their works. For example, Matteo da Perugia cited both text and music from Machaut's De Fortune in Se je me plaing de Fortune, calling upon a previous authority and developing the model for his own purposes. Subtle musical connections in interrelated works between composers (such as the En attendant songs of Galiot, Senleches, and Philipoctus de Caserta, which all cite the anonymous Esperance qui en mon cuer s'embat) suggest citation games or contests. These examples demonstrate a variety of borrowing methods within the music, creating a web of connections that the audience would have recognized and appreciated.

Works: Machaut: Se je me pleing, je n'en puis mais (Ballade 15) (361), Pour ce que tous mes chans fais (Ballade 12) (363-64); Matteo da Perugia: Se je me plaing de Fortune (365-69); Galiot: En attendant d'amer la douce vie (370); Senleches: En attendant, Esperance conforte (370); Philipoctus de Caserta: En atendant souffrir m'estuet (370); Matheus de Sancto Johanne: Je chant ung chant (371-73); Trebor: Passerose de beauté (374-77).

Sources: Machaut: Se je chant (363-64), De Fortune me doy pleindre et loer (Ballade 23) (365-69); Anonymous, Esperance qui en mon cuer s'embat (370); Philipoctus de Caserta: En attendant souffrir m'estuet (370); Jean Haucourt: Se j'estoye aseürée (371-73); Egidius: Roses et lis (374-77).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan, Karen Anton Stafford, Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: General

Haydn's Requiem in C Minor shares numerous similarities with Mozart's Requiem, in instrumentation, choral and instrumental textures, placement of solo sections, specific features of style and technique, movement structure, tonal design and cadential progressions, and rhythmic patterns of text setting. The similarities between the works decrease significantly in those sections completed or composed by Süssmayer.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

In the first of two sections, Polnauer traces the alteration of a four-note motive through the second act of Wozzeck, arriving at a motive from Bruckner's D Minor Mass, which Polnauer claims is a clear quotation. Berg was a lifelong lover of Bruckner's music, quoting here from a religious work of Bruckner's for the Bible scene of Wozzeck. Also mentioned is the use of a folksong in Berg's Violin Concerto.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

The song Que Sera, Sera plays an important part in the plot for Alfred Hitchcock’s 1956 version of The Man Who Knew Too Much. In order to get Jimmy Stewart to agree to be in the film, his agent bundled in others represented by the same company including Ray Evans and Jay Livingston, who had pre-written some songs. Hitchcock was impressed with Que Sera, Sera and used it for a large part of the film’s plot. Bernard Hermann, the film’s composer, was unimpressed (he supposedly referred to the song as a “piece of junk”), but the song plays a large role in the film as a whole. There are many labyrinthine aspects to both the film’s plot and its mise-en-scène, and the song echoes this complexity despite its outwardly simple appearance. Within the film, the song often plays with space through acousmatic placement and with time through its forward looking lyrics set in the past (“When I was just a little girl / I asked my mother ‘What will I be?’”). The diegetic quality of this one popular song aspect of the otherwise classical score is emphasized in that Que Sera, Sera is included in its entirety in the film, an unusual decision for a popular song that both normalizes and emphasizes the performance.

Works: Alfred Hitchcock (director): The Man Who Knew Too Much (53-70).

Sources: Ray Evans and Jay Livingston: Que Sera, Sera (53-70).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Index Classifications: 1500s

Three collections of Brunettes (mostly songs about shepherdesses with brown hair) from the press of Christophe Ballard in 1703, 1704, and 1711 show the transition from modal to tonal systems of composition in France. Ballard's pieces were assembled from popular airs serieux, airs à danser, and chansonettes from the previous century. Ballard brought them up to date by simplifying melodies, altering texts, and composing bass lines for the songs. In composing bass lines for the once monophonic chansons à danser and creating new bass lines for the rest of the polyphonic pieces, he adjusted modal organizations that had become outdated. Too this end, accidentals were changed, and cadences and their preparations were altered as well. Individual modes were turned into major or minor systems, each in its own unique way. By comparing both versions, we can see what Ballard considered to be essential modernizations. These Brunettes then served as the basis for further revisions by composers Dandrieu and Montéclair later in the century. Thus several versions of the same song can be examined over a large span of time.

Works: Anonymous: J'entends le voix de la belle Climene (191); La jeune Bergere Anette (192); Nous nirons plus aux champs Brunete (195); L'amour n'est jamais sans peines (197); Dans un Bois (200); Quand on a tant d'amour (202); O beau jardin ou l'Art et Nature (205).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Index Classifications: 1600s

Several South African art music composers during the late apartheid period (1980-1994) turned to an “Africanist” idiom, prompting charged political debates and institutional power struggles. While “reconciliatory” composers like Kevin Volans were ostracized, establishment composers who employed an exoticist “new Africanism” saw continued support from the apartheid state while securing the prestige of art music for the post-apartheid era. The imposition of sanctions on South African in the 1980s led to a significant reduction in institutional support for art music. While the complicity of individual composers in apartheid is a complex issue, art music institutions upheld the Eurocentrism and segregation of apartheid cultural policy. Volans’s African Paraphrases, a series of compositions written between 1980 and 1986 and based on his study of Zulu and Swazi royal music, directly challenged apartheid doctrine by validating black African music, leading to rejection from the South African music establishment. Stefans Grové’s “Music from Africa” series, a series of more than 30 works starting with Sonata on African Motives (1984-85), takes a more conservative approach, keeping characteristics of European modernism at the forefront. Hans Roosenschoon’s Timbala represents an attempt at a cross-cultural collaboration with a group of Chopi musicians, but it too embodies the paternalistic attitude of apartheid ideology by sidelining the collaborators in favor of the composer. Grové, Roosenschoon, and others supported by South African music institutions did not embrace the idealism found in contemporary popular music; instead they embraced a pragmatic “Africanist” aesthetic to secure their prestige.

Works: Kevin Volans: Mbira (51); Hans Roosenschoon: Makietie (56), Timbala (58)

Sources: Traditional, transcribed by Andrew Tracey: Nyamaropa (51); Traditional: Uqongqothwane (56), Frère Jacques (58)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The ability of the digital sampler to mimic, reproduce, extract, and manipulate musical material has led to substantial discourse in issues of intellectual property and fair use. A series of interviews with studio engineers reveals a general, broad consensus regarding various aspects of sampling, such as payment to musicians, legal issues, and the threat to studio musicians, despite the disagreements about pragmatic aspects of actual use of sampling technology. The engineers interviewed all agreed that certain uses of sampling, such as the wholesale lifting of an entire phrase common in rap songs, are unethical and that sampling should not be "a technological free-for-all." Largely, the controversy centers around the question first raised by the Dadaist movement: can one actually own a sound? Where does one make the distinction between the material of a work and the work as a created, artistic whole? These questions have become even more difficult to answer after Foucault, who views all categories of authorship as spurious. Each engineer cited a "code of the West" that has evolved in the recording industry through general consensus, explaining that controversy occurs when someone is found to violate this unwritten code. Furthermore, since there is money to be made and saved though the use of digital sampling, its use ultimately serves to reinforce the asymmetrical power balance of the recording industry.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Poulenc's songs should be performed according to the instructions given in this diary. In composing them he was influenced by Liszt, Mussorgsky, Stravinsky, and Edith Piaf. He borrowed melodies from Mussorgsky, the lied-chanson style from Edith Piaf, and the tempo and harmonic progression from Stravinsky's Serenade in A for piano. From his own earlier works he borrowed themes, key, tempo, orchestration, and harmonic style.

Works: Poulenc: Tel jour, telle nuit (35), La Grenouillière (51), Chansons villageoises (71), Le Disparu (85), La Fraicheur et le feu (99), Dialogues des Carmelites (101), Nuage (107).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

The neglected master Chabrier represents what is best in French music since 1880. His music foreshadowed innovations of the twentieth century and influenced musicians such as Ravel, Debussy, Stravinsky, and Poulenc himself. Specific examples of musical borrowing from Chabrier show use of themes, prosody, and harmonies. His orchestration influenced Debussy and Ravel. Chabrier also borrowed from others (Offenbach and Wagner) and from himself.

Works: Chabrier: Briseis (28), Donnez-vous la peine de vous asseoir (30), Gwendoline (28), Souvenir de Munich (56); Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (50); Satie: Sarabandes (55); Ravel: A la manière de Chabrier (27).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

For Francis Poulenc, his compositions were like offspring whose different characters owed much to his varied experiences and influences. One important aspect of their character was the musical borrowing they contained. Poulenc quoted folk songs and military bugle calls and modeled pieces on compositions by Tchaikovsky, Mozart, Haydn, and Saint-Saëns. He used musical borrowing to proffer friendship, to make political statements, and as a form of emulation.

Works: Poulenc: Les Biches (55), Les Animaux modèles (58-59), Concert champêtre (78), Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra (83), Concerto for Piano (133), Les Mamelles de Tirésias (101), Stabat Mater (101), Trio for Piano, Oboe, and Bassoon (121).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

The lives and works of Poulenc and his friends were enriched through close contact between artists, poets, and musicians. Satie's music, especially Parade, fertilized that of Stravinsky. Falla rediscovered Spain in music through Debussy (whose "Soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes he quoted) and Pedrell (whose volumes of folk music influenced him).

Works: Falla: El amor brujo (90), El retablo de Maese Pedro (90), Homenaje, for guitar (92); Stravinsky: Sonata for Two Pianos (67).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1600s

The Spanish Pange lingua in Mode V known only on the Iberian peninsula has been set repeatedly by Spanish keyboard composers, revealing the change of styles and techniques over three centuries. Early settings of the hymn, including ten by Antonio de Cabezón, range from ornamented intabulations to works written in an idiomatic instrumental style. Seventeenth-century settings by Manuel Rodrigues Coelho and Sebastián Aguilera de Heredia often use a three-part texture with a slow-moving melody surrounded by faster figuration. The sixty settings by Juan Cabanilles vary from pieces using simple rhythmic motives to more complex pieces with dense imitation. In a tiento by Cabanilles, the hymn tune begins buried in the tenor before it migrates to the other voices, gradually exposing the basis of the composition. In a setting by Vincente Rodríguez, the lower voices are registered separately on the organ to oppose the treble parts. A more fugal treatment of the hymn can be seen in José Lidón's setting from the eighteenth century, where motives derived from the hymn are developed as subjects of a large fugue. Although the use of the hymn declined by the nineteenth century, pianistic settings by Hilarión Eslava and Nicolás Ledsma are found in an anthology of organ music from 1854. The short survey of keyboard settings of the hymn shows a wide spectrum of styles: intabulations in ricercar style, divided-register pieces, sophisticated fugues, and nineteenth-century pianistic styles.

Works: Cabezón: Pange lingua (67); Heredia: La reina de los Pange linguas (68); Cabanilles: Tiento de Pange lingua (68); Rodríguez: Pange lingua de mano izquierda (68); Lidón: Fuga sobre el Pange lingua (69).

Sources: Pange lingua from the Liber Processionarius Regularis Observantiae Ordinis Cisterciensis, 1569 (66).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Index Classifications: 1700s

See abstracts for individual chapters by Claudia Gorbman, Mike Cormack, Lars Franke, Ann Davies, Jeongwon Joe, Kristi A. Brown, Vanessa Knights, Raymond Knapp, Ronald Rodman, Phil Powrie, Robynn Stilwell, and Timothy Warner.

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

The accordion in French cinema is a marker both of the past (including utopian longings for it) and of Frenchness. Three periods of French films that use accordion music exist, and Yann Tiersen's award-winning score for Le Fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain (Amélie), composed mostly of music from Tiersen's own pre-existing albums, offers a glimpse at a possible future period. While Amélie was criticized as a film for presenting a sanitized version of the area in France it depicts, Tiersen's music works against the clean-cut culture. The soundtrack establishes an imaginary sonic architecture built from melancholic retrospection through layers of Tiersen's minimalistic, pre-existing music. The use of Tiersen's accordion music rather than traditional tunes avoids citation of stereotyped music and allows accordion music to be reinvigorated.

Works: Jean-Pierre Jeunet (director), Yann Tiersen (composer): Sound track to Le Fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain (Amélie) (146-51).

Sources: Yann Tiersen: La Valse des monstres (146), La Rue des cascades (146), Le Phare (146), L'Absente (147).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Despite a current lack of English-speaking musicians covering Italian songs, in prior decades (especially the 1960s) there was much covering of Italian music by non-Italians and non-Italian music by Italians. Many of these covers would maintain the music of the original song while changing the lyrics, either through approximate translation or a complete re-writing of the meaning of the original text. This brought about musical modernity for Italian canzone. A theory of “coverability” suggests that songs written in the classical and pre-rock veins are most easily covered because they provide recognizable structure and melody and are based in notation. In contrast, rock and roll is based in orality and performance, and songs like Hendrix’s Voodoo Chile and Led Zeppelin’s Whole Lotta Love, which are defined by particular recordings, resist replication. The “cultural imperialism thesis” of Francesco Alberoni applies to these covers: songs from the USA and the UK are the most likely to be hits (and thus likely to be covered) in other countries, followed by those of other European countries, down to those countries whose songs are unlikely to be covered.

Works: I Dik Dik: Senza luce (442), Sognando California (442); The Rokes: Che colpa abbiamo noi (442); Patty Pravo: Ragazzo triste (443); Bing Crosby, Richard Tucker, and Gracie Fields: Come Back to Sorrento (452); Elvis Presley: It’s Now or Never (452), Viva Las Vegas (452); Al Hoffman, Leo Corday, and Leon Carr (songwriters) and Dean Martin (performer): There’s No Tomorrow (452); Lou Monte: Don’t Say Forever (452); Vic Damone and Frank Sinatra: I Have But One Heart (452); Stevie Wonder: Il sole è di tutti (457).

Sources: Procol Harum: Whiter Shade of Pale (442); Bob Lind: Cheryl’s Going Home (442); John Phillips and Michelle Phillips (songwriters) and The Mamas &The Papas (performers): California Dreamin’ (442); Sonny and Cher: But You’re Mine (443); Ernesto de Curtis: Torna a Surriento (452); Eduardo di Capua and Alfredo Mazzucchi: ’O sole mio (452); Teodoro Cottrau: Santa Lucia (452); Salvatore Gambardella: O’ marinariello (452); Stevie Wonder: A Place in the Sun (457).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

To properly understand London pasticcios of the eighteenth century, the genre must not be compared to the nineteenth-century ideal of opera, but must be considered in light of what was practiced and performed in eighteenth-century London. To showcase the talents of the performers and reflect the tastes of the audience, theatrical and pasticcio performances usually presented an amalgamation of materials. As the eighteenth century progressed, pasticcios became increasingly important, occasionally serving as venues for experiments and innovation. For example, Ferdinando Bertoni's Giunio Bruto (1782) defied pasticcio conventions by concluding with a secco recitative. Pasticcios could also significantly alter a model. Samuel Arnold's Giulio Cesare (1787) both reduced the musical material of Handel's original Giulio Cesare (1724) and inserted popular numbers from several of Handel's other operas. Until the later part of the eighteenth century, performers had the legal ability to perform substitute arias in a pasticcio. As the century continued, a power struggle erupted between copyists and singers, culminating in two legal battles. The courts ultimately sustained the rights of the performer to introduce arias in an opera, regardless of whether the aria was newly composed or borrowed the work of another composer.

Works: Samuel Arnold: Giulio Cesare in Egitto (22-24); Paisiello: Il re Teodoro in Venezia (25-27); Vincenzo Federici: L'usurpator innocente (27); Gertrude Elisabeth Mara: "Anche nel petto io sento" (27-30).

Sources: Handel: Guilio Cesare (22-24); Steven Storace: "Care donne che bramate" (25-27); Paisiello: La Molinarella (27-30).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

The reception history of Charlie Parker as a thoroughly original artist overlooks the influence of popular music on the altoist's recordings and performances. An exaggerated focus on technique over context in jazz performance pedagogy ignores this crucial historical element of Parker's musical development. Parker's colleagues and bandmates provide anecdotal evidence that he not only knew popular tunes, but played and practiced them frequently. Schenkerian analysis demonstrates that some of Parker's compositions correspond strongly to popular tunes both melodically and harmonically. This applies even to Parker's use of altered and extended harmonies, which can be found in many popular tunes that predate Parker's career.

Works: Sam H. Stept (composer) and Charlie Parker (performer): I'm Painting the Town Red (86); Charlie Parker: Ballade (87), Confirmation (87-89), My Little Suede Shoes (89-91); George Gershwin (composer) and Charlie Parker (performer): Embraceable You (92); Charlie Parker: Koko (93-96).

Sources: Sam H. Stept: I'm Painting the Town Red (86); Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler: As Long as I Live (87); Herb Magidson and Allie Wrubel: (I’m Afraid) The Masquerade is Over (87-89); Henri Giraud: Pedro Gomez (90), Le petit cireur noir (90); Zequinha de Abreu: Tico-Tico (90); George Gershwin: Embraceable You (92); Sam Coslow: A Table in a Corner (92); Ray Noble: Cherokee (93-96).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Hoagy Carmichael’s Stardust did not start out as a slow song, but instead an instrumental piece with a fast tempo. The song shares a number of unusual melodic fragments with Bix Beiderbecke’s interpretation of Singin’ the Blues and Louis Armstrong’s Dardanella. The three-note pickup to the chorus later associated with the words “Sometimes I...” is also found in the choruses to popular songs Poor Butterfly and Rose Room. Carmichael first recorded the piece in 1927. The band Mills’s Merry Makers, led by Irving Mills, recorded the first slow version less than a year later. Carmichael, however, credited the tempo change to Isham Jones’s later recording, on which Carmichael was the pianist. Carmichael wrote lyrics to Stardust even before it was recorded for the first time as an instrumental work, but Mitchell Parish, a staff writer for Mills, wrote the lyrics that Bing Crosby sang in the 1931 release of the first version with voice. Crosby and Louis Armstrong are among a handful of artists who have recorded multiple versions of Stardust, indicating its endurance as a jazz standard.

Works: Hoagy Carmichael: Stardust (151-53); Hoagy Carmichael: Stardust as performed by Mills’s Merry Makers (153-54), Isham Jones (154-55), Bing Crosby (156-57), Louis Armstrong (157-58), and Benny Goodman (159).

Sources: J. Russel Robinson, Con Conrad, Sam M. Lewis, and Joe Young (composers) and Bix Beiderbecke (performer): Singin’ the Blues (152); Felix Bernard, Johnny S. Black, and Fred Fisher (composers) and Louis Armstrong (performer): Dardanella (152); Raymond Hubbell: Poor Butterfly (152); Art Hickman: Rose Room (152).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Felix Mendelssohn’s six chorale cantatas, composed between 1827 and 1832, have often been dismissed as imitations of Bach and other models, and modern scholarship has relegated them to a less significant position in Mendelssohn’s oeuvre. However, a closer reading of Mendelssohn’s correspondence reveals that these cantatas were personally significant to him, and their composition was motivated by the composer’s strong historical interests and religious devotion. Moreover, Mendelssohn’s six cantatas demonstrate considerable creativity and originality, especially in how the composer combines or omits chorale verses, how he employs the orchestra as an expressive device, and how he presents and manipulates the chorale tune. Mendelssohn’s compositional choices ultimately reflect a highly personal interpretation of the chorale melody and the dramatic and thematic content of the chorale texts.

Works: Mendelssohn: Christe, du Lamm Gottes (2-4, 12-14), Jesu meine Freude (2-4, 9-15), Wir glauben all an einen Gott (2-6, 9-16), O Haupt voll blut und wunden (2-5, 11-13, 16-18), Vom Himmel hoch (2-6, 9-13, 18-20), Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh’ darein (2, 6-13, 18-21).

Sources: Johann Crüger and Johann Franck: Jesu meine Freude (11); Hans Leo Hassler and Paul Gerhardt: O Haupt voll blut und wunden (11); Martin Luther: Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her (11), Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh’ darein (12), Wir glauben all an einen Gott (12), Christe, du Lamm Gottes (12).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1900s

An examination of Alessandro Stradella’s work Serenata a 3, con Stromenti shows that Handel borrowed from the composer. The opening sinfonia of Stradella’s serenata is reworked into the opening to “Hailstone” in Handel’s Israel in Egypt. Additionally, the subject of the Serenata’s second movement is used in one of the choruses in Joseph and his Brethren, one of Handel’s lesser-known oratorios. Handel employs a theme from the third movement of the Serenata’s sinfonia in the chorus “Him or his God we scorn to fear” from the Occasional Oratorio. The fourth movement of Stradella’s work is uprooted and placed in its entirety into “He Spake the Word” in Israel in Egypt. Finally, Handel adapts the themes from Stradella’s airs for use in Israel in Egypt.

Works: Handel: Israel in Egypt (154-55), Joseph and his Brethren (154), Occasional Oratorio (155).

Sources: Alessandro Stradella: Serenata a 3, con Stromenti (154-55).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Popular songs can accrue meaning through their place in films. Although the concept of filmic leitmotivs is generally reserved for classical music, it can also apply to uses of popular music. In the case of Benny Goodman’s Sing Sing Sing, the filmic and cross-filmic leitmotivs associate the song not only with the Swing Era in general but also with a feeling of danger and wildness. Neither of these associations comes from the song alone; despite its popularity, the song came at the end of the Swing Era and was not a part of that period’s heyday, and there was no original connotation of danger for the song. The inclusion of Sing Sing Sing began in films with diegetic music, such as its use in dance and concert settings in Hollywood Hotel (1937) and The Benny Goodman Story (1956). These instances help to set up the aural connotation of the music with the essence of the Swing Era. Later uses did not need to be diegetic to evoke these images of the Swing Era, since associations with the music had already entered audience consciousness, and led to mimicked allusions to the song in other films. Later usages with Nazis in Swing Kids (1993) and Hell in Deconstructing Harry (1997) further cement the music’s “dangerous” connotation.

Works: Busby Berkeley (director): Hollywood Hotel (35); Valentine Davies (director): The Benny Goodman Story (36-38); Shinobu Yaguchi (director): Swing Girls (38-39); Thomas Carter (director): Swing Kids (40-41); Michel Hazanavicius (director): The Artist (41); Charles Russell (director): The Mask (41); Anthony Hickox (director): Waxwork (41); Patrice Leconte (director): La Fille sur le Pont (41); Woody Allen (director): New York Stories (41-42), Manhattan Murder Mystery (41-42), Deconstructing Harry (41-43).

Sources: Benny Goodman: Sing Sing Sing (33-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Jazz, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Of the fifteen known Masses by Porta, six are freely composed, six are cantus firmus Masses, and three are parody Masses. It is possible that some of the freely composed Masses are parodies of unidentified models. Following a comparison between Palestrina's and Porta's borrowing techniques, five of Porta's parody Masses are presented in detail: Missa Secundi toni, based on Palestrina's madrigal "Vestiv' i colli"; Missa Tertii toni, on Rore's madrigal "Com' havran fin le dolorose tempre"; Missa Descendit angelus, on a motet by Hilaire Penet; Missa Quemadmodum, on an unidentified model; and Missa Audi filia, on a five-voice motet by Gombert. The essence of Porta's borrowing technique lies in extraction of motives from the model; literal use of the borrowed motives, most frequently in the bass; modification of the motives by melodic and rhythmic alteration, telescoping, and fragmentation; imitation in all or some voices; and simultaneous exploitation of all the voices of the model.

Works: Porta: Missa Secundi toni (214-16), Missa Tertii toni (214, 216-17), Missa Audi filia (217-20, 225), Missa Descendit angelus (912-25), Missa Quemadmodum (225-26, 228).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Alfredo Colman

Over the course of his first three symphonies, Davies explores the same system of minor thirds and tritones that governs the first movement of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony. While the symphonies of this "triptych" may be related to each other by this key scheme (F-Ab-B-D), they represent different compositional and aesthetic concerns of Davies. His first two symphonies, evoking respectively landscape and seascape, draw upon the aesthetics and ideals of other composers, including Sibelius, Beethoven, and Debussy. For the First Symphony, the scherzo of Sibelius's Fifth Symphony served as a model. For the more formally strict Second Symphony, Davies draws upon the harmonic and stylistic idiom of Debussy's La Mer. In each of the four movements of his Third Symphony, Davies articulates the same architectural outline, in which he borrows Renaissance spatial concepts and proportions and reworks them abstractly in time. The finale of this symphony, as with the slow final movement of the First Symphony, represents a response to the Mahler symphonic tradition.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Peter Maxwell Davies's instrumental piece Second Fantasia on John Taverner's In Nomine demonstrates the ways in which Davies and Mahler think alike. In works of both composers, the borrowed material, which is the surface of the work, contradicts the full meaning of the work. Only in context with the rest of the piece can the significance of the borrowing be understood, and this technique creates an irony associated with the borrowing. Davies often passes the borrowed idea through filters, rendering it changed, even grotesque. In the Fantasia, Davies borrows Taverner's cantus firmus and distorts it in various ways. In the first movement, for example, he states it in the oboe with reasonable clarity, but in the scherzo it is distorted through excessive vibrato by a solo violin. This is comparable to processes in Mahler's Ninth Symphony. After an extended examination of the harmonic and tonal processes to which the borrowed material is subjected, one can see Davies's ironic dual-level process at work.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

The formal and spiritual continuity of Davies's style is demonstrated through examination of two works, Worldes Blis and Stone Litany, in relation to their earlier counterparts, Taverner 2 and Revelation and Fall.Worldes Blis, which is based upon the same In Nomine setting by Taverner as Taverner 2, parallels the surface form of Taverner 2 to its halfway point and then "masks" the material from the second half. Discussed in terms of emotional content, Stone Litany provides a cold, hard look at the same image discussed by Revelation and Fall.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

The influence of Hebrew cantillation, the ritual chanting of readings from the Hebrew Bible in synagogue services, can be traced in Steve Reich’s music from the mid-1970s to the early-1990s. After Reich studied cantillation, the sound aspects of spoken language, such as intonation, timbre, melodic cadences, and metric accentuation, became the defining elements of musical structure in many of his compositions. In Eight Lines (1979), there are long melodic lines which were constructed according to a procedure of “motivic addition” similar to that of Hebrew cantillation. In Tehillim (1981), Reich uses Psalms in Hebrew as the poetic source for his musical settings. Furthermore, the rhythmic structure of the work is based on the structure of the words: a pattern of two and three beats, which Reich preserved metrically and in the vocal line of this work. Different Trains incorporates taped speech fragments of Holocaust survivors. The intonation and pitch level of the original speech fragments determine the harmonic framework of the composition, including its tonal shifts to different harmonic planes. The Cave incorporates techniques of the previous three compositions. Speech samples become the basis of this composition, and its music reflects these samples’ melodic and rhythmic profiles. These text-setting techniques restore the union between the “sound” aspect of speech and the semantic meaning of the words, a direct result of the influence of Hebrew cantillation.

Works: Steve Reich: Eight Lines (543-45), Tehillim (545-48), Different Trains (548-50), The Cave (550-51).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Closer scrutiny of the lieder of Anton Webern can reveal the influence of Hugo Wolf. This is true not only of style, but also in the borrowing of actual musical content. This can be pitch specific, for example in "Aufblick," Webern uses a notational "perversion" of B flat-B double flat-A flat, which is identical to Wolf in "Lebe wohl," or they can be less referential, such as an ascending third followed by a descending semitone in Wolf's "Frage und Antwort." Another borrowing type includes specific chromatic chord progressions as in Webern's "Heimgang in der Frühe" and Wolf's "Das verlassene Mägdlein." Wolf's influence on Webern is widely known, which only affirms the possibility of borrowing from the elder composer. This is further strengthened by the fact that all references to Wolf's lieder are to those contained in the Mörike-Liederbuch.

Works: Webern: Aufblick (21, 22), Fromm (23-24), Heimgang in der Frühe (24-25), Sommerabend (25).

Sources: Wolf: Lebe wohl (21-22), Frage und Antwort (22), Gesang Weylas (23-24), Das Verlassene Mägdlein (24-25), Um Mitternacht (25).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes