Index Classifications: 1900s

The "problematic" nature of Bach's parody technique has been extensively commented upon in the last century. Recent discussions have focused on the role of musical figures and word-to-tone relationships in assessing the effectiveness of parody compositions, although the work of Werner Neumann, Werner Braun, and others have begun to alter this picture. Bach's four Lutheran Masses, which consist of twelve arias and choruses borrowed from four different cantatas, exhibit the means by which the borrowed musical substance may be applied to texts of highly divergent meaning. Although there are indeed incongruities between the music and text on the level of the individual word, the general affect of the new setting is effective enough that these problems are of little consequence. Musical figures carry denotative significance only with respect to an underlaid word; a re-texting of a piece, then, involves a wholesale transformation of the composition's meaning. A proper performance, therefore, should strive to adapt the inherently versatile music to the ideas of the new text.

Works: Bach: Mass in A Major, BWV 234 (54-55), Mass in G Major, BWV 236 (55-57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Work on the Neue Bach Ausgabe stimulated research into J. S. Bach's copies and arrangements of other composers' works. The Acroma missale by Giovanni Battista Bassani, published 1709, is a collection of six four-voice settings of the Ordinary with instrumental accompaniment, contained in sixteen part-books. Bach's arrangement differs from the original in two important points: (1) it is written as an eight-part score and (2) only the first four sections of the Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus with Osanna I) are present. Bach includes in his settings the intonation words of the Credo (which were omitted by Bassani, except in Mass No. 3), and in the case of Mass No. 5 this is a lengthy setting that could be regarded as a separate little (thus far unknown) composition. Analysis of watermarks and handwriting establishes Bach's son Gottfried Heinrich as the copyist and dates the different pieces to the period between 1735 and 1747. However, questions about the reason and purpose of Bach's copying of this unoriginal work remain largely unanswered.

Works: J. S. Bach: Sechs Messen von Bassani (Mus. ms. 1160).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In letters written between 1834 and 1836, Georges Sand traced the developments of Romanticism and provided a narrative for its artistic, religious, and social aspects. Giacomo Meyerbeer's borrowing of Martin Luther's Ein feste Burg in Les Huguenots is one such example of an emerging Romantic aesthetic. Even though Meyerbeer turned to an older German chorale form in his opera, he updated it to become Romantic by using the tune as "local color" for crowd scenes on the stage and in particular for Huguenots. Meyerbeer effectively truncated the tune in a culminating scene in Act V, in which Catholic assassins enter, and the Huguenots stop singing it. Throughout the opera, Ein feste Burg signifies perseverance in the face of religious persecution.

Works: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (92-93).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (92).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Dale lists works (from Beethoven till present) that include quotations. They can be grouped into pieces (1) quoting Dies Irae, (2) quoting Beethoven, (3) by Wagner quoting other works, (4) by Borodin, Elgar, and Ives quoting other works, (5) in which Schumann was quoting, and (6) by other composers. The principle of quoting is clearly separate from parody, the stylistic imitation of an other composer, which is not included in this essay.

Works: Borodin: The Valiant Knights (626); Elgar: The Music Makers (626); Ives: An Elegy for Stephen Foster (626).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Patti Smith's version of Van Morrison's Gloria transforms the meaning of the original through the use of textual tropes and altered vocal performance that ultimately decenters the "dominant male rock singer" to clear out creative space for herself. In her version, Gloria in excelsis deo, Smith adds a great deal of text to the original lyrics but retains some of Morrison's text without changing the male perspective, deliberately playing up the male sexual undertones. Smith also utilizes a number of subtle vocal inflections to emphasize specific words and phrases and bring out meaning in the text. These vocal performance techniques include qualities such as "raspy," "hard/nasal," "breathy," or "creaky," as well as exaggerated or closed vowel sounds and pitch inflections. An appendix contains the text to Morrison's Gloria and a transcription of Smith's version featuring both traditional staff notation and the author's notation for indicating vocal performance techniques.

Works: Van Morrison and Patti Smith: Gloria in excelsis deo.

Sources: Van Morrison: Gloria.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The use of variation as a compositional technique in the Middle Ages falls into four broad categories: the variation motet, hocket variations, the ostinato motet, and harmonic ostinato. These categories call into question the belief that composition in the Middle Ages was strictly additive. Many of the works that employ variation technique also borrow material from pre-existing tunes. In addition, hocket variation is one way in which vocal compositions were reworked for instruments.

Works: Anonymous: Plus joliement/Quant li douz/Portare (38-39); Anonymous: Mundi dolens/Tenor (38-40); Anonymous: Sicut a prophetis/Propter (40); Anonymous: Deus tuorum militum/De flore martyrum/Ave Rex Gentis (40-41); Anonymous: Regina celi letare/Ave regina/Ave (45).

Sources: Anonymous: Portare (38-39); Anonymous: Propter (40); Anonymous: Ave Rex Gentis (40-41); Anonymous: Ave (45).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Although one might expect contrafacta to be a prevalent type in the early liturgy of the Anglican church, there are surprisingly few anthems that can be identified as adaptations of motets, secular pieces, or instrumental works. Of the known contrafacta, most can be dated to the seventeenth century. In light of this lack of contrafacta during the formative years of the Anglican church, one can conclude that the earliest examples have not survived, that there was not a great demand for choral music, or that some anthems are in fact contrafacta for which their earlier forms have not been identified. It appears that the majority of adaptations were made in the seventeenth century, most of which were contrafacta of compositions by recognized masters. This further suggests that the intrinsic merit of the music was the greater motivation for substituting English for Latin, rather than fulfilling a utilitarian purpose during the formation of the Anglican liturgy.

Works: Thomas Causton: In trouble and adversity (101), O give thanks unto the Lord (101); Anonymous: Wipe away my sins (102), Blessed be thy name (102), I call and cry (102), Discumfit them (102), Bow down thine ear (103), O sacred and holy blanket (103), Arise, O lord (103), Behold now, praise the Lord (103), Let not our prayers (103), Let us arise from sin (103), O Lord deliver me (103), Praise the Lord O my soul (104), Behold I bring you glad tidings (104), And there was with the angel (104), Lift up your heads (104), O Lord, give ear to the prayer (104), Let not thy wrath (104), Out of the deep (104), Arise, O lord (104), Forgive me Lord (104); Robert Johnson: Benedicam Domino . . . O Lord with all my heart (102).

Sources: Taverner: "In nomine" from Missa Gloria Tibi Trinitas (101); Tallis: Absterge Domine (Wipe away my sins) (102, 104), Fond youth is a bubble (103), Salvator mundi (103-4), O sacrum convivium (103); Morley: Nolo mortem peccatoris . . . Father, I am thine only Son (102), De profundis (104); Weelkes: Gloria in excelsis . . . Sing my soul (102); Thomas Ford: Miserere, my maker (102); Peter Philips: Cantai mentre (103); Byrd: Exsurge, Domine (103), Now enim pro peccatis (103), Attolite portas (103-4), Memento, homo (104), Ne irascaris (104); Robert White: Manus tuae (103), Domine non est exaltatum (103).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Schumann's Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17, contains both a direct quotation of and several allusions to "Nimm sie hin denn diese Lieder" from Beethoven's song cycle An die ferne Geliebte. The quotation fulfills several functions. First, it provides one of the thematic connections between the slow inserted section called "Im Legendenton" and the surrounding movement in sonata form. Second, the literal quotation in the coda can be seen as the climax toward which the whole movement develops. This view is supported not only by the increasing clarity of the quotation (from allusion in the exposition to clearer allusion in the section called "Im Legendenton" to literal quotation in the coda) but also by the fact that the Fantasy opens quasi in medias res on a dominant ninth chord. Rather than analyzing the Fantasy as developing from a theme, there is the option to analyze it as developing toward a theme. Other quotations in the Fantasy are mentioned only briefly.

Works: Schumann: Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17 (151-53, 156-58).

Sources: Schubert: Die Gebüsche, D. 646 (151), Der Fluss, D. 693 (151); Beethoven: Wo die Berge so blau, Op. 98, no. 2 (151, 156-58).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Bach's Sanctus BWV 241 is a reworking of the Sanctus from Johann Caspar Kerll's Missa Superba. Kerll designed the mass for ten concerted parts, with some doubling instruments: 2 sopranos, 2 altos, 2 basses, 2 violins, 4 trombones, organ, and violone. Bach added two oboes d'amore to double the soprano parts, replaced the trombones with violas, omitted the violone and organ, and added a new continuo line with cello, violone grosso, cembalo, and organ. Kerll's Sanctus is built in three separate sections: Bach kept the first two sections essentially intact, only quickening the rhythm in spots. The faster rhythm led Bach to abandon his model entirely in the third section, introducing a lively new motive in steady sixteenth-note motion.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Cinema attempts to claim a status as an art form and offer the elitism of opera to new audiences in opera film. The opera film creates a hybrid cultural artifact that blurs boundaries between high and low culture, which can be seen in Cecil B. DeMille's Carmen, Otto Preminger's Carmen Jones, and Francesco Rosi's Carmen. Bizet's Carmen as an opera is a hybrid of high and low culture in and of itself, a characterization maintained in film opera versions of it. Otto Preminger's Carmen Jones uses Bizet's music but with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein and an entirely black cast, playing into the tradition of the musical. The consideration of filmed opera as a cultural hybrid, implying distance, allows tension between high and low culture to be preserved and invites the audience to appreciate the elite high culture.

Works: Works: Cecil B. DeMille (director): Sound track to Carmen (48-49, 55); Otto Preminger (director): Sound track to Carmen Jones (49-51, 55); Francesco Rosi (director): Sound track to Carmen (51-55).

Sources: Bizet: Carmen (48-55).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

The commercially available samplers invented in the 1980s have a long history that can be seen to include the early digital (but not binary) technology of the telegraph up until the invention of modern digital technology. After World War I inventors constructed and patented musical instruments based on available sound recording technologies as well as early versions of magnetic tape recorder dictating machines. This is generally considered the first "sampler." By 1948, Pierre Schaeffer initiated musique concrète and developed a technique similar to the later tape loop, the sillon fermé. Influenced by the invention of magnetic tape, Schaeffer transferred all of his disc recording techniques to the medium of magnetic tape and patented his Phonogène in the 1950s. In 1964, the first successful instrument based on magnetic tape technology, the Mellotron, was marketed. The first digital sampling instruments appeared in the early 1970s, and by the second half of the 1980s digital sampling technology had become a standard part of every electronic piano, organ, or synthesizer. Musicians have explored extensively the possibilities of the manipulation of recorded sound. The phonograph has been used for works like John Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 5 as well as "scratching" by DJs in the popular music tradition. Other works have used this technology to manipulate pre-existing recorded works by other artists, generating conflict with copyright law. Among these works are James Tenney's Collage No. 1 ('Blue Suede') and John Oswald's Plunderphonics. Live manipulations of prerecorded magnetic tape material, such as Laurie Anderson's Tape Bow Violin, have also been explored. Commercial digital samplers are now used in a variety of contemporary composers' works, such as Michel Waisvisz 's The Archaic Symphony or Nicolas Collins's Devil's Music.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Rumel Fuentes’s cover of Doug Sahm’s song Chicano authenticates the original through Allan Moore’s typology of authenticity. Moore proposes a three-part typology of authenticity in popular music, consisting of first-, second-, and third-person authenticity that is constructed by the act of listening. Sahm, born in San Antonio of German descent, speaks in the first person in Chicano, which raises concerns about his capacity to speak for the Chicano community. In Moore’s typology, Sahm’s performance of Chicano is inauthentic in the first-person (authenticity of expression) and third-person (authenticity of execution) senses. The history of American popular music is full of racial crossing, so Sahm’s adoption of a Chicano persona is not unprecedented. Fuentes, also a Texas native and heavily involved in the Chicano movement of the 1970s, recorded a cover of Chicano in 1972 (although it was not released until 2009). Fuentes modifies some of the original lyrics to declare his Chicano identity more assertively, including adding an additional verse. He also alters the rhythm section to use a traditional conjunto line-up rather than the hybrid instrumentation of Sahm’s band. The gritos (screams) in Fuentes’s vocal delivery further add to his cover’s working-class aesthetic. Fuentes’s cover lends Sahm’s Chicano a greater sense of second-person authenticity (authenticity of experience) by validating that Chicano resonates with the experiences of Mexican-American audiences.

Works: Rumel Fuentes (performer), Doug Sahm (songwriter): Chicano (87-91).

Sources: Doug Sahm: Chicano (87-91).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Certain revisions concerning borrowing needed to be made to the author's original article, "The Solus Tenor in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries," which appeared in Acta Musicologica 39. A solus tenor is a line that can assume a strongly harmonic character, as demonstrated in Royllart's isorhythmic motet Rex Karole, Johannes genite/Leticie, pacis, concordie. The definitive characteristic of a motet with this kind of tenor is that it can be performed in either a three-part or a four-part setting. As in the anonymous Januam quam clauserat/Jacinctus in saltibus/Quartus cantus/Jacet granum, these pieces work equally well with either number of parts. Another interesting aspect of these works is illustrated by the motet Inter densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum, whose tenor scholars recently determined was actually added by a later scribe. So, the piece was actually based on a different borrowed tenor than the one that currently accompanies it. In all of these pieces, the common thread is a tenor with a strong harmonic character that belongs to a motet that can function with either three or four voice parts.

Works: Royllart: Rex Karole, Johannes genite/Leticie, pacis, concordie (176-77); Motet: Inter densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum (176); Matteo da Perugia: Gloria in Mod (177); Johannes Brassart: Magne decus potencie/Genus regule esperie (177); Motet: Januam quam clauserat/Jacinctus in saltibus/Quartus cantus/Jacet granum (178).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

In compositions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the tenor and the contratenor had similar structural roles. From their structural interaction and overlap, composers extracted a new voice called the solus tenor. This new voice, which functioned as a replacement for both the tenor and the contratenor, effectively reduced a four-part composition to three. The result is that some sources transmit a particular piece with the solus tenor, others retain the tenor and contratenor, while still others transmit all three voices.

Works: Vitry: Gratissima Virginis species/Vos quid admiramini/Gaude gloriosa (45-47, 50, 53-54), Virtutibus laudabilis/Impudenter circuivi/Alma redemptoris mater (46-47, 50-51, 53); Anonymous: Gloria (48); Binchois: Dueil angoisseux, rage demeseurée (48-49); Pennard: Credo (51-52); Du Fay: Apostolo glorioso/Cum tua doctrina/Andreas Christi famulus (52, 55); Franchois: Ave Virgo lux Maria/Sancta Maria (52); Pycard: Gloria (53); Lantins: Celsa sublimatur victoria/Sabine presul dignissime (54); Anonymous: O Maria virgo davitica/O Maria maris stella (54).

Sources: Vitry: Gratissima Virginis species/Vos quid admiramini/Gaude gloriosa (45-47, 50, 53-54), Virtutibus laudabilis/Impudenter circuivi/Alma redemptoris mater (46-47, 50-51, 53); Anonymous: Gloria (48); Binchois: Dueil angoisseux, rage demeseurée (48-49); Pennard: Credo (51-52); Du Fay: Apostolo glorioso/Cum tua doctrina/Andreas Christi famulus (52, 55); Franchois: Ave Virgo lux Maria/Sancta Maria (52); Pycard: Gloria (53); Lantins: Celsa sublimatur victoria/Sabine presul dignissime (54); Anonymous: O Maria virgo davitica/O Maria maris stella (54).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Questions relating to the attribution of two textless polyphonic works, found in several early sixteenth-century manuscripts, may be solved by studying the musical and textual borrowings in the compositions. These works, titled Si dormiero and Sancta Maria Virgo and commonly attributed to Pierre de la Rue, are often found with other instrumental intabulations whose titles begin with the word Si. The musical borrowings among this group of pieces include the Compline Respond verse Si dedero, opening melodic motives, and similar points of imitation. Whereas Josquin's In pace uses the first two phrases of the Si dedero chant, Obrecht's Si sumpsero starts the chant where Josquin leaves off, suggesting that these two motets were composed in response to one another. Si dormiero borrows motives from Josquin's In pace and Agricola's Si dedero. The works are also linked through sacred and secular textual relations.

Works: Alexander Agricola: Si dedero (2-8); Josquin des Prez: In pace (2-8); Pierre de la Rue: Si dormiero (2-8), Sancta Maria Virgo (2, 6-8); Jacob Obrecht: Si sumpsero (5-8).

Sources: Alexander Agricola: Si dedero (2-8); Josquin des Prez: In pace (2-8); Compline Respond verse: Si dedero (3-6).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

While Johann Joseph Fux's treatise Gradus ad Parnassum recommends Palestrina as a model of the contrapuntal style, it does not include any music by Palestrina. Fux's own Missa di San Carlo (also known as the Missa Canonica) was long considered a masterpiece of the old style. Palestrina's Missa ad Fugam, which was known to Fux, most likely served as a model for this work. Scarlatti and Albrechtsberger also wrote canonic masses. These eighteenth-century compositions reflect the composers' knowledge of the Palestrina style as observed from his Missa ad Fugam.

Works: Johann Joseph Fux: Missa di San Carlo (463-65); Alessandro Scarlatti: Messe e Credo a 4 ad Canones (465, 467); Johann Georg Albrechtsberger: Missa Canonica (465, 468-69).

Sources: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa ad Fugam (passim).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Golliwog’s Cakewalk from Claude Debussy’s Children’s Corner (1908) appropriates a complex set of signifiers related to American slavery mediated through a French colonial context and thus becomes an uncanny (in Freud’s sense) cultural commodity. One signifier of slavery adopted by Debussy is the Golliwog doll, which has its roots in minstrelsy and represents a commodification of black bodies. The cakewalk dance follows a similar trajectory, originating as a plantation dance and eventually imitated in minstrel shows and by white Parisian socialites. Debussy’s conspicuous quotation of Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde has been understood as a grotesque representation of Wagner’s music in the supposed “primitive” form of the cakewalk. It can also be read as Debussy’s humorous expression of the incompatibility of refined Western culture (represented by Wagner) and the primitive Golliwog. Together, these signifiers represent Freud’s notion of the uncanny, bringing to light the violent history of American slavery and French colonialism in a seemingly trivial, modern cultural product.

Works: Debussy: Golliwog’s Cakewalk, from Children’s Corner (23, 27-29)

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (23, 27-29)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Self-borrowing occurs for many reasons, such as creative impotence, haste, or desire to reuse an especially felicitous phrase. For Bizet, it was an effort to make use of cast-aside or unfinished materials that otherwise might not have been completed. His self-borrowings were always from unpublished works and those which had never been performed; thus, his borrowing could go undetected during his lifetime. Reworkings include reuse of an entire movement or aria, or adaptation of an older theme to a new context.

Works: Bizet: Symphony in C Major (240, 241), Vasco de gama (240), Le golfe de Bahia (240), Ivan IV (240), Te Deum (240), Don Procopio (240), Clovis et Clotilde (241), Marche funèbre (241), "Le doute" (241), "La coupe de Roi de Thulé" (242, 243), Grisélidis (243), "La jolie fille de Perth" (243), Don Rodrigue (244), L'Arlesienne (244).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Reinhard Keiser's opera Die römische Unruhe, oder Die edelmüthige Octavia (1705) has long been recognized as a source of material for Handel in the first decade of the eighteenth century. However, further study reveals that music from Keiser's opera was used by Handel in various compositions for some fifty years, from Aminta e Fillide (1708) to The Triumph of Time and Truth (1758). These examples reflect Handel's typical borrowing procedure: a characteristic motive or phrase is appropriated and subjected to elaboration and development, sometimes in a vastly different context, which far surpasses the original parameters of the model. As such Handel repaid his debt to Keiser throughout his life.

Works: Handel: Ariodante (74-75), Orlando (75-76), Aminta e Fillide (76-77), Agrippina (76-78), Rodelinda (78), Berenice (79), Solomon (79), The Triumph of Time and Truth (79-80).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

The performance history of Handel's opera Sosarme, completed in 1732, is complicated because of the changes made before the first performances and for the 1734 revival. The setting and character names had to be changed during the initial composition process for political reasons. Cuts to the music and libretto also made at this time caused the plot's coherence to suffer greatly. This led to negative reactions to the drama, but the music was still well received. Many arias in the 1732 version resemble many of Handel's earlier works in general stylistic traits, but several are specific reworkings of previous material. Handel had to make many additional changes for his 1734 revival in order to accommodate the differences in voice ranges and talent of the two completely different casts. In addition to transposing much of the opera into alternate keys and cutting arias, Handel made changes to showcase the great skill of Carlo Scalzi in the role of Argone. He inserted the arias "Corro per ubbidirvi" and "Quell'orror delle procelle" from Riccardo Primo specifically for Scalzi's voice, reworking them slightly to fit the plot.

Works: Handel: Sosarme (125, 132-33, 144-45).

Sources: Handel: Riccardo Primo (125), Admeto (132-3), Giulio Cesare (133), La Bianca Rosa (133), Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (144-45).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

In the United Kingdom, the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 does not except parody from copyright violation. Since then, both the Gowers Review of Intellectual Property in 2006 and the Intellectual Property Office in 2008 stated that including an exception for parody would be in the best interests of producers and consumers. In 2009 the Intellectual Property Office reversed their position, rejecting an exception for parody. Yet such an exception should be made, as demonstrated by considering the conditions for parodic use under the current laws and the arguments for and against the exception of parody. In certain situations, direct borrowing of significant portions of music is necessary for the success of the parody, and often the necessity directly depends on various factors surrounding each individual case; this is where copyright fails to protect the parodist.

Works: Rick Dees: When Sonny Sniffs Glue (792); 2 Live Crew: Pretty Woman (792); Saturday Night Live: I Love Sodom (794).

Sources: Jack Segal and Marvin Fisher: When Sunny Gets Blue (792); Roy Orbison: Oh, Pretty Woman (792); Steve Karmen: I Love New York (794).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Martin Scorsese’s directing and editing work in his 1995 film Casino, with its compiled score firmly integrated into the film’s structure, can be understood as music composition in the manner of a sample-based DJ. The film is scored for 129 minutes of its 178-minute runtime and contains eighty-three discreet musical cues drawn from sixty-one cleared tracks. The enormity of this musical project was aided by Scorsese utilizing digital editing tools for the first time, allowing the soundtrack and film footage to be manipulated simultaneously. Although Scorsese claimed to strictly select period-appropriate music in a 1996 interview, the actual compiled score is drawn broadly from music of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, at odds with the film’s stated timeline of 1973-1983 and suggesting no musical chronology. Instead of establishing the film’s setting, the score dictates the pace and tone of the edit. Scorsese frequently cues contrasting tracks back-to-back, sonically supporting the film’s constructed dialectic between the glittery appearance of Las Vegas and the dark reality of its mob rule. Scorsese uses voice-over narration to move the plot along throughout the film, and several musical cues take on the narrative function. To achieve this effect, Scorsese meticulously edited the dialogue, film, and soundtrack to allow the score to “speak” for the characters. Musical style also serves to delineate the two narratives of Casino. Rock music scores the violent mob scenes, and classic pop scores the marriage in decline. Despite the volume and variety of music in the film, the characters are portrayed as decidedly un-musical and rarely if ever engage with music in a meaningful way. There is also no clear correlation between the music scoring a character and the style of music that character might be expected to listen to or enjoy diegetically. Instead, the musical cues and their construction into a compiled score reflect Scorsese’s voice as a curator and composer, reflecting his personal taste in music and making Casino a profoundly musical film.

Works: Martin Scorsese: compiled score to Casino (287-312)

Sources: J. S. Bach: St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (292); Paulo Citarella and Louis Prima (songwriters), Louis Prima (performer): Angelina / Zooma Zooma (292, 295-97); Al Bell (songwriter), The Staple Sisters (performers): I’ll Take You There (292, 294); Stanley Adams and Maria Grever (songwriters), Dinah Washington (performer): What A Difference a Day Makes (294, 304); Irving Gordon (songwriter), Dinah Washington (performer): Unforgettable (304); Charles Tobias (songwriter), Jerry Vale (performer): Love Me the Way I Love You (294); Elsa Byrd and Paul Winley (songwriters), The Paragons (performers): Let’s Start All Over Again (294); Mick Jagger and Keith Richards (songwriters), The Rolling Stones (performers): Sweet Virginia (294), (I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction (302-3), Can’t You Hear Me Knocking (310); Edgar De Lange, Will Hudson, Irving Mills, and Morris Stoloff: Moonglow (296-27); Billy Page (songwriter), Ramsey Lewis (performer): The In-Crowd (297-98, 300); Billy Page (songwriter), Dobie Gray (performer): The In-Crowd (297-98); Gene McDaniels (songwriter), Les McCann and Eddie Harris (performers): Compared to What (298); Willie Dixon (songwriter), Muddy Waters (performer): Hoochie Coochie Man (298-302); Ginger Baker (songwriter), Cream (performers): Toad (302); Georges Delerue: Theme de Camille (302, 307); Ned Washington and Victor Young (songwriters), Ray Charles (performer): Stella by Starlight (305-7); Jimmie Crane and Al Jacobs: Hurt (307); Traditional, The Animals (performers): The House of the Rising Sun (309-10); Willie Dixon (songwriter), Jeff Beck (performer): I Ain’t Superstitious (310-12)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

This book is divided into three sections: a biography, a psychological profile, and a discussion of his music. The discussion of stylistic borrowings is located in the second section along with discussions of how he relates to church music, how he relates to other people and their opinions and music, and how he relates to his own music. Specific borrowings are considered in the last section, where Decsey discusses each of Bruckner's major works with an eye to the sociological implications associated with each. Biographical reasons for compositional style are proposed and substantiated with sketches, writings, or conjecture. Decsey attempts to lay to rest critics of Bruckner, especially those who decry "formlessness," and "massiveness" in his music.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1500s

A taxonomy of musical borrowing practices in acousmatic music, addressing material sampling and cultural citation in particular, is useful in understanding the genre. Material sampling involves repurposing an object in a new context and can be further broken down into remix, appropriation, and quoting/sampling. The recognizability of the source material is a key concern in interpreting musical borrowing. Cultural citation is a more nuanced concept than material sampling as it borrows abstract ideas. Intertextuality and intermediality are two concerns in cultural citation that can consciously or unconsciously connect different text or media. Franco Degrassi’s Variations of Evan Parker’s Saxophone Solos (2018) offers a reflexive look at a compositional process involving borrowing. The piece remixes the tracks of Evan Parker’s Saxophone Solos CD (2009, originally released in 1976) via MIDI control and digital looping. Variations is a second remediation of Parker’s live musical performance, the first being the initial studio recording done in 1975. Further investigation into cultural citation and material sampling in acousmatic music, especially as they relate to other forms of media, would yield a more complete understanding of the genre.

Works: Pierre Henry: Beethoven’s Tenth Symphony (196), The 10th Remix (196), Par les grèves (196), Dracula, ou La musique trouve le ciel (196); Luc Ferrari: Strathoven (197); John Cage: Imaginary Landscape No. 5 (197); Bruno Maderna: Ritratto di città (197); Denis Dufour: 2007, PH 27-80 (197); Stockhausen: Telemusik (197-98), Hymnen (197-98); Franco Degrassi: Variations of Evan Parker’s Saxophone Solos (201-2).

Sources: Debussy: Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (196); Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen (196); Iannis Xenakis: Persepolis (196); Evan Parker: Saxophone Solos (201-2).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In 1948, Britten composed his realization of the The Beggar's Opera. Of the realizations made of this opera, Britten's was the first to use so many of the original songs, sixty-six of the sixty-nine airs. His realizations range from supplying original accompaniments to the development of operatic forms such as melodramas, scenas, and finales based on one or more tunes. The airs as treated by Britten may be classified ino six categories: (1) "Straight setting" (similar to his folksong settings); (2) "Straight settings, but with the phrases of the air spaced apart"; (3) "Straight settings, but with the melody itself treated freely"; (4) "Settings in which the air is worked into an elaborate, but formally concise, musical scheme" (subdivided into numbers with and without chorus); (5) "Settings embodied in larger musical designs" (numbers with introductions and codas based on original material derived from the airs); and (6) "Settings in which two or more airs are used in combination." As part of his settings, Britten was able to retain the original keys of a large number of the airs. He also restored Macheath's role from a baritone, as it had been sung for several years, to the original tenor.

Works: Benjamin Britten: The Beggar's Opera.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Throughout this thorough examination of Strauss's life and works, musical borrowings are cited in music of every genre in which Strauss composed. There is a separate list of self quotations for Ein Heldenleben in vol. 1, p. 177.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Chabrier's excursion to Spain proved to be highly influential on his style. In letters sent to his friends and family, he recounts experiences and notates music later utilized inEspaña , including melodic ideas and distinctive regional dance rhythms.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Ravel himself acknowledged his great debt to the music of Chabrier. There are few works by Ravel which do not to some extent echo one or another work by Chabrier. Some specific allusions are noted. Ravel's harmonic procedures are also influenced by Chabrier.

Works: Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte (547), Jeux d'eau (550), "Ondine" and "Scarbo" from Gaspard de la Nuit (550), Alborada del graciozo (550), Rapsodie espagnole (550), Vocalise en forme de habanera (550), La Valse (550), Histories naturelles (551).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1700s

Hip-hop draws influence directly from 1970s African American culture. Many prominent hip-hop artists, including Public Enemy, Ice Cube, and the Fugees, mention this decade in their music as one in which blacks began to assert themselves politically and culturally. This is demonstrated primarily by hip-hop musicians and producers borrowing the music of Blaxploitation films, which often portrayed African American pimps and drug dealers fighting against white authority. Hip-hop borrows musically and culturally from these Blaxploitation films’ introductory theme music for the main characters, politically charged content, and focus on the ghetto. While these films and their music do not uniformly glorify or demonize black poverty, drug abuse, and violence, the hip-hop community has borrowed their material almost exclusively to show street credibility.

Works: Jay-Z: Reservoir Dogs (49); Smoothe Da Hustler: Hustler’s Theme (49); Snoop Doggy Dogg: Doggystyle (52); Dr. Dre: Rat Tat Tat Tat (53); Ol’ Dirty Bastard: Got Your Money (54).

Sources: Isaac Hayes: Theme to Shaft from Shaft (49); Curtis Mayfield: Freddie’s Dead from Super Fly (49); Willie Hutch: Brother’s Gonna Work It Out from The Mack (53); Rudy Ray Moore: The Signifying Monkey from Dolemite (54).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

The music of Wagner exerted a strong influence on Elgar. This influence is evident in the thematic cohesion and chromatic harmony of Elgar's music. It is also evident in the many allusions and reminiscences of particular passages in Wagner, listed here in pairs (Elgar/Wagner): (1) Froissart, Op. 19/love duet from Die Walküre and "Prize Song" from Die Meistersinger; (2) The Black Knight, Op. 25/Prelude to Siegfried and "magic sleep" from the Ring; (3) The Light of Life, Op. 29/Act 2/2 and Act 3/2 from Parsifal; (4) Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 3O/Die Meistersinger; (5) Te Deum/"trial song" from Die Meistersinger; (6) Caractacus/the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Act 2 from Die Meistersinger, Act 2 from Siegfried, and Tannhäuser; (7) The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38/start of Parsifal and the "ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre; (8) Second Symphony, Tristan (final cadential progression). Most of these allusions are probably subconscious, although Elgar was consciously aware of the significance of Wagner to his creative workings. Wagner had a profound influence on Elgar, especially in his first two periods of composition. Elgar had the opportunity to both hear and perform many of Wagner's works, and Dennison discusses these and Elgar's comments on Wagner in great detail. Many of Elgar's quotations from Wagner only bear superficial resemblance. Very often, however, Elgar uses a Wagnerian leitmotif in passages with similar programmatic or dramatic implications. Elgar is also heavily indebted to Wagner for many compositional techniques. In his later compositions Elgar does not rely on Wagner as often, but sometimes draws specific parallels for dramatic or psychological effect. Dennison includes an appendix of works by Wagner heard or performed by Elgar.

Works: Elgar: The Black Knight, Op. 25; The Light of Life, Op. 29; Scenes from the Saga of King Olaf, Op. 30; Te Deum and Benedictus, Op. 34; Caractacus, Op. 35; The Dream of Gerontius, Op. 38; Second Symphony, Op 63.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler, Will Sadler

Michael Tippett used musical borrowing in his compositions to create extramusical meanings through the quotation of pre-existent music. Many of his works borrow from external and internal sources. His procedures varied from simple quotation within the context of an original work to complex recomposition of another composer's work. He began through the application of variation technique and quotation, as in the Piano Sonata No. 1 and A Child of Our Time, in which he used spirituals, respectively. Beginning in the Divertimento on Sellinger's Round, Tippett placed the pre-existent material in each of the five movements either complete or transformed. Recomposition was applied to two Corelli works in the Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli. Tippett abandoned such borrowing practices for a substantial period of time, but later returned to them, though tempered by a severe, economic sense, as in The Knot Garden. Tippett then moved into a borrowing practice based on unification in which a web of compositions is thematically connected through self-quotation, beginning with his Symphony No. 4 and continuing into The Mask of Time. Tippett's borrowing techniques consisted of a vast range of dramatic and poetic techniques to create powerful meanings within his compositions.

Works: Tippett: Piano Sonata No. 1 (13), Fantasia on a Theme of Handel (13), A Child of Our Time (13), Suite for the Birthday of Prince Charles (13), The Midsummer Marriage (13), Divertimento on Sellinger's Round (15), The Mask of Time (15, 17-18), Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli (15), The Knot Garden (16), Songs for Dov (16), Symphony No. 3 (16-17), Triple Concerto (17).

Sources: Tippett: Suite for the Birthday of Prince Charles (13); Byrd: Sellinger's Round (15); Gibbons: Fantasia (15); Veni creator spiritus (15); Corelli: Concerto Grosso Op. 6, No. 2 (15), Trio Sonata Op. 3, No. 4 (15); Schubert: Die liebe Farbe (16); Beethoven: Kennst du das Land? Op. 75, No. 1 (16), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (16); Wagner: Der fliegende Holländer (16); Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov (16); Tippett: Come Unto the Yellow Sands (16), King Priam (16), String Quartet No. 4 (17), Symphony No. 4 (17-18), Triple Concerto (18); Dowland: I Saw My Lady Weep (18); Monteverdi: Ecco mororar l'onde (18).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Three one-voice German songs from the Glogauer Liederbuch--In feuers hitz (No. 39), Bruder Konrad (No. 46), and Ich sachs eins mals (No. 46)--may be combined to create a quodlibet.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

A number of compositional procedures in the three Op. 2 piano sonatas by Beethoven appear to be derived from two 18th-century theoretical treatises, which were known to both Haydn and Beethoven. The demonstrations in Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister of creating a new melody from pre-existing isolated fragments in different keys and meters apply to Beethoven's integration and transformation of material from Haydn, to whom the sonatas are dedicated. Two songs by Haydn provide motives for the first movement of Op. 2, No. 1. Examples show that Beethoven's sonata is closely allied with material from Haydn, not only in the Matthesonian recombination of fragments but on larger-scale harmonic and melodic levels as well. [Table of musical data from Haydn found in Beethoven's Op. 2. in Appendix 1]

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1 (164), Piano Quartet in C major WoO (164).

Sources: Haydn: "The Spirit's Song," Hob. XXVI a:30 (160-62), "Fidelity," Hob. XXVI a:40 (160-62), "The Wanderer" Hob. XXVI a:32 (164), Piano Trio in E major, Hob. XV:28 (164).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Beethoven considered his Op. 35 to be entirely original, but in fact the theme and many significant details of the work are based upon C. P. E. Bach's Rondo in E flat. Beethoven came in contact with Bach's keyboard works in his years at Bonn. The theme of Op. 35, derived from the Bach, is also used in the Contredanse in E-flat WoO 14/7, the finale of the music for The Creatures of Prometheus, Op. 43, and the finale of the Third Symphony (Eroica). In the dynamics of long-term memory, several specific items are remembered in the context of a more general memory and reproduction of the memory involves elaboration and revision. Both of these aspects in the workings of long-term memory are evident in Beethoven's unconscious recollection of the work by Bach.

Works: Beethoven: Variations in E-flat, Op. 35 (passim), Contredanse in E-flat, WoO 14/7 (48, 53), Prometheus, Op. 43 (48).

Sources: C. P. E. Bach: Rondo in E-flat, W. 61/1 (passim).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Handel's borrowings result from rhythmic and motivic similarities between the borrowed piece and the new composition. Handel was able to draw upon a large number of musical materials chosen on a musical rather than a textual basis. The transformation of these materials was a conscious application of musical craft. This method of recall is termed the "theory of resonances." In addition to borrowing similar melodic and rhythmic motives, Handel also takes portions of Telemann's work and restructures them in a craftsmanlike manner, joining blocks of musical material to produce a more integrated whole. Handel's use of Telemann's work is, therefore, not the result of "licentious whimsy," but the direct result of musical materials that Handel found attractive and amenible to further development.

Works: Handel: Solomon (117-44), Siroe (118), La Resurrezione (120-24), Belshazzar (133-36), Lotario (139-40, 144), Ezio (141-42), Ariodante (144), 12 Concerti Grossi, Op. 6 (144), Messiah (144-45), Semele (145), Joseph and His Brethren (145-46), Hercules (146), Joshua (146), Theodora (146), Jeptha (146).

Sources: Telemann: Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst (118-44); Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (120-24); Handel: Belshazzar (124), Parnasso in Festa (125-27).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson, Will Sadler

In nine of his piano concertos, K. 271, 413 (387a), 415 (387b), 450, 466, 467, 482, 491, and 503, Mozart used the vocal device "fermata sospesa" for the piano entrance after the first ritornello. Mozart was acquainted with this device in 1768 through J. C. Bach's aria "Cara, la dolce fiamma" in the opera Adriano in Siria, as well as various treatises of Agricola, Tosi, and C. P. E. Bach. Evidences show that before 1777, Mozart had written different elaborations on the opening "fermata sospesa" of J. C. Bach's aria as exercises. Examining the details of the "fermata sospesa" in these nine concertos illuminates the process of evolution in the usage of this device and the deviations from its vocal practice. These deviations and this development involve matters of length, harmonic design, treatment of the orchestra, and the recurrence of thematic elements from the "fermata sospesa" at other places in the piece. Mozart's "fermata sospesa" in K. 413, 415, 450 and 466 involve borrowing of musical materials from C. P. E. Bach and J. C. Bach; K. 467, 482 and 503 involve self-borrowing from his other piano concertos.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat Major, K. 271 (157-58, 160), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (157-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 13 in C Major, K. 415 (158-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 15 in B-flat Major, K. 450 (157-58, 160), Piano Concerto No. 20 in D Minor, K. 466 (158-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 21 in C Major, K. 467 (158, 161), Piano Concerto No. 22 in E flat Major, K. 482 (159, 161), Piano Concerto No. 24 in C Minor, K. 491 (158-59, 161), Piano Concerto No. 25 in C Major, K. 503 (159-61).

Sources: C. P. E. Bach: Trio in B-flat Major, H. 584/ii (160); J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in C Major, Op. 1 No. 5/i (160), "Cara, la dolce fiamma" from Adriano in Siria (160), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 13 No. 2/iii (161); Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 22 in E-flat Major, K. 482/i (161), Piano Concerto No. 16 in D Major, K. 451/i (161).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Although Thelonious Monk is primarily recognized for his original compositions, a look at his engagement with popular song can yield insight into his musical development during the early 1940s. It was during this time that Monk composed many of his later-recorded originals, and yet as a house pianist at Minton’s, Monk probably spent much of his time playing with other soloists on standard tunes. Monk’s application of idiosyncratic dissonances and tritone substitutions to songs as familiar as Lulu’s Back in Town and There’s Danger in Your Eyes, Cherie go beyond parody or eccentricity. They also cannot be thought of strictly as a modernist revolt against the commercialism of Tin Pan Alley “tunesmiths.” Instead, Monk’s arrangements of standards, both in studio recordings and live performance, can be regarded as interpretations. As such, they expose the seeds of his compositional style and serve as an autobiographical inscription of his Tin Pan Alley roots.

Though it is possible that Monk developed his personal style of composition and then applied that style to standards, it is equally possible that he derives his harmonic style from his reshaping of standards, given that the standards he chose to perform and record often lend themselves to Monk’s preferred reharmonizations. This is the case in his 1971 performance of Gershwin’s Nice Work If You Can Get It, in which Monk aggressively foregrounds dissonances which were subtle in the original. In either case, it benefits our understanding of Monk as a composer to acknowledge his true affection for popular song (as opposed to a modernist revolt against it), and it is likely that this affection is common among other bebop artists as well.

Works: Thelonious Monk (performer): Lulu’s Back in Town [1959 version] (170), There’s Danger in Your Eyes, Cherie [1959 version] (170), Tea for Two [1956 version] (170), Sweet Loraine [1941 version] (171-72), Nice Work if You Can Get It [1941, 1971 versions] (174-77), Ghost of a Chance [1957 version] (177-78), April in Paris [1957 version] (178-83); Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie: Koko (172-73).

Sources: Harry Warren (music) and Al Dubin (text): Lulu’s Back in Town (170); Vincent Youmans (music) and Irving Caesar (text): Tea for Two (170); Cliff Burwell (music) and Mitchell Parish (text): Sweet Loraine (171-72); Ray Noble: Cherokee (172-73); George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin: Nice Work if You Can Get It (174-77); Victor Yang: (I Don’t Stand a) Ghost of a Chance (177-78); Vernon Duke: April in Paris (179-81).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

This book examines the development of bebop from artistic, social, and commercial perspectives, beginning in the Swing Era and progressing through the 1940s. The repertory at jam sessions in the early 1940s was based primarily on a few familiar chord progressions, notably the blues, Gershwin's I Got Rhythm, and a handful of other pop song "standards" of which How High the Moon and Whispering were among the most frequently used. The economics of the recording industry promoted the composition of new melodies over existing chord progressions; having a new, colorful title would attract buyers, and by calling it a new work the record company could avoid paying royalties to the copyright owners of the song from which the chord progression was taken. In addition to using existing chord progressions in new songs, bebop musicians often borrowed material from each other and incorporated it into new compositions and arrangements. Moreover, musical borrowing in the form of quotation within improvised solos was both a ubiquitous and a controversial presence in bebop. Charlie Parker frequently inserted clearly recognizable quotations from jazz or popular sources into solos in live performance, but some performers criticized Parker for diluting his music. In other instances, European art music directly influenced jazz: stride pianists used materials from opera or "light classics" in a new idiom. For some bebop musicians, borrowing (or at least recognizing borrowings) was less important. Struggles over the definition of "the work" pervade any discussion of quotation in jazz, and such discussion must recognize the multiple "composers" at work in a jazz performance: the nominal composer who notates a song, and the improviser who re-composes the score in live performance.

Works: Thelonious Monk: The Theme (224), Rhythm-a-Ning (224), 52nd Street Theme (292), Hackensack (403): Dizzy Gillespie: Salt Peanuts (292, 421), Things to Come (433): Coleman Hawkins: Mop Mop (292, 306-7), Rainbow Mist (309), Father Co-operates (326), Bean at the Met (326), On the Bean (330), Stumpy (330), Rifftide (390), Bean Stalking (394), Too Much of a Good Thing (401), Bean Soup (403-5), Hollywood Stampede (404-5); Charlie Parker: Red Cross (307, 374); Benny Harris: Ornithology (323, 382); Howard McGhee: New Orleans Jump (362), Sportsman?s Hop (391, 393); Billy Eckstine: Good Jelly Blues (341-3, 424); Jerome Kern: All the Things You Are (342-43, 424).

Sources: George Gershwin: I Got Rhythm (203, 224, 292, 305, 306-7, 326, 374, 421), Lady Be Good (390, 403); Nancy Hamilton and Morgan Lewis: How High the Moon (305, 323, 326, 382); John Schonberger, Malvin Schonberger, and Richard Coburn: Whispering (305, 330); Edward Heyman, Robert Sour, Frank Eyton, and Johnny Green: Body and Soul (309); Dizzy Gillespie: Salt Peanuts (326-28), Be-Bop (362, 404-5, 433), Groovin' High (403-5); Rachmaninoff: Prelude in C-Sharp Minor (342-43, 424); Igor Stravinsky: Petrouchka (360n); Benny Goodman, Edgar Sampson, Clarence Profit, and Walter Hirsch: Lullaby in Rhythm (391, 393); Jesse A. Stone: Idaho (394); Kay Swift and Paul James: Fine and Dandy (401); Ben Bernie, Ken Casey, and Maceo Pinkard: Sweet Georgia Brown (404-5); Benny Harris: Ornithology (404-5); Vincent Youmans and Irving Caesar: Tea for Two (405); Billy Eckstine: Good Jelly Blues (424).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Paul Killinger, Amy Weller

Traditionally, modulation is associated with either key or with metric procedures; however, this term can be expanded to incorporate style. “Style-modulation” occurs when different musical styles within a single work are employed in as controlled a way as any other compositional element. Often popular music, especially genres derived from African-American traditions, incorporate style-modulations. Style-modulation is not necessarily brought about by musical quotations, but often has a direct relationship to them. If a quotation is recognizable and departs from established continuity, it may be an example of a style-modulation, such as the Bach chorale in Berg’s Violin Concerto or Chopin’s Funeral March in Satie’s Embryons Desséchés. A work with many quotations, such as Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia, is not necessarily an example of a style modulation, however, as the quotations do not break from the work’s overall continuity. In twentieth-century works in particular, the moment of style-modulation often creates a force of an epiphany. Charles Ives is a good example of a composer whose music includes style-modulations, especially in pieces such as the Concord Sonata,Country Band March, and the Fourth Symphony.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord, Mass., 1840-60) (208), Symphony No. 4 (208); Berg: Violin Concerto (210); Satie: Embryons Desséchés (210); Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (210-11).

Sources: Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (208); Ives: Country Band March (208), String Quartet No. 1 (208).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Luther's chorale Ein feste Burg represents not only a religious message but also a symbol of the identity of all Protestants. Its many settings reflect both its religious and its cultural impact. Many composers identified with the revolutionary spirit the Reformation and saw the potential of the tune as a symbol of the time and its historical significance. Depending on the political context in which composers used the tune, the meaning of it changed. For example, Meyerbeer used it in Les Huguenots as a gesture to Protestantism, even though the tune was not necessarily a historical emblem for Huguenots. Mendelssohn's symphonic setting added a programmatic element to the tune. Debussy, on the other hand, used the tune in wartime by evoking it as a symbol of German aggression. He juxtaposed the tune with French anthem, La Marseillaise, which musically triumphs over Ein feste Burg in the end. The various settings of the tune also allow it to assume a multifarious spectrum in that it can be meaningful in an ecumenical sense. Essentially, it became a "banner Lied" for faithful believers and critics across centuries of use.

Works: Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (36); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (37-39); Debussy: En blanc et noir (39-40).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (29-34, 40-41).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

In Mahler's later works, and in particular his Ninth Symphony, he often employed brief quotations from his songs. He used musical rather than verbal quotations, implying the emotional content of the original rather than directly stating an image. As this "thematic allusion" recurs, it gains greater significance, and its meaning differs at each occurence, a technique that Mahler initiated. An example of this technique is found in the web of "subtle but pregnant interconnections" within the Ninth Symphony, especially highlighting Mahler's reuse of a theme from the final line of Das Lied von der Erde.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 9, Symphony No. 5 (70).

Sources: Mahler: Kindertotenlieder (70), Urlicht (70), Das Lied von der Erde (72-77, 101), Symphony No. 3 (92), Symphony No. 8 (93, 101, 104-05); Bruckner: Symphony No. 9 (98).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

Irony in Schumann is explained by comparing his compositional techniques with those found in Heinrich Heine and Jean Paul Richter. In Romantic literature, irony resulted from the principle that the author should hold a position above the work and himself; he should not unconsciously get lost in the creative process but control it by introducing a stage of consciousness, which is achieved by irony. Irony breaks up coherent units, as does quotation in a musical piece; it creates dialectical tension. For Schumann, quotation (irony) solved another problem: it imbued Classic rhetoric with new life, and at the same time freed him of the demand for "desperate independence" from his predecessors.

Works: Schumann: Carnaval (176, 186-87), Intermezzo, Op. 4, No. 2 (176), Symphony No. 2 (176, 179), Fantasy in C Major (176), Papillons (176), Faschingsschwank aus Wien (176), Die beiden Grenadiere (176), Davidsbündlertänze (176, 186-87), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (178-79).

Sources: Schubert: Gretchen am Spinnrade (176); Schumann: Carnaval (176, 187), Papillons (176, 187); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte (176,179); Grossvatertanz (176-77); Rouget de Lisle: Marseillaise (176-77).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The many versions of Pierre Sandrin's "Doulce mémoire" reveal the concept of competitive setting amongst Renaissance composers. First published ca. 1537-8, Sandrin's piece spawned many textual and musical parodies. The textual parodies include: a "response" by Certon which draws heavily on the text and rhyme scheme of the original; numerous contrafacta, especially for spiritual purposes; and references in the French theatre. There are at least ten musical parodies: two- and three-part versions, likely meant for pedagogical purposes, as well as four- and six-part settings. Its material is used in Mass and Magnificat settings by Clemens non Papa, Cipriano da Rore, and Orlando de Lassus. Lastly, "Doulce mémoire" was turned into many instrumental intabulations and divisions.

Works: Francesco de Layolle: Doulce mémoire (93-4); Pierre de Manchicourt: Doulce mémoire (94); Antoine Gardane: Doulce mémoire (95); Josquin Baston: Doulce mémoire (95); Anonymous: Doulce mémoire (95); Buus: Doulce mémoire (95-6); Clemens non Papa: Magnificat primi toni; Cipriano da Rore: Mass on Doulce mémoire; Lassus: Missa ad imitationem moduli Doulce mémoire.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Although Lassus was familiar with the chansons of his immediate predecessors, he was not much influenced by their musical settings. Lassus' earlier pieces made a large impact on certain composers of the younger generation, but his later works, while showing greater literary sensitivity, were not generally adopted as models. An annotated listing of all of Lassus' 147 surviving chanson settings is provided, with commentary on each.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Comparing twenty thousand variants from three thousand chants helps to determine what components of chants change during their transmission, providing a starting point for comparisons when tracking the relationship of settings and liturgical practices between institutions, or the variants of a single tune over time, as well as other possible applications. The majority of the sources analyzed are Hungarian. Fields of comparison are text-melody combinations, antiphons with modal ambiguity, text variants, and variants of single notes. Many variants, modally ambiguous antiphons in particular, appear to be interpretations of older monophonic styles that are governed by stylistic coordination. This suggests a culture of musical borrowing between liturgical institutions during the period.

Index Classifications: General, Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

Joan Tower blends borrowed material wither her own compositional voice in her piano concertos Homage to Beethoven (1985) and Rapids (1996), which was later revised in 2013 and renamed Still/Rapids. These works are representative of Tower’s mature compositional style beginning in the 1970s as she turned away from a serial techniques towards a more accessible, energy-driven style. Tower characterizes the influences of older composers on her work as fingerprints and states that her most important musical model is Beethoven. J. Peter Burkholder’s categories of borrowing, particularly modeling, paraphrase, and setting, illuminate how Tower manipulates existing material in Homage to Beethoven. Tower acknowledges that her Homage to Beethoven does not sound like the Beethoven piano sonatas it borrows from, but rather shares their same core idea.

Works: Joan Tower: Homage to Beethoven (1, 4, 12, 14-15, 17-51, 78, 93, 95-98, 100-101, 121-23, 125, 127), Still/Rapids (1-2, 12, 15, 104-121, 123, 125, 127), Rapids (1, 3, 12, 14-15, 52-91, 94-106, 125-27), Black Topaz (9, 13, 94, 100), Petruschkates (12, 39, 78, 93, 97), Breakfast Rhythms I and II (13, 50, 92), Tres Lent (93), Fanfare for the Uncommon Woman (93), Fascinating Ribbons (93), Big Steps (93), Fantasy for Clarinet and Piano (101).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 17 in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2 (“Tempest”) (20-23), Piano Sonata No. 21 in C Major, Op. 53 (“Waldstein”) (23-24, 26, 28, 30-31, 40-42, 95, 101), Piano Sonata No. 32 in C Minor, Op. 111 (31-33, 101), Piano Sonata No. 13 in E-flat Major, Op. 27, No. 1 (102); Messiaen: Quatuor pour la fin du temps (50, 93); George Crumb: Vox Balaenae (50); Stravinsky: Petrushka (93); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (93); George Gershwin: Fascinatin’ Rhythm (93); Debussy: Préludes, Livre 1, Des pas sur la neige (93); Hugh Williams and Jimmy Kennedy: Harbor Lights (101).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Sarah Kirkman

James MacMillan’s use of quotation and allusion in his Fourth Symphony parallels the liturgical order of the Pauline Mass and reflects MacMillan’s approach to Catholic liturgy. The various plainchant and mass movement quotations and allusions MacMillan uses generally follow the order of the mass. The symphony opens with the plainchant introit Os justi meditabitur, which occurs three times throughout the symphony representing the entrance procession, the offertory procession, and the Communion procession. MacMillan quotes the Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus of Robert Carver’s 1506-1513 Mass Dum sacrum mysterium, which MacMillan frames as a touchstone of Scottish Catholic culture against the destructive influence (in MacMillan’s assessment) of the Reformation. The Liturgy of the Word is represented in the symphony by allusions to liturgical-chant formulae punctuated by the Gospel Acclamation Alleluia. For the Liturgy of the Eucharist, MacMillan quotes his own St. Luke Passion, connecting the Passion narrative to its re-enactment in the Mass. MacMillan concludes this self-quotation with an allusion to Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, a work that MacMillan also alluded to in several earlier compositions. In doing so, MacMillan reads Tristan as a religious work expressing the theme of transcendence of death through self-sacrifice. Despite MacMillan’s public insistence that the symphony is not programmatic, the quotations and allusions from various Masses provide a clear programmatic structure to the work and demonstrate MacMillan’s subjective reactions to the liturgy.

Works: James MacMillan: Symphony No. 4 (640-65), Piano Sonata (661), Symphony No. 2 (661).

Sources: Anonymous: Os justi meditabitur (640-44), Eucharistic Doxology (643, 648), Missa Deus Genitor alme (643-44, 648-49), Missa de Angelis (647-48), Missa Orbis factor (649-51); Robert Carver: Mass Dum sacrum mysterium (645-51); James MacMillan: St. Luke Passion (656-59); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (659-63).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, 2000s, Jazz, Popular

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, 2000s

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General, 2000s

Index Classifications: General, 2000s

In evaluations of Liszt's works his keyboard transcriptions and paraphrases are often ignored or considered only for their advances in pianistic techique. The analyses of three paraphrases, all composed in 1841 and called Reminiscences, reveal Liszt's unique formal approach to each. His results superseded mere objective recounting of popular themes; instead, Liszt produced condensed, subjective interpretations of the original operatic works, expressed in pure keyboard style.

Works: Liszt: Reminiscences de Norma (132-36), Reminiscences de Don Juan (136-39), Reminiscences de Robert le Diable (140-47).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

In his most famous piece, Rhapsodie nègre (1918), composer and white supremacist activist John Powell utilizes the language of primitivist modernism to create a sonic version of Jim Crow racial hierarchy. Primitivist modernists in Europe fixated on depictions of “African” savages closely related to the contemporary pseudoscience of social Darwinism. Powell’s detailed program notes for Rhapsodie outline a primitivist narrative as applied to Black Americans. Musically, Rhapsodie is constructed from five themes used to mark a distinction between blackness and whiteness. The first three themes use ragtime idioms constructed in a repetitive and often disjunct manner to represent Powell’s belief that blackness constitutes a primitive, sexual threat. The fourth theme, a setting of the spiritual Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, begins a dramatic shift in the tone of the piece to one of control and beauty. Powell fills this section with markers of sonic whiteness building to a grand orchestral texture with precisely balanced phrases only to end in a jarring anticlimax. By setting Swing Low in this ostentatious and performative manner, Powell conveys his belief that Black spirituals were ultimately inferior imitations of white Protestant camp songs. The fifth theme is also based on a spiritual: I Want to Be Ready. Unlike the previous section, Powell uses ragtime and proto-jazz textures and harmonies to set the tune, which Powell describes in his program notes as suggestive of the violent sexuality he associates with blackness. The extent of Powell’s racist politics—and consequently the ways his politics shape the caricature of Black music in Rhapsodie—were largely unknown to critics and audience in the 1920s, who generally understood the piece in terms of primitivist modernism and the later symphonic jazz trend, both of which also have problematic relationships with Black music and musicians. The reason that audiences did not hear Powell’s deep-seated racism in Rhapsodie was that modernist art itself was grounded in conceptions of racial hierarchy.

Works: John Powell: Rhapsodie nègre (399, 401, 408-416)

Sources: Anonymous: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot (399, 401, 408-14), I Want to Be Ready (401, 414-16)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Several features of Berlioz's music create an effect of discontinuity, among which is quotation. Specific instances include the offstage use of the Dies Irae and the quotation of the "aeolian harp" section (originally in La Mort d'Orphée) in Lélio.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Many different kinds of popular music can create dramatic moments in film, both diegetically and non-diegetically. The temporal aspects of most popular music, its steady beat and generally common time meter, affect the resulting film differently than classical film scoring does. Through creating new popular-style music for films (scoring), editing exiting popular music to fit a film, or editing filmic images to fit existing popular music (tracking), many different techniques and styles are possible. The Beatles, with their pop music films in the 1960s, changed how popular music worked in movies, as well as inherently changing the way film musicals functioned. Although there were earlier films that used popular music, such as King Creole (1958) and Rock Around the Clock (1956), the Beatles’ films were the first where pop music was not mixed with traditional film music techniques; the resulting films were a hybrid of documentary style with the drama of feature films. Different styles of music can accomplish different things; for example, psychedelic music is often used to signify surrealism or drug use, while rap music is used as a dramatic shock tactic and older popular music signifies an earlier time period. Regardless of the type of music or approach, pop music also invites a tension between creativity and commerce that did not previously exist with classical film music techniques.

Works: Joe Massot (director): Wonderwall (5, 19, 39-42, 53, 124); Roger Corman (director): The Trip (5, 34-36, 38, 42-43); Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg (directors): Performance (5, 41-42, 53, 93, 122); Albert and David Maysles (directors): Gimme Shelter (5, 63-64, 66-67, 72); Michael Wadleigh (director): Woodstock (5, 64, 66, 72); George Lucas (director): American Graffiti (5, 106, 138-41); Barry Shear (director): Across 110th Street (16, 79, 83, 86); Richard Lester (director): A Hard Day’s Night (19-25), Help! (19, 25-29); George Dunning (director): Yellow Submarine (19, 38-39); John Boorman (director): Catch Us If You Can (22); Mike Nichols (director): The Graduate (33); Woody Allen (director): What’s Up Tiger Lily (33); Richard Rush (director): Psych Out (35, 43); Dennis Hopper (director): Easy Rider (36-37, 53); Bob Rafelson (director): Head (37); Barbet Schroeder (director): More (45, 49-50, 52-56), La Vallée (45, 53, 56); Michelangelo Antonioni (director): Zabriskie Point (45, 52-53, 55, 58); Alan Parker (director): Pink Floyd - The Wall (45, 57); Peter Sykes (director): The Committee (45, 53-54, 58); Peter Whitehead (director): Tonite Let’s All Make Love in London (53); Roy Battersby (director): The Body (55); David Elfick (director): Crystal Voyager (56); Martin Scorsese (director): The Last Waltz (63, 73, 76); D. A. Pennebaker (director): Don’t Look Back (63-66, 72); Gordon Parks (director): Shaft (79, 81, 84, 86-88, 91); Melvin Van Peebles (director): Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song (79, 81, 84, 86-87); Gordon Parks Jr. (director): Super Fly (79, 81, 84, 86, 88-92); Ossie Davis (director): Cotton Comes to Harlem (81-82); Larry Cohen (director): Black Caesar (81, 90-91); Leslie H. Martinson (director): Batman (105, 107-111); Tim Burton (director): Batman Returns (105, 112-14); Joel Schumacher (director): Batman Forever (105, 114-17), Batman and Robin (105, 115, 117-18); Richard Loncraine (director): Brimstone and Treacle (140); Lawrence Kasdan (director): The Big Chill (141); Bruce Robinson (director): Withnail and I (141); David Green (director): Buster (141-42); Tony Scott (director): Top Gun (143); Michael Mann (director): Manhunter (143); Howard Deutch (director): Pretty In Pink (145); Quentin Tarantino (director): Pulp Fiction (146); Oliver Stone (director): Natural Born Killers (146); Robert Zemeckis (director): Forrest Gump (146); Danny Boyle (director): Trainspotting (148); Nicolas Winding Refn (director): Bronson (150); Wes Anderson (director): The Royal Tenenbaums (150); Abel Ferrara (director): Bad Lieutenant (154-61).

Sources: The Beatles: I Should Have Known Better (21, 24), Tell Me Why (24), If I Fell (24), She Loves You (24), She’s A Woman (26-28), Ticket to Ride (26-27), Help! (27), I Need You (27), The Night Before (27); The Seeds: Two Fingers Pointing at You (35); Strawberry Alarm Clock: Rainy Day Mushroom Pillow (35), Pretty Song from Psych-Out (35); Electric Flag: Flash, Bang, Pow (36); The Monkees: The Porpoise Song (37); The Beatles: It’s All Too Much (39); Pink Floyd: Interstellar Overdrive (53), Careful with that Axe, Eugene (54, 58); Curtis Mayfield: Pusherman (88-89), Freddie’s Dead (88-89); James Brown: Big Daddy (90-91), Down and Out In New York City (90-91), Mama’s Dead (91); Prince: Batman (108-11); Siouxsie and the Banshees: Face to Face (112); The Flaming Lips: Bad Days (115-16); The Offspring: Smash It Up (116); The Coasters: Poison Ivy (118); Goo Goo Dolls: Lazy Eye (118); Moloko: Fun for Me (118); Sting: Spread a Little Happiness (140-41); Marvin Gaye: I Heard it Through the Grapevine (141); Rolling Stones: You Can’t Always Get What You Want (141); Procol Harum: A Whiter Shade of Pale (141); Phil Collins: Groovy Kind of Love (142); Phil Collins and Lamont Dozier: Two Hearts (142); Berlin: Take My Breath Away (143); Kenny Loggins: Danger Zone (143); Shriekback: The Big Hush (143); Iron Butterfly: In-a-Gadda-Da-Vida (144); Robert Gordon: The Way I Walk (147); L7: Shitlist (147); Creedence Clearwater Revival: Fortunate Son (147); Beatles: A Hard Day’s Night (148); Iggy Pop: Lust for Life (148); Schoolly D: Signifyin’ Rapper (154-61); Led Zeppelin: Kashmir (156-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

Chapters II ("Musical Symbolism: The Use of Leitmotivic Symbols and Motto Tunes") and V ("The RVW Style as Manifested in This Work") contain information about his use of borrowed materials. Among the materials Vaughan Williams incorporates into the opera are the hymn tunes York and Lasst uns erfreuen and Thomas Tallis's Third Mode Melody.

Works: Vaughan Williams: The Pilgrim's Progress.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1900s

Robert Russell Bennett's Porgy and Bess: A Symphonic Picture for Orchestra is similar to his "symphonic synopsis" of Jerome Kern's Show Boat. Bennett did not alter Gershwin's melodies or his orchestration. Bennett did compose new material for the work, in the form of "connective tissue" to link the various sections together. He did not present the excerpts in order, but began with the Second Act, moving to the Third, and finally back to the First and to the well-known songs.

Works: Robert Russell Bennett: Porgy and Bess: A Symphonic Picture for Orchestra (7).

Sources: Gershwin: Porgy and Bess (7).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Beginning in the early 1960s, Hans Werner Henze began to take a special interest in the music of Gustav Mahler, particularly Mahler's exploration of form, his use of earlier music, and his music's connection to personal experience. It was at this time that Henze began to transition away from the Darmstadt school and move towards a more expressive idiom. This can be seen in Henze's Being Beauteous (1963) and The Bassarids (1965), both of which borrow from Mahler's Fifth Symphony. Being Beauteous draws from the Adagietto of Mahler's Fifth Symphony, and The Bassarids draws from the fourth movement. These intertextual connections exemplify both a transition in Henze's music and also a portrait of how Henze conceived of the importance of Mahler's music.

Works: Hans Werner Henze: Being Beauteous (183-98, 203), The Bassarids (198-204).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (185-93, 199-201).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Although Liszt's Missa solemnis (1853) is indebted to Beethoven's Missa solemnis (1823), Liszt did not "appropriate" Beethoven's techniques but differentiated his work. Liszt's admiration for Beethoven's music is well illustrated in the fact that he frequently performed, conducted, and taught Beethoven's works. Liszt would have used Beethoven's Missa solemnis as a model for his first large-scale choral piece, written for the consecration of a new basilica. There are several musical parallels, movement by movement, between Beethoven's and Liszt's masses. As an example of the structural parallels, the two composers distinguished the Credo from other movements tonally. In scoring, the similar opening in the two Kyries goes beyond mere coincidence, yet after that Liszt deploys a distant key while Beethoven uses a home key. In thematic relationships, Liszt distinguished himself from Beethoven?s thematic recall and transformation in contrast with Beethoven's use of different themes for each movement as well as his limited recall of thematic motives. Liszt's references to Beethoven?s monumental piece are a natural outcome of his seeking the model for a cyclic mass; in that genre, Beethoven?s serves as an essential model.

Works: Liszt: Missa solemnis (240-46, 248-52).

Sources: Beethoven: Missa solemnis (240, 247-52).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1700s

Heinrich Isaac structured his tribute to Lorenzo de’ Medici, Quis dabit capiti meo aquam, around the concluding phrase of the antiphon Salva nos, Domine. The melody is present in nearly every measure of the piece. The borrowing becomes most explicit in the secunda pars, where the tune is set as a descending ostinato. In addition, Isaac borrows three sections from his own Missa Salva nos. This borrowing is all the more curious when one considers the contrast of style between Quis dabit capiti meo aquam and the prevailing character of Isaac’s sacred polyphony. That the sections in common between these two pieces are in such contrast with the rest of the polyphonic setting in Missa Salva nos suggests that the borrowing was from motet to mass rather than the other way around, as is commonly believed.

Works: Isaac: Quis dabit capiti meo aquam (57-85), Missa Salva nos (74-76).

Sources: Anonymous: Salva nos, Domine (63-66); Isaac: Missa Salva nos (64), Quis dabit capiti meo aquam (74-76).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Index Classifications: 1800s

The largely forgotten history of the folk song M.T.A. (most famously recorded by the Kingston Trio in 1959) reveals how music can be used as a political tool to popularize radical ideas and how popular culture can purge these radical ideas of their intended meaning. M.T.A. was written in 1949 by the Boston People’s Artists (Sam and Arnold Berman, Al Katz, Jackie Steiner, and Bess Hawes, née Lomax) in support of Massachusetts Progressive Party leader Walter O’Brien Jr. in his campaign for Boston mayor. One of O’Brien’s major positions was a rollback of the fare increase that funded creation of the Metropolitan Transit Authority (M.T.A.) in 1947. While Steiner wrote most of the lyrics, M.T.A. borrowed its tune from The Train That Never Returned by Hawes’s earlier group, The Almanacs, which itself was based on Henry Clay Work’s 1865 song The Ship That Never Returned and Vernon Dalhart’s 1924 song The Wreck of the Old 97. Although O’Brien’s campaign was ultimately unsuccessful (he received just 1% of votes cast in the election), M.T.A. outlived its origins as a campaign song to become a folk standard. The first of a new generation of folk singers to revive M.T.A. was Will Holt, who recorded the song in 1957 and soon after saw it dropped from radio rotation for glorifying the “communist” O’Brien. The Kingston Trio recorded M.T.A. in 1959, adding a spoken introduction, making minor lyric changes, and replacing the reference to the real-life Walter O’Brien with fictional George O’Brien. This new version saw significant commercial success and positive press attention for the Kingston Trio, and it cemented M.T.A. as a folksong classic, especially in Massachusetts. It has since been used by such disparate performers as Celtic punk band the Dropkick Murphys and Republican governor Mitt Romney.

Works: Dropkick Murphys: Skinhead on the M.T.A. (4); Boston People’s Artists, Jackie Steiner (lyricist): M.T.A. (12-16); Almanac Singers: The Train That Never Returned (13-14); Will Holt (performer): M.T.A. (24-26); The Kingston Trio (performers): M.T.A. (26-27)

Sources: Boston People’s Artists, Jackie Steiner (lyricist): M.T.A. (4, 24-27); Almanac Singers: The Train That Never Returned (12-16); Henry Clay Work: The Ship That Never Returned (13); G. B. Grayson and Henry Whitter (songwriters), Vernon Dalhart (performer): The Wreck of the Old 97 (13)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Musical “invention,” a term borrowed from classical rhetoric, signifies a mental process that precedes the act of composing. It entails the “invention of ideas” (die Erfindung der Gedanken). The concept and application of such an invention are best perceived in the process of the ritornello principle, in which the initial idea plays a prominent role in the elaboration of the work as a whole. J. S. Bach’s ritornellos from the Allegro movements of his concertos are modeled after Vivaldi’s, especially those of Op. 3. However, Bach elaborated certain procedures of his model and made his ritornellos into a system for working out his “inventions.” Most characteristically, Bach’s ritornello falls into three sections: the Vordersatz (opening statement), the Fortspinnung (spinning out), and the Epilog (ending phrase). His ritornello procedure does not rely on tutti-solo contrast; rather, it is characterized by rearranging and transforming these three distinct sections from discrete sets of motives into thematic material with specific harmonic functions.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Violin Concerto in E Major, BWV 1042 (331-36), Oboe Concerto in D Minor, BWV 1059R (336-42), Concerto for Four Harpsichords in A Minor, BWV 1065 (343-36), Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F Major, BWV 1047 (346-50), “Overture in the French Style,” BWV 831, from Clavier-Übung II (350-56).

Sources: Vivaldi: Concerto for Four Violins in B Minor, Op. 3, No. 10 (343-46).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Luther's Ein feste Burg resembles the B-A-C-H motive in that it signifies something outside of its musical character. In addition, Ein feste Burg begins with four memorable notes, comparable not only to the four notes of B-A-C-H but also to the striking four-note opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Insofar as Ein feste Burg has a broader function outside of its musical characteristics, it epitomizes the powerful and energetic voice of evangelical Christianity, in a tradition began by Luther. Bach felt deeply moved by the religious sentiments of the tune and set it in a cantata with eight movements. Meyerbeer altered the tune more than Bach did and subjected it to various musical treatments, including theme and variations as well as parody, in Les Huguenots. The Romantic generation in particular responded to the tune in various compositional manners, especially by means of reinstrumentation and paraphrase technique, including settings by Mendelssohn, Nicolai, and many others. Wagner set the tune in his Kaisermarsch in order to evoke the sense of driving away the enemy. All of these settings discussed seek to maintain the spirit of the tune. The prolific uses of the tune reinforce the religious connotations that Luther intended. Although the B-A-C-H motive is not specifically associated with a source, many composers, including Schumann, Rimsky-Korsakov, Liszt, and others incorporate it in various ways into their works.

Works: J. S. Bach: Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (7); Beethoven: Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (7); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (8); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (9-10); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Heinrich Karl Breidenstein: Grosse Variationen über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel (10); Friedrich Lux: "Ein feste Burg" Konzertfantasie für Orgel (10); H. Schellenberg: Fantasie über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl Stern: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl August Fischer: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel mit Blasinstrumenten (10); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (11); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op. 127 (11-12); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier (12); Heinrich Schulz-Beuthen: Reformationssinfonie (12); Richard Bartmuss: Liturgischen Feiern No. 5, Reformation (13); Heinrich Pfannschmidt: Reformationsfestspeil (13); Hans Fährmann: Fantasie und Doppelfuge für Orgel über "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott," Op. 28 (13); Reger: Chorale fantasia "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (14), Schumann: Sechs Fugen über den Namen Bach, Op. 60 (16-17); Rimsky-Korsakov: Sechs Stücker über BACH, Op. 10 (17-18); Liszt: Präludium und Fuge über Bach (18-19); Wilhelm Middelschultes: Kanonische Fantasie über BACH und Fugue über vier Themen von J. S. Bach (19); Hans Fährmann: Orgelsonata in B moll, Op. 17 (19-20), Vorspiel und Doppelfuge für Orgel (20); Georg Schumann: Passacaglia und Finale für Orgel, Op. 39 (20).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (7-8).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

In composing Canada’s national anthem, O Canada, Calixa Lavallée used multiple musical models including the March of the Priests from Mozart’s Magic Flute, crafting a patchwork of paraphrased segments to convey the national spirit. Lavallée, who was born near Montreal but spent much of his musical career performing in the United States, composed O Canada in 1880 on a commission from the Congrès Catholique Canadiens Français. Around 1936 it began to be used as Canada’s semi-official national anthem, and it was officially recognized as such in 1980. Critics have long noted the similarities between the opening eight measures of O Canada and March of the Priests, with the two prevailing positions being that this is a case of unintentional borrowing or a coincidental use of a common musical figure. The identical first three notes, the strikingly similar harmony and contour, and the thematic relevance of Mozart’s tune to a national anthem together make a strong case that Lavallée deliberately chose to use Mozart as a model. Liszt’s Festklänge (1853) also appears to be a source for Lavallée as it too uses the same triadic opening as well as a distinctive transition phrase sharing both contour and function. A model for the second eight bars of O Canada can be identified as well. This passage closely resembles Wach auf from Wagner’s Die Meistersinger (1868) in melody and pedal point. While it is difficult to know for sure that Lavallée was familiar with Festklänge and Wach auf, both pieces were readily available and popular in their own right, and Lavallée was a well-traveled musician with contemporary taste. The final section of O Canada also closely resembles another popular tune: Matthias Keller’s Speed Our Republic (or The American Hymn). In constructing a new composition out of paraphrases of several sources, Lavallée created a patchwork, a fact that should not diminish his anthem’s importance as a musical symbol of Canada.

Works: Calixa Lavallée: O Canada (12-22)

Sources: Mozart: The Magic Flute (12-16); Liszt: Festklänge (16-18); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (18-20); Matthias Keller: Speed Our Republic (20-22)

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

The compositions of Josquin des Prez remained influential in the musical world long after his death. In Palestrina's time, Josquin's works were used as material for parody compositions, and his works were an integral part of the musical repertoire of Italian churches in the 16th century, as evidenced in the motet Dum vastos Adriae fluctus by Jachet di Mantova. This motet, which is primarily in the style of mid-16th-century Netherland or French composers, contains material from some of Josquin's best-known motets: Praeter seriem rerum, Stabat mater, Inviolata (et integra), Salve regina, and Miserere mei. There are no borrowings of full polyphonic sections, but merely allusions to characteristic features of the original motets, namely a motive or rhythmic pattern. Jachet then weaves these musical ideas into his motet in a free, imitative fashion.

Works: Jachet di Mantova: Dum vastos Adriae fluctus.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The music of Nicolas Collins, in particular Still Lives (1992) and its orchestration Still (After) Lives (1997), can be understood through the lens of post-humanism as an entanglement between humans, musical material, and machine agents. In Still Lives, Collins hacks a portable CD player to create short skipping loops from a recording of Giuseppe Guami’s Canzon La Accorta a Quattro, emphasizing the accumulated digital errors. Still (After) Lives is an orchestration of Still Lives for chamber ensemble that imitates the CD artifacts acoustically. This transformation adds additional layers of technological engagement, exploiting the limitations of musical notation as a technology. Both versions end with a recitation of a passage from Nabokov’s Speak, Memory that evokes the fluid nature of memory in the technological failures and mishearing of Guami’s Canzon. The blurring between human and technological agency in the composition of Still Lives and Still (After) Lives invites other composers to more closely scrutinize borrowed material.

Works: Nicolas Collins: Still Lives (78-79, 81-83), Still (After) Lives (79-83).

Sources: Giuseppe Guami: Canzon La Accorta a Quattro (78-79, 81-83); Nicolas Collins: Still Lives (78-79).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet