A detailed study of Archduke Rudolph's Forty Variations on a Theme by Beethoven (1818-19) is provided on pp. 69-118. The variations represent the culmination of Rudolph's years of composition study with Beethoven, and they stand at the core of his oeuvre. In the spring of 1818 Beethoven wrote out a four-measure Liedthema, "O Hoffnung" (WoO 200), and sent it to Rudolph as an assignment in variations composition. Rudolph took to the assignment with great enthusiasm, producing a set of forty variations on the "O Hoffnung" theme. Beethoven kept a close eye on Rudolph throughout the writing process; his corrections and suggested revisions can be found on Rudolph's original manuscript. The first thirty-five variations are "strict" in that they bear a direct bar-by-bar structural correspondence with the original theme. But the last five of the set are "fantasia" variations, deviating greatly from the original in length and harmonic design. The final variation (no. 40) adopts the theme as the subject of a four-voice fugue that extends for ninety-six measures. The fugue especially reveals Rudolph's allegiance to the pianistic style of his teacher in many ways, including the lengthy passages in consecutive thirds and sixths, the long sustained trill under which new melodies emerge, and the unconventional pedaling in the final measures.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Index Classifications: 1900s

Lin-Manuel Miranda’s engagement with the history, culture, and aesthetics of hip hop in Hamilton: An American Musical contributes meaningfully to its retelling of the Founders story and its role in the ongoing struggle to define American identity. The reception of Hamilton as a hip hop musical is vitally important to its widespread appeal, but Miranda borrows from a broad swath of American popular music styles to create a diverse sound. In the musical, the character of Alexander Hamilton undergoes a rags-to-riches arc similar to how many hip hop artists present themselves. Hamilton is differentiated musically by his polysyllabic flow, similar to rappers like Big Pun and Rakim. In addition to stylistically borrowing from various hip hop artists, Miranda explicitly references specific lines from famous tracks. For example, the “Ten Duel Commandments” number in Hamilton is modelled on and borrows the opening countdown from the Notorious B.I.G. track “Ten Crack Commandments.” In interviews about this number, Miranda commented on the similarities between Hamilton and Notorious B.I.G. both rapping about the unwritten rules of illegal activity, framing the hip hop “hustler” trope as the embodiment of American enterprise. The intersection of hip hop, multiracial casting, and framing of American history in Hamilton is further contextualized by the neoliberal politics surrounding its creation and premiere. By focusing on politics of diversity and largely ignoring class and economic politics in favor of a message of success following hard work, Hamilton was able to appeal to liberals and conservatives alike. While its message of diversity gained urgency during the Trump administration, Hamilton remains uncritical of neoliberal power structures.

Works: Lin-Manuel Miranda: Hamilton: An American Musical (468-76)

Sources: Mobb Deep: Shook Ones, Pt. 2 (473-74); Notorious B.I.G.: Ten Crack Commandments (474)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

The slow introduction of Beethoven's Second Symphony bears a striking resemblance to Mozart's introduction to his symphony K. 504. A number of features are similar, including the chord progressions, the length (of the entire introduction, the second section, and the concluding pedal point), the enharmonic reinterpretations of preceding chromatic tones, the use of mode mixture in the second section, melodic details, and the rhythmic acceleration that prepares the opening Allegro. Yet Beethoven also departs from his Mozart model, for instance in composing a more symmetrical, shorter opening section. Beethoven's sketches for the symphony further indicate the existence of a link to Mozart's introduction.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36.

Sources: Mozart: Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K. 504, Prague.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: 1900s

Mahler’s Third Symphony not only programmatically represents the dichotomy between winter and summer but also documents the interconnected urban and rural spheres of fin-de-siècle Austria-Hungary. This interpretation of Mahler’s symphony positions Vienna as the mid-point in Mahler’s working year and connects it to the arrival of summer. Mahler’s visits to Vienna in 1895 and 1896 coincided with local political upheavals concerning the election of Christian Social mayor Karl Lueger. While Mahler typically eschews politics, the mob section of the first movement of the Third Symphony does suggest the mobs in Vienna. A political reading of the symphony is further suggested by the similarities between the opening theme and Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus by August Von Binzer, which originated with Vormärz liberalism and became associated with socialists in the 1870s. The political valence of the opening theme and the mob section gives moments like the recapitulation extra significance as well: the opening funeral march regains control over the mob. The third movement of the symphony reworks Mahler’s own Ablösung im Sommer and its use of birdsong. Within the symphony, the lines between urban and rural are blurred, suggesting a halfway point between Mahler’s rural composing retreats in Steinbach and the urban polyphony of his professional life. The interruption of the Ablösung material by the post horn fanfare represents not only an intrusion of civilization on nature, but also (in a more literal sense) the arrival of communication (the mail). Personal resonances with Mahler’s biography can also be heard in the symphony. Nature cannot be a true escape from urban life as it is itself a construct of modern society. The true significance of the journey through nature in the symphony is the journey itself.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 in D minor (388-90, 407-11, 414-20, 420-21)

Sources: August von Binzer (lyrics): Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus (388-90); Mahler: Ablösung im Sommer (407-11, 420-21); Albert Hiller: Das große Buch vom Posthorn (414-20)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

The four-note motive found in the opening of the Jupiter Symphony (1, 7, 4, 3) is also present in several of Mozart's earlier works, including, the Credo of the F Major Missa Brevis, K.192, the Sanctus of the C Major Mass, K.257, The Bb Major Symphony, K.319, and the Divertimento, K.439b/4. Most importantly, this motive is found in the second movement of the G Minor Symphony, which was composed simultaneously alongside the Jupiter. A voice reduction reveals that the opening eight-bar period is actually an elaboration of the opening of the Jupiter. Mozart employs a similar style of borrowing in the Piano Quintet in G Minor, K.478.

Works: Mozart: Missa Brevis, K.192, C Major Mass, K.257, Bb Major Symphony, K.319, Divertimento, K.439b/4 (25), K.550 (25-26), K.551 (26), K.478 (28); Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (29); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde, Die Meistersinger (29); Mahler: Fifth Symphony (29); Brahms: C Minor Quartet, Op. 51/1, A Minor Quartet, Op. 51/2 (30).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: General

Max Reger predicted many of the tendencies of twentieth century music. His style could be analyzed to have two distinct strands: a penchant for the “neo” tendencies, particularly the neo-Baroque, as was later taken up by Hindemith; and a deep plumbing of Romanticism. Choral music became a realization of the composer’s forward-thinking style. Reger not only predicted the renewed prominence of choral music, he was one of the first who tackled the reworking of old song genres. Reger’s Psalm No. 100 for Choir and Orchestra in C minor, Op. 106, synthesized the forms of the oratorio, the symphony, and the cantata. His dual opus Der Einsiedler, Op. 144a, and Requiem, Op. 144b, exemplify the process of cyclization, as Der Einsiedler serves as a prelude to Requiem, and the works are unified together through the same orchestration and the use of the chorale Nun ruhen alle Wälder. Reger also began the trend of grouping cyclic forms, which impacted many composers. Stravinsky in particular followed this practice in his Choral Variations on “Vom Himmel Hoch”, transcribed from Bach. Reger’s Requiem, set to a text by Hebble, is an example of Reger’s union of sacred and secular requiem styles, taking as its model Brahms’ Ein Deutsches Requiem.

Works: Reger: Psalm No. 100 for Choir and Orchestra in C minor, Op. 106 (185–86), Der Einsiedler, Op. 144a (186), Requiem, Op. 144b (186).

Sources: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (187); Paul Gerhardt: Nun ruhen alle Wälder (186).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Karp corrects misinterpretations in Hans Spanke's revised and enlarged edition of Reynaud's Bibliographie des altfranzösischen Liedes, Leiden, 1955. Spanke looked at too few sources and thus thought that the contrafactum Bon rois Thibaut, en chantant respondés was derived from the version of its model that is in the same manuscript (Chansonnier de l'Arsenal). Karp shows, however, that the contrafactum is based on the version of the model as it appears in the Manuscrit du Roi, which implies that in the Arsenal manuscript not the contrafactum but the model underwent changes. Such comparisons between both models and contrafacta from different manuscripts help to detect misreadings of copyists and to establish manuscript filiations. Trouvères drew on a large body of melodic formulas that may lead to the unjustified impression of borrowing. If, however, these formulas coincide over several verses and if the texts are structurally unrelated, we can be reasonably sure that one of the two melodies was borrowed.

Works: Thibaut de Navarre: Bon rois Thibaut, en chantant respondés (87-88, 90-91); Anonymous: Li chastelains de Couci ama tant (91-92); Hué de la Ferté: Je chantasse volentiers liement (92-93); Gautier d'Espinal or Châtelain de Coucy: Comencement de douce saison bele (93-94, 97); Blondel de Nesle: Bien doit chanter cui fine Amours adrece (96-97); Gace Brulé: Biaus m'est estés, quant retentist la breuille (96-97); Conon de Béthume: Ahi, Amours, con dure departie (97-99); Anonymous: Toi reclaim, vierge Marie (99); Anonymous: Ne chant pas que que nus die (99-100); Moniot d'Arras: Qui bien aime, a tart oublie (100); Châtelain de Coucy: La douce vois du rossignol salvage (100-1).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

A sizeable body of melodies survives from the troubadour, trouvère, and Minnesinger repertories that demonstrate intentional modal variation. In comparing the appearance of a tune in different manuscripts, whether accompanying the same text or as a contrafactum, one can observe three changes in modal structures in the melodies. The different variants of the same melody may (1) emphasize opposing scale patterns, (2) emphasize a difference in the relationship between focal centers (pitches), and (3) affect both of these characteristics equally. The evidence suggests that these modal variations are the result of compositional planning and that medieval musicians did not feel bound to the mode of a borrowed tune so long as they retained the original melodic outline of the tune.

Works: Châtelain de Coucy: L’an que rose ne feuille (119, 126), Quant voi esté (199-22), A vous, amant, plus qu’a nule autre gent (122), La douce vois du rossignol salvage (123), Mout ai esté longuement esbahis (126); Anonymous: Souvent souspire (123); Anonymous: Veris ad imperia (123); Thibaut de Navarre: Pour conforter ma pesance (127).

Sources: Châtelain de Coucy: L’an que rose ne feuille (119, 126), Quant voi esté (199-22), A vous, amant, plus qu’a nule autre gent (122), La douce vois du rossignol salvage (123), Mout ai esté longuement esbahis (126); Raimbaut de Vaqueiras: Kalenda maya (123); Anonymous: A l’entrada del tens clar (123); Thibaut de Navarre: Pour conforter ma pesance (127).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Film theory must include music as a "condition of identification," how film music is received and interpreted by the audience, taking into account the impact of the intertextual reference between different films which borrow the same music, as well as the emotional impact of less recognizable music on the listener. Film audiences develop "socio-historically specific musical languages," where all music becomes referential, especially through the use of quotation, allusion, and leitmotif. Musical quotation has become a staple form of contemporary film scores through "compilation," the use of a series of pre-recorded music tracks rather than a newly-composed film score, because previously recorded and distributed music may carry with it strong ties to time period, genre, or location. The concepts of "assimilating," describing borrowings that are closely aligned with dominant ideologies, and "affiliating," for uses that broaden the range of acceptable connections between the text and music, contribute to understanding how the identification of preexisting music by the audience member serves to form notions of cultural identities or stereotypes as part of character and or plot development within film.

Works: Charles Wolcott: score to Blackboard Jungle (50); Carmine Coppola: score to Apocalypse Now (50); Charles Strouse: score to Bonnie and Clyde (51); Dick Hyman: score to Moonstruck (51).

Sources: Max C. Freedman and Jimmy DeKnight: Rock Around the Clock (50); Wagner: "Ride of the Valkyres" from Die Walküre (50); Traditional: Foggy Mountain Breakdown (51); Puccini: "Che gelida manina" from La Boheme (51).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1800s

Digital sampling is a specific type of musical borrowing in which one recorded sound is incorporated into a new recorded sound. Sampling, unlike other types of musical borrowing, is able to manipulate the recorded sounds of specific performances. Sampling is a transformative art, rather than a practice of technological quotation. New works, such as Fatboy Slim's Praise You, which samples Camille Yarbrough's Take Yo' Praise, raise questions about creativity, originality, gender, race, and class. An accompanying CD provides recordings of several mentioned works.

Works: Eric B. and Rakim: Lyrics of Fury (137); Philip King (composer), Sinéad O'Connor (performer): I Am Stretched on Your Grave (137); Robert Hunter and Jerry Garcia (songwriters), Sublime (performers): Scarlet Begonias (137); George Michael: Waiting for that Day (137); Paul Lansky: Notjustmoreidlechatter (141-145); Fatboy Slim: Praise You (145-151); Public Enemy: Fight the Power (151-156).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (137, 152, 154): Camille Yarbrough: Take Yo' Praise (145-151); Trouble Funk: Pump Me Up (151, 157).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Turntablism in DJ battles subverts the intended function of musical recordings and demonstrates how users can shape recording technology instead of the other way around. Turntablism is a performative act of manipulating music recordings using a DJ turntable and has its roots in the beginnings of hip-hop. One modern practice of turntablism is DJ battles, in which two DJs taking turns demonstrating their turntable skills, with the crowd determining a winner based on technical and artistic ability. The origins of DJ battles are informal contests in the 1970s in the Bronx; by the mid 80s, formal competitions were organized by groups like the DMC (Disco Mix Club). Modern DJ battles are racially diverse, but are mainly dominated by young men. Despite the metaphorical violence of a “battle,” DJs battles are a safe space for young men to express themselves creatively. There is competition between contestants, but overall the performance and audience participation are more central to the activity. While there is no open discrimination of women in DJ battles, the lack of female participation is an issue. Underlying misogyny in rap music (indirectly related to DJ battles) and the battles themselves (dismissing opponents as “bitches,” for example), as well as a pervasive view of recording technology as gendered male, contribute to the relative lack of female battle DJs.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Paganini’s 24 Caprices, Op. 1, have had a profound influence on many composers, including Liszt, Schumann, Brahms and Rachmaninoff. However, there is little knowledge about the work’s composition and early reception. The work might have been influenced by burlesque musical theatre or by the caprices by Lietro Locatelli in L’arte de violin (1733). Robert Schumann wrote two works, each based on six different Paganini caprices from Op. 1: Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (1832) and Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (1833). Schumann captures his amazement at Paganini by imitating his violin technique on the piano. Franz Liszt, in his Grandes Etudes de Paganini, follows a similar process of virtuosic imitation, remaining faithful to the original but creating new effects for the piano. Johannes Brahms’s Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 39, uses Paganini’s theme from the A-minor caprice as a departure point for a new work that contains several characteristic elements of Brahms’s style and practice.

Works: Schumann: Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (33), Six Études d’après les Caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (33); Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini (34); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 39 (34).

Sources: Paganini: 24 Caprices for Solo Violin, Op. 1 (31–34).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

During the rise of the violin concerto as a virtuosic showpiece, militaristic musical topics and virtuoso codes of performance were combined to create the overall impression of the violinist as a hero, a symbol of military power. Many composers, including Haydn and Beethoven, incorporated ideas from military bands or revolutionary songs into their instrumental works because these borrowings were popular with audiences. Violin concertos, especially, began using elements such as the timpani, march topics and rhythms, and brass fanfares alongside brilliant technical passages, highlighting the performer’s “victory” over the challenges. This practice originated in the French concertos of the late eighteenth century, which were often quasi-programmatic, suggesting peacetime military exercises with the violin “commanding” the orchestral army. The violin bow also became symbolic of a sword. Performers cultivated their heroic image by staging violin “duels” or imitating famous generals such as Napoleon. Inherent in these views was the cultivation of the violin as an essentially masculine instrument; symbolic language surrounding the violin often had violent connotations, and it was seen as inappropriate for a woman to play it.

Works: Charles de Beriot: March (91), Violin Concerto No. 1 in D Major, Op. 16 (93-94); Paganini: Violin Concerto No. 3 in E Major, MS 50 (93, 96), Violin Concerto No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 6 (95); Karol Lipinski: Concerto Militaire (93-95); Rodolphe Kreutzer: Violin Concerto No. 14 in E Major (93-94); Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61 (95); Luigi Boccherini: String Quartet in D Minor, G. 172 (102-3); Giovanni Battista Viotti: Violin Concerto No. 2 in E Major (103).

Sources: Charles-Simon Catel: “Marche guerrière” from Sémiramis (102).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Shostakovich achieves his life-long goal of writing a truly classical symphonic allegro in his Fifteenth Symphony. The work as a whole is characterized by economy: a quotation from Rossini's William Tell Overture forms the basis for all motives in the first movement. It is significant that Shostakovich chooses a model far removed from Viennese classicism from which to build this movement. The second movement quotes twice from the Eleventh Symphony, and the third introduces the infamous D-S-C-H motive. The final movement quotes Wagner's "Fate Motive" from Der Ring des Nibelungen as well as the rhythm of Siegfried's "Funeral March" from Gotterdämmerung. The quotation of the "Fate Motive" may be a back-handed comment on "poster-coloured" optimism, but becomes more personal when juxtaposed with the D-S-C-H motive. This progression from the Rossinian light-heartedness of the first movement to the gravity of the last exemplifies Shostakovich's affinity for tragedy.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Mozart borrowed the opening theme of Boccherini's String Quartet in C several times. The most extensive borrowing occurs in the last movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in D major, K. 576, where he uses the Boccherini sequence as the incipit and basis of the principal subject. The sequence itself offers numerous possibilities for treatment. Other references are present in the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in C minor, K. 457, the finale of his Piano Concerto in E flat major, K. 449, and the finale of the Sonata for Violin and Piano in D major, K. 306. Mozart was immeasurably more original in "stealing" Boccherini's theme than Boccherini was in inventing it, producing some of his greatest works while using a mediocre model.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Like the Symphonie fantastique,Roméo et Juliette includes borrowings from earlier works. A passage of recitative in the Roméo "Introduction" resembles a motif in the "Méditation" from the 1829 Prix de Rome cantata Cléopâtre. Berlioz himself explained the inspiration behind the Cléopâtre music, indicating that he intended the "Méditation" for a Roméo et Juliette of some sort. A melody from the withdrawn Ballet des ombres, in particular from the section referring to an invitation to a dance, appears with the same meaning in "La Reine Mab," at the place where Mab is about to take the young girl to the ball. The Larghetto oboe melody and the dance theme from "Roméo seul" derive from the cantata Sardanapale (1830), with which Berlioz actually won the Prix de Rome. From this cantata survive only a fragment of the finale "Incendie" and Peter Bloom's reconstruction of the text. The fragment contains the two themes mentioned above, but the Larghetto melody likely also formed the basis of the "Cavatine" and the allegro theme the basis of the "Bacchanale" that preceded the "résumé-cum-coda" fragment. In both the cantata and "Roméo seul" the themes are associated with arousing and intensifying desire.

Works: Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette (53-59).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Strauss's tone poems contain a variety of quotations from preexistent sources. There is a separate list of self-quotations in Ein Heldenleben on pp. 46-47.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

English musicians and their music were more prominent on the Continent after 1450 than has previously been thought. Walter Frye’s three masses, five motets, and four chansons demonstrate the particularly English style with which Continental composers had direct contact. Other composers, such as Josquin, Le Rouge, Agricola, Tinctoris, and Obrecht, drew upon Frye’s works in their own compositions. Through manuscript study and comparison of musical structure between his works, it can be determined that most of Frye’s works were transmitted as contrafacta, systematically fitted with new texts in French, Italian, or Latin instead of English. This transmission history demonstrates that Frye’s music was valued on the Continent and that it may be possible to identify more English works in Continental manuscripts after 1450.

Works: Walter Frye: Sospitati dedit (183-84, 193-95, 199), O sacrum convivium (183-94, 199), Ave Regina (187-97, 199), Trinitatis dies (193, 196, 199), O florens rosa (193-94, 199).

Sources: Walter Frye: Myn hert is lust (183, 185-89, 191, 199), Alas, alas, alas is my chief song (183-99), So ys emprentid (183, 185-91, 196-97, 199, 201), The princesse of youth (185, 188, 197).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

It is suggested that the Duke of Newcastle's play, The Triumphant Widow (1674), may be a significant forerunner to John Gay's The Beggar's Opera. Apparently The Triumphant Widow was an unusual play for its time, and it introduced a number of ballad opera characteristics (such as provincial comedy, or abundance of song and spoken verse) that may have influenced the creation of The Beggar's Opera. Similarities between plots, characters, tone, and structure in these two works are discussed.

Works: John Gay: The Beggars' Opera.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Allusions to well-known tunes or passages may (1) deliver a concealed comment (as in a theatrical "aside") and (2) depend on the listener's knowledge of the source if the comment is to be effective or even noted. Several categories can be differentiated: incidental thematic quotation, topical thematic reference (to tunes such as the Marseillaise and to less familiar tunes), and quotation of vocal works in which the text is of significance. Commentarial quotation is distinguished from self-quotation (here with reference to Mahler, Rossini, and Beethoven) since in the latter knowledge of the source is of no significance. Commentarial quotation is a predominantly Romantic phenomenon and fits in with the desire to be exclusive and the tendency to refer to things outside the work of art.

Works: Elgar: Enigma Variations (473); Saint-Saëns: Carnival of Animals (473), Danse Macabre (474); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (474); Schumann: Die beiden Grenadieren (474); Weber: Jubilee Overture (474), Battle Symphony (474); Brahms: Song of Triumph (474), Academic Festival Overture (474); Mendelssohn: Reformation Symphony (474); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (474); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (474); Liszt: Totentanz (474), Dante Symphony (474); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death (474); Rachmaninoff: Isle of the Dead (474), Variations on a Theme by Paganini (474); Schelling: A Victory Ball (475); Wagner: Parsifal (476), Die Meistersinger (477), "Wesendonck" Songs (477), Siegfried Idyll (478); Puccini: Il Tabarro (479); Mozart: Don Giovanni (480), The Marriage of Figaro (480); Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (481), Capriccio (482); Sterndale Bennett: Études Symphoniques, Op. 13 (483).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (473); Berlioz: Dance of the Sylphs (473); Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (474); Arne: God Save the King (474); Luther: Ein feste Burg; Anonymous: Gaudeamus Igitur (474), Dies Irae (474); Rossini: "Una voce poco fa" from Barber of Seville (475), "Di tanti palpiti" from Tancredi (475-76); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (477-78); Strauss: Death and Transfiguration (480); Martín: Una Cosa Rara (480); Sarti: I Due Litiganti (480); Marschner: The Templar and the Jewess (483).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1500s

Verdi often utilized recurring themes, most notable in Rigoletto,Aïda, and Otello. The use of a recurring motive (a term semantically preferable to Erinnerungsmotiv (reminiscence theme) provides a dramatic focal point, as opposed to an identification motive used for characterization. Verdi recalls earlier music for dramatic purposes, often reusing the same harmonic constructions. The recalling of a kiss in La Traviata,La Forza del destino, and Aïda is represented both by similar melodies and by a harmonic shift from minor to major mode.

Works: Verdi: Rigoletto (300), Aïda (503), Otello (505).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Popular music in film can serve to inspire and enliven directors and accompany, counterpoint, boost, or ironically comment upon their visual work. Popular music can create an instant period location, establishing time and place with just a few choice chords, haunting vocal phrases, or distinctive drumbeats. More than any other art form, popular music is a disposable, transient product that reflects, mimics, and occasionally shapes the American zeitgeist through film music. American popular music can serve as a film's memory, tapping into a nostalgic past or fixing the film firmly in the present. In the film score of Richard Brooks's Blackboard Jungle, which borrowed Bill Haley and the Comets' Rock Around the Clock, and Frank Tashlin's score for The Girl Can't Help It, which included music from Gene Vincent and the Blue Caps, Eddie Cochran, Julie London, Fats Domino, and Little Richard, Brooks and Tashlin were successful in capturing the essence of the 1950s teenage experience by incorporating the emerging genre of Rock and Roll. Contemporary popular music has also been used to help tell the story. Dennis Hopper's Easy Rider used Steppenwolf's Born to be Wild to epitomize the new breed of youth rebellion in the 1970s. John Badham's Saturday Night Fever featured the Bee Gees, Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing included rap and blues artists, and Cameron Crowe's Singles showcased Seattle 1990s grunge bands, all utilizing contemporary artists to place the film in the "now." John Carpenter's sound track to Christine, based on Stephen King's novel, references the nostalgic 1950s through the radio of the 1958 Plymouth Fury. American films based on the Vietnam War rely heavily on the political sentiments expressed via 1970s Rock and Roll; Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now opens ominously with The Door's The End, while Mark Rydell's For the Boys has Bette Midler on screen singing The Beatles' In My Life as her son is killed in battle. Film scores often develop a symbiotic relationship between pop music and film, where the music borrowed for a film is re-released as a marketing scheme for the movie.

Works: Richard Brooks: score to Blackboard Jungle (9); Bobby Troup: songs for The Girl Can't Help It (9); Dennis Hopper: score to Easy Rider (12); Barry Gibb, Maurice Gibb, Robin Gibb, and David Shire: songs for Saturday Night Fever (12); Spike Lee: score to Do the Right Thing (12); Cameron Crowe, et al.: score to Singles (12); Mike Nichols: score to The Graduate (12); Michelangelo Antonioni: score to Blowup (12), Zabriskie Point (12); John Carpenter: score to Christine (13); Carmine Coppola: score to Apocalypse Now (16); Philip Kaufman: score to The Wanderers (16); Dave Grusin and Diane Warren: score to For the Boys (17).

Sources: Max C. Freedman and Jimmy DeKnight: Rock Around the Clock as performed by Bill Haley and the Comets (9); Mars Bonfire (Dennis Edmonton): Born to be Wild as performed by Steppenwolf (12); Paul Simon: Mrs. Robinson (12); Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel: Scarborough Fair (12); Jeff Beck, Chris Dreja, Jimmy Page, and Keith Relf [The Yardbirds]: Stroll On (12); David Gilmour, Nick Mason, Roger Waters, Richard Wright [Pink Floyd]: Come in Number 51, Your Time is Up (12); Traditional: Sugar Babes as performed by The Youngbloods (12); Jerry Garcia and Robert Hunter [The Grateful Dead]: Dark Star (12); The Doors: The End (16); Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio: Walk Like a Man as performed by the Four Seasons (16); Lee Feldman, Jerry Goldstein, and Richard Gottehrer: My Boyfriend's Back as performed by The Angels (16); Dion DiMucci and Ernie Maresca: Runaround Sue,The Wanderer (16); Bob Berryhill, Jim Fuller, and Ron Wilson [The Surfaris]: Wipe Out (16); Acker Bilk and Robert Mellin: Stranger on the Shore as performed by Mel Martin (16); John Lennon and Paul McCartney: In My Life (17).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

The didjeridu is misleadingly used on the soundtrack of Burke and Wills (1986) to suggest an Aboriginal presence, by borrowing the distinct timbre of the instrument but discarding the free rhythmical form of aboriginal music. The timbre of the didjeridu, electronically synthesized and symmetrically organized in meter, is used in film scores aimed at western audiences to signify a single element of Australian Aboriginal culture as complex histories of "otherness," networks of beliefs, and the relationships between peoples and lands. Borrowing the distinct timbre and register of the didjeridu in Australian cultural representations provides for white Australians and Western cinematic audiences a spurious notion of Australian Aboriginal musics, which are primarily vocal musics accompanied by drum and whistle.

Works: Peter Sculthorpe: score to Burke and Wills (66); Guy Gross: score to Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (69); J. Peter Robinson: music for Encino Man (69); Martin Armiger, William Motzing, and Tommy Tycho: music for Young Einstein (72); Ira Newborn: score to Ace Ventura, Pet Detective (72); Bill Conti: score to The Right Stuff (73).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1700s

In Omaramor, a work for solo cello, Osvaldo Golijov pays tribute to Carlos Gardel by quoting one of Gardel’s most famous tango songs, Mi Buenos Aires querido. The melody of Gardel’s song is used as the foundation for a fantasy, and the influence of various Argentine dances make this piece a twenty-first century tango interpretation for the cello.

Works: Osvaldo Golijov: Omaramor (9-19).

Sources: Carlos Gardel: Mi Buenos Aires querido (3, 9-12, 16); Anonymous: Milonga (5-6).

Index Classifications: 2000s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

An analysis of Günter Bialas's Meyerbeer-Paraphrasen for orchestra (1970) demonstrates the composer's technique and his ability to infuse it with twentieth-century ideas. References are made to melodic, harmonic, and structural material from Meyerbeer's opera Le Prophète within a tightly organized six-part formal scheme. Bialas intended his piece to be understood as a concert fantasy about the historical kind of paraphrase, a "skeptical apotheosis" of the nineteenth-century model.

Works: Günter Bialas: Meyerbeer-Paraphrasen.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

In his Etudes de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10, Robert Schumann abandons the paradigm of relatively strict transcription he adhered to in his 6 Etudes pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3, and instead seeks to capture the expressive qualities of Paganini's 24 Caprices, Op. 1. Schumann's poetic aesthetic results in freer treatments of Paganini's material than found in Liszt's transcriptions, which sought to transmit Paganini's virtuosity and more frequently preserved the idiosyncrasies of Paganini's violinistic idiom. Schumann's writings attest to his vision of Paganini as an ideal virtuoso, inspirational not only as a performer, but as a romantic hero.

Works: Liszt: Grandes Études de Paganini (9, 26-27); Robert Schumann: 6 Études pour le pianoforte d'après les caprices de Paganini, Op. 3 (12-15, 27), Études de concert . . . d'après des caprices de Paganini, Op. 10 (12, 15-25).

Sources: Paganini: 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (9, 12-30), Violin Concerto No. 2 in B Minor (9).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Liszt’s two-piano arrangements of his symphonic poems, composed during his tenure as Kapellmeister of the Grand-Ducal court in Weimar, exhibit new techniques and a meticulous approach to reworking orchestral material into the two-piano medium. Starting with his 1853 two-piano arrangement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Liszt was at the forefront of the development of the medium. However, even at the height of their popularity from the 1880s through the 1910s, two-piano arrangements were far less common than four-hand arrangements. Liszt’s two-piano arrangements were primarily performed by a circle of professional pianists at private gatherings arranged by the composer to promote his orchestral music. Liszt uses a variety of distinctive techniques to craft faithful reworkings of orchestral music, not simple reproductions. For instance, the distribution of musical material between the two pianos is used to recreate subtle timbral differences in orchestration in passages of both Les Préludes and Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia. Liszt also adds virtuosic figurations which often relate to the program of the piece, as in his arrangement of Mazeppa. The two-piano rendering of Hunnenschlacht uses several techniques to highlight the battle between the Huns and Romans. Hand crossings and dissonances give visual and aural flair to the Huns’ theme. The addition of a chromatic scale-passage to the Romans’ theme not only renders the ominous timpani roll in a pianistic way, but also juxtaposes the two pianos against each other, creating an impression of a continual battle that is not present in the original. Liszt’s two-piano arrangements were an important part of his development as a prominent arranger and composer in Weimar and demonstrate a complementary approach to fidelity and creativity.

Works: Liszt: Les Préludes, two-piano version (310-11), Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia, two-piano version (311-13), Mazeppa, two-piano version (313-15), Hunneschlacht, two-piano version (315-22)

Sources: Liszt: Les Préludes (310-11), Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia (311-13), Mazeppa (313-15), Hunneschlacht (315-22)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Due to its rushed composition for the premiere performance, the musical material of Felix Mendelssohn's Serenade and Allegro Giojoso, Op. 43 (1838) is based largely on his Piano Concerto No. 2 in D Minor, Op. 40, composed the previous year. Many of the similarities between the works are evident: they share the same ensemble, key area, and some thematic material. Further evidence for the self-borrowing can be found in Mendelssohn's sketches. In the Nachlaß 19 manuscript, a passage originally intended for the Piano Concerto was reused as a transition between the movements of the Serenade and Allegro Giojoso in an early performance. The Nachlaß 30 manuscript shows evidence of Mendelssohn revising Op. 43 to more closely resemble the earlier Op. 40. Also, documentary evidence shows that he was editing the proof of Op. 40 while finishing Op. 43, and thus it is likely that the musical material of each shared many features.

Works: Mendelssohn: Serenade and Allegro Giojoso, Op. 43 (358-87).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 40 (359-87).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Beethoven was first influenced by Bach during his Bonn years, and that influence grew and became more profound in his late works. In several instances a specific piece by Bach is intimated as Beethoven's model, yet that influence rarely amounts to straightforward borrowing. For instance, the C minor episode in the finale of Beethoven's "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 recalls Bach's Prelude in C minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. This stylistic allusion, which involves a relentless ostinato that stresses turn figures, is incorporated by Beethoven as a dramatic element. The finale of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54, refers to Bach's Fugue in E Minor from WTC I. Both sonatas evoke the toccata-like idiom of the Bach works, yet the model is transformed by Beethoven and assimilated into his dramatic framework. Beethoven's Diabelli Variations (notably Nos. 29 and 31) include textural and melodic resemblances to Bach's Goldberg Variations, and are best construed as an homage to Bach.

Works: Beethoven: "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 (85-87), Cello Sonata in A Major, Op. 69 (88), Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 110 (88, 97), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (101-3).

Sources: Bach: Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in C Minor (85-87), "Es ist vollbracht" from St. John Passion (88), Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in E flat Minor (97, 101), Goldberg Variations (101-3).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Beethoven's use of specific sonorities in the Missa Solemnis (Credo and Benedictus) and in the Ninth Symphony (Finale). Most significant is an Eb Major sonority first heard at the start of the Credo. This sonority takes on a symbolic meaning in both the Credo and Benedictus since it is associated with texts which evoke celestial regions. This symbolic association holds in the Ninth as well. The musical ideas involved are also evident in the String Quartet in Eb Major, Op. 127, which is the final work in which these ideas are treated. These referential sonorities, then, bind together three of Beethoven's late works.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Wagner's Die Meistersinger makes several allusions to Tristan und Isolde. These begin furtively in the second act, gradually come near the surface, and culminate in Act III, scene 4. The allusions include explicit quotations of the Tristan chord and a passage originally sung by King Marke, a relationship in key, orchestration and voice leading that is reminiscent of the love music in Tristan, and an adaptation of larger formal structure from the prelude to Tristan. Analysis of the above, as well as the "Cobbler's Song" from Act II, helps reveal the complexity and meaning of Hans Sachs's inner conflict and resignation.

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (161-83).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (161, 170, 172-83).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Study of the sketches for Beethoven's Diabelli Variations reveals that the variations were composed in two stages, before and after the composition of the Piano Sonata Op. 111. In view of this, the melodic shape of Diabelli's theme can be seen as a clear model for that of the Arietta of Op. 111, while at the same time the Arietta influences the structure and character of the variations composed after the sonata. This is especially true in the case of the final, thirty-third variation; by almost literally quoting the Arietta, this causes the entire set to constitute both a musical and numerical "postscript" to the 32 sonatas.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111, Thirty-Three Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli, Op. 120.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

The final two movements of Mahler’s Fifth Symphony are deeply interrelated and can understood in light of his techniques of integrating song and symphony and his interest in the aesthetics of polarity. The use of the Adagietto of Mahler’s Fifth in Visconti’s film Death in Venice colors its reception as it is used to underscore the isolation of the film’s central character, fictional composer Gustav von Aschenbach. However, the similarities between the Adagietto and Mahler’s setting of “Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen,” composed just before the Adagietto, challenges this reading. When understood as a song without words (as Adorno describes the movement) based on “Ich bin der Welt,” the distancing from the world and isolation is cast in a positive light as the sanctuary of the inner self. The falling seventh motif in the Adagietto also has a musical affinity to the glance motive in Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde. The relationship between the Adagietto and the other movements of the symphony, particularly the Rondo-Finale, also suggests a deep integration of the movements of the Fifth Symphony. The integrated aesthetic and fugal writing of the Adagietto and Finale correspond to similar double perspectives in Die Meistersinger. In opposition to what Adorno perceives as a “brokenness” in Mahler’s music, the integrated, dialectical relationship between the Adagietto and the Rondo-Finale represents the unity in Mahler’s symphonic forms.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 5

Sources: Mahler: “Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen” from Rückert-Lieder (234-247), “Lob des hohen Verstandes” from Des Knaben Wunderhorn (262-63); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (250-51)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

When nature became a source of inspiration in literature in the nineteenth century, composers began to write musical works using the mountains as a theme. This was accomplished either with a programmatic title or with the use of a folk tune. Different versions of the Ranz des Vaches, a type of improvisatory tune played on the alphorn to call the cattle home at the end of the day, were quoted by many composers and served as a model for others desiring to evoke an alpine scene. In addition to the many pieces cited within the text and listed below, a list of works by lesser-known composers using the mountains as inspiration or setting is given at the conclusion of the article.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 6, fifth movement (403), Six Variations facile pour le clavecin ou Harpe (Sur un air Suisse) (403); Berlioz: "Scene aux champs" from Symphonie fantastique (402); Grétry: Overture to Guillaume Tell (400); d'Indy: Symphonie Cévenole (413-14); Liszt: "Vallée d'Obermann" (409), "Improvisata sur le ranz des Vaches de Ferdinand Huber" (409), "Nocturne sur le chant montagnard d'Ernest Knop" (409), and "Rondeau sur le Ranz des Chèvres de Ferdinand Huber" (409) from Album d'un voyageur, and Grande Fantaisie sur la Tyrolienne de l'opera "La Fiancée" (transcription of Auber) (409); Mendelssohn: Two early unpublished symphonies (408); Meyerbeer: Song on the Appenzell Ranz des Vaches (400); Rossini: Overture to William Tell (400); Schumann: Manfred (406); Richard Strauss: Don Quixote (415); Wagner: Act III of Tristan und Isolde (411); Webbe: Song on the Appenzell Ranz des Vaches (400); Weigl: Song on the Appenzell Ranz des Vaches (400).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Mozart's Die Zauberflöte is related to earlier compositions by Mozart himself and to those by other composers. The opera may be considered as a "pot-pourri." The examples of the "melodic sources and affinities" are virtually endless. An explanation for the extent to which the opera presents a synthesis of musical ideas may involve consideration of the processes of musical creation and musical psychology. Such a consideration can only be speculative as of yet, but it may be noted that Mozart, like Brahms, was steeped in tradition. Furthermore, Mozart possessed an extremely retentive musical memory. Most of the borrowings were probably unconscious. Evidence in the string quartet autographs indicates that Mozart sometimes found it necessary to refer to earlier works as he began a new one; this habit of drawing on earlier works may have become subconscious. Die Zauberflöte is drawn from "the pool of memory and experience" and demonstrates the unity of life and art in the creative genius.

Works: Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Sources: Mozart: König Thamos (242, 249, 254), Idomeneo (243-46, 249, 251, 254), Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K. 504, Prague (243), Allegro for Piano, K. 498a (243), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, K. 570 (243), Le nozze di Figaro (244, 251, 254) Violin Sonata in F Major, K. 377 (244), String Quintet in G Minor, K. 516 (244), Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 279 (244); Haydn: Mondo della Luna (244, 252), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Hob. XVI:42 (244); Gluck: Die frühen Gräber (244); Gassmann: I Viaggiatori ridicoli (245); Benda: Ariadne (245); Wranitzky: Oberon (245, 249); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (245, 248) String Quintet in E flat Major, K. 614 (246), German Dances, K. 602 (246), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (246); Gluck: Alceste (246); Philidor: Bucheron (246); Mozart: Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425 (247); Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht (247); Mozart: Divertimento in E flat Major, K. 252 (248), Piano Sonata in A Minor, K. 310 (248), La Finta semplice (248), Don Giovanni (248), Sonata in F Major for Two Pianos, K.497 (249), Concerto in E flat Major for Two Pianos, K. 365 (249), Serenade in E flat Major, K. 375 (249), Als Luise, K. 520 (249), Violin Sonata in E flat Major, K. 481 (249); Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride (249); Haydn: Symphony in B flat Major, Hob. I:85, La Reine (250); Mozart: Piano Concerto in E flat Major, K. 271 (251), Violin Concerto in A Major, K. 219 (251), String Trio in E flat Major, K. 563 (251), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 281 (251), Clarinet Quintet in A Major, K. 581 (252), Die Maurerfreude, K. 471 (253), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 282 (254), Divertimento in F Major, K. 253 (254).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Among the various pastoral elements in Beethoven's 6th symphony are the use of a genuine ranz des vaches melody, characteristic Austrian rhythms, bagpipe sounds, and bird calls.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

This article discusses the deep symbolic ramifications of musical quotations and leitmotivs. According to Kirchmeyer, quotations and leitmotivs possess demagogical powers or properties. He feels that composers of the German school such as Mahler, Schoenberg, and particularly Wagner were highly aware of these demagogical powers and properties, and consequently exploited them through the use of quotations and/or leitmotivs in their compositions. Kirchmeyer discusses the way in which these three German composers strengthen the symbolic meanings of their works through the use of quotations and leitmotivs.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

The fundamental change in the style of the ricercar can be explained by considering analogies to rhetorical literature; the early improvisatory ricercar fits Aristotle's description of a proem while the late "motetic" ricercar follows the plan of the exordium described by Cicero. Early ricercars resemble Aristotle's proem in their preludial function, how they establish the mode of a following motet or madrigal, and how they are used for the tuning of the instrument (as an orator would "tune" the soul of his listeners by attracting their attention). Late ricercars, on the other hand, seem to be modeled after Cicero's exordium, which is divided into the principium and the insinuatio. The plain and direct principium makes the listener attentive while the more subtle insinuatio steals into the listener's mind indirectly. The musical implications of Cicero's principium and insinuatio are realized in ricercars by Andrea Gabrieli and Girolamo Cavazzoni featuring intonazioni which begin with full and plain chords, and imitative ricercars consisting of voices creeping in quietly one by one while imperceptibly increasing the number of voices. In this light, the two ricercars in J. S. Bach's Musical Offering can be seen as being modeled after Cicero's twofold distinction as well as Frescobaldi's toccata (principium) and ricercar (insinuatio) in his Fiori musicali.

Works: Andrea Gabrieli: Intonazione del primo tono (26); Girolamo Cavazzoni: Ricercar primo (26-27); Hieronimo Parabosco: Ricercar XVIII (27); J. S. Bach: Musical Offering (39-40).

Sources: Frescobaldi: Fiori musicali (41).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

A group of fugue arrangements for string trios and quartets, known as K. 405 and K. 404a by Mozart, and the anonymous arrangements of the Berea/"Kaisersammlung" manuscript are based on the fugues from J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. The authorship of these arrangements, along with some of their anonymous slow introductions, has always been in question. A historical investigation indicates that Mozart is the most probable author. Around 1782, Mozart regularly attended Baron Gottfried Van Swieten's Sunday chamber music sessions, in which only Handel's and Bach's music were performed. Mozart arranged Bach's fugues for these events. It was also around that time that Mozart studied Bach's fugues with enthusiasm. Mozart is also known for adding slow introductions to arrangements of his own compositions; examples include the piano fugue K. 426, later arranged for strings (K. 546), and many other works. Further studies of the manuscript copy, musical style, texture, and harmonic language make even a stronger case for Mozart's authorship. Mozart's involvement in these pieces cannot be denied until another composer is proven to be the author.

Works: Mozart: Five Fugues K. 405 (44, 46-47, 50-53), Four Preludes for String Trios K. 404a (44, 46-57, 62-65), Berea/"Kaisersammlung" manuscript (47-57, 60-63).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Fugues from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II, in C Minor (44, 47), D Major (44, 46, 51), E flat Major (44, 46, 52, 53), D sharp Minor (44, 50, 51), and E Major (44, 52).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

In the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven uses numerous rhetorical gestures to express the meaning of the text. Some of the gestures were conventional in his day, such as a static motive with which to begin the Kyrie, used at least as far back as Benevoli in 1628. Known to have been studying Handel's Messiah while he composed the Missa Solemnis, Beethoven is indebted for the Katabasis (lowering of the elevated host) in his Agnus Dei to "He shall feed his flock," and for a fugato subject to the "Hallelujah Chorus," both from Messiah.

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1600s

Much scholarship has emphasized the development of the cyclic mass as a watershed moment in music history that ushered in the music of the Renaissance. Among these cyclic masses, cantus firmus masses have been singled out as historically and artistically superior to songs, motets, and other masses because of their unified aesthetic and coherence over a larger form. These modern perceptions, however, do not align with fourteenth- and fifteenth-century realities: the writings of theorists, copying records, executors’ accounts, contemporary remarks, and musical manuscripts show that masses, whether based on cantus firmi or not, were not necessarily viewed as larger units until the mid-fifteenth century, and structural coherence was not a primary concern. Rather, mass movements were conceived as separate motets and valued as demonstrations of the greatest diversity of musical expressions and compositional techniques. Modern emphasis on the importance of cyclic masses (and especially the cantus firmus mass) and their unified structural elements were largely constructs of Hegelian- and Enlightenment-influenced thinking. By suggesting that composers such as Du Fay united their music with aesthetic rather than liturgical considerations in mind, nineteenth century scholars portrayed these composers as some of the first self-conscious artists, building upon the past, yet freeing themselves from external constraints and exercising their genius.

Index Classifications: General, 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

The final version of The Pond ends with a brief reference to "Taps." But two earler drafts features longer, more complete quotations, shown in examples. Kirkpatrick suggests that, in shortening the quotation in his revision, "Ives apparently decided to be more reticent or cryptic."

Works: Ives: The Pond

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

The second movement is a medley of popular tunes and fraternity songs. The finale reworks Ives's The All Enduring, composed for the Yale Glee Club. The finale closes with Toplady ("Rock of Ages"), and a theme heard earlier in the movement may be a cryptic variant of that hymn tune.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

A plainchant Kyrie melody bearing the label “ungaricum,” which appears in several variants in medieval manuscripts from Central European cities, demonstrates the influence of cultural exchange on the transmission of late medieval melodies. By tracing its history through Southern Germany, Hungary, and Poland during the late medieval period, and by examining the variants which appear in Melnicki’s Kyrie and Thannabaur’s Sanctus catalogues, it can be proven that a single plainchant melody could be adapted to serve multiple functions. An appendix lists the sources where the “ungaricum” melody can be found.

Works: Anonymous: Ungaricum sanctus de beata virgine pulchrum sequitu (20-21); Anonymous: Sequitur ungaricum kyrieleis (20-21).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Wagner's Tristan und Isolde illustrates how he attempted to avoid the conventional periodic structure of music. His solution was indebted to Liszt?s "unfolding form," suggesting that his encounter with Liszt's symphonic poems, particularly Orpheus, during Liszt's Weimar period (1847-61) played a decisive role in the formal idea of Tristan. It has been acknowledged that Liszt influenced Wagner with regard to harmony. Further influence by Liszt on Wagner involves structural aspects of musical form. Wagner's admiration for Liszt's symphonic poems, particularly Orpheus, is evident in his letter after Liszt conducted his Les Préludes and Orpheus in 1856. Liszt, in his symphonic compositions, provided an alternative form to the conventional sonata form, achieving an "unfolding form" in which small elements are repeated, developed, and varied into greater units. His avoidance of a closed form allowed Wagner to achieve the concepts of "poetic-musical period" and "verse melody" in his Tristan. His earliest sketches for Tristan in 1856 demonstrate how he solved the problem of traditional sonata form by linking his formal idea to Liszt's, suggesting the significance of his encounter with Orpheus.

Works: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (245-50).

Sources: Liszt: Orpheus (234-41).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Brahms's Cello Sonata in E Minor is so closely patterned on the E minor cello sonata of Bernhard Romberg that it could be considered a parody, using the sixteenth-century definition of the term. Besides the obvious connection of the key, the choice of opus number and other musical details suggest that Brahms modeled his sonata on that of Romberg. Both utilize similar tempo markings and harmonic progressions. Combinations of Romberg's first and third movement themes appear throughout Brahms' composition, and much of the original accompaniment also appears in reworked form. Some of the more contrapuntal passages seem to derive from Bach. It is possible that Brahms's familiarity with Romberg's work is due to the influence of his friend Gänsbacher, who might have pressed the composer into accompanimental duties. Perhaps Brahms's cello sonata, patterned so closely on Romberg's, was the result of improvisations over Romberg's accompaniment and a subsequent reworking of its ideas.

Works: Brahms: Cello Sonata in E Minor.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Elisabeth Honn

[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Bloch turned to his Jewish identity for inspiration in part because the latent hostility toward Jews in his native Geneva left him ostracized from that city's musical life. His incorporation of Jewish materials in his music ranges from direct quotations, which are consciously intended, to materials associated with Jewish music but not directly quoted from any particular source, which are less consciously recalled. The latter include Jewish cantillation modes, less specifically Jewish exotic scales allowing for melodic skips of an augmented second or fourth, and rhapsodic, quasi-improvised passages.

Works: Bloch: Baal Shem Suite, Abodah, Suite Hébraïque,Israel Symphony,Avodath Hakodesh, Schelomo, Voice in the Wilderness.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Of the various compositional challenges Brahms faced in writing his symphonies, integrating oneself into past traditions was one challenge most easily overcome with the use of stylistic allusion as a subtle and complicated form of borrowing. These allusions exist as component parts in larger "webs," which are created when a given passage or melody from one of Brahms's symphonies may simultaneously allude to a multitude of different, and possibly interrelated, sources. Likewise, Brahms may simultaneously allude not only to specific pieces as sources, but also to generic types, thereby creating a more general stylistic resonance while obscuring a listener's ability to accurately recognize and identify potential source compositions. For Brahms, these allusions provide a "double-edged sword" with which he can either pay homage to, or make an ironic departure from, a possible model. This multifaceted practice of simultaneous allusions was Brahms's way of engaging not only with past traditions but also with his present audience (who could, conceivably with some effort, recognize and appreciate the allusions). Consequently, Brahms's symphonies are more retrospective or nostalgic because of these allusions than they would have been if he had simply borrowed from himself.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (81-85, 88-92, 103-4, 110-11, 113, 124-25, 128-29, 134), Symphony No. 2 in D Major (105-6, 110, 115, 117, 119-21, 123), Symphony No. 3 in F Major (91, 93-95, 107, 122, 134), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor (91, 96-97, 100-101, 105, 108-10, 129-30, 132).

Sources: Bach: St. John Passion (82-84, 88, 91, 124, 126), Weihnachts-Oratorium (92), The Well-Tempered Clavier (96, 98), Cantata No. 150, Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich (131), Partita No. 2 for Solo Violin, Chaconne in D Minor (131-32); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (81, 83, 90-91, 103, 117-18, 127-28), Symphony No. 6 in F Major (Pastorale) (88, 91-92, 102, 105, 110-11, 136-37), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (Eroica) (95, 117-120, 132), Violin Concerto in D Major (96), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (97-98, 109, 120, 122-23), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (97, 99), Symphony No. 7 in A Major (104-5), Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (108-9), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor (112-13), Piano Sonata No. 15 in D Major, Op. 28 (116-17), Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major (119, 121), Symphony No. 1 in C Major (126, 128-29), Piano Sonata No. 23 in F Minor, Op. 57 (127-28), Piano Variations in C Minor, Op. 35 (131-33); Schubert: Symphony No. 9 in C Major (Great) (88-90, 92, 100-101, 105, 118-19, 136-37), String Quintet in C Major (94), Symphony No. 8 in B Minor (Unfinished) (101-2, 113-14, 131, 133); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Major (88-89, 103-4), Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major (97, 99, 101), Ein Sommernachtstraum (106-7, 114, 116), Die Erste Walpurgisnacht (110-11, 114-15), Hebrides Overture (114, 116), Symphony No. 3 in A Minor (114-15); Brahms: Volks-Kinderlieder (89, 106), String Sextet, Op. 18 (90), Variations on a Theme by Haydn (90), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (94, 99), Waltz, Op. 39 (99), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor (126); Robert Schumann: Symphony No. 1 in B-flat Major (93, 95), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (Rhenish) (93, 95), Symphony No. 4 in D Minor (101, 107-8), Symphony No. 2 in C Major (110, 112), Manfred Overture (127-28); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major (94-95, 103-4, 124, 126), Symphony No. 103 in E-flat Major (97-98), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (106-7, 116, 119-120), Symphony No. 83 in G Minor (107-8), The Creation (110-11), Symphony No. 94 in G Major (110, 112, 116), Symphony No. 87 in A Major (112-13); Wagner: Tannhäuser (96); Handel: Messiah (96, 98); Buxtehude: Ciaccona in E Minor (96, 130); Mozart: Symphony No. 40 in G Minor (96-98, 113-14), Symphony No. 39 in E-flat Major (106-7); Couperin: Passacaille in B Minor (131).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt

While Brahms's relationship to his predecessors, in particular Beethoven, seems to warrant the application of Harold Bloom's theory of the anxiety of influence, it is perhaps more accurate to think of Brahms's anxiety as the result of tensions created by the expectations of his audience. Brahms realized that his audience would receive and judge his works in comparison to those of his revered predecessors. Therefore, he was faced with the task of creating music that was similar enough to his predecessors to be well-received by his audience while still maintaining the status of originality. Thus, Brahms foregrounded original, non-referential music while cultivating subtle and buried musical allusions that evoked his predecessors. These allusions served to invoke the music of Brahms's predecessors on a subconscious level while still allowing Brahms's music to be seen as highly original. It is this careful balancing act, not his feelings towards Beethoven and other composers, that created the anxiety for Brahms.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (10-16), Symphony No. 3 in F Major (16-25).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (11-15), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (11-16), Symphony No. 3 in E flat Major, Eroica (19, 21, 23-24); Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major (16-17, 19, 23-24); Schubert: String Quintet in C Major (16-17, 20); Schumann: Symphony No. 1 in B flat Major, Spring (18, 20, 24-25), Symphony No. 3 in E flat Major, Rhenish (18, 21, 24-25); Richard Wagner: Tannhäuser (19-20, 23-24).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Music and electricity have become specific accretions to the Frankenstein story over time, with American popular music serving as a subset of music in Mel Brooks's Young Frankenstein. The film plays like an operetta by focusing on personal stories and songs with special personal significance to the characters, staying away from the larger issues of human appropriation of the divine powers of electricity and music. Pre-existing songs used in the film offer both thematic verbal content as well as immediate jokes, whether or not the audience is aware of thematic conventions in which the film is engaging, although the broader humorous effect of the songs often obscures the appropriateness of the musical choice.

Works: James Whale (director): Sound track to Bride of Frankenstein (110); Mel Brooks (director): Sound track to Young Frankenstein.

Sources: Victor Herbert: Dream Melody (107-08, 112-13, 116); Irving Berlin: Puttin' on the Ritz (108, 113-15); Battle Hymn of the Republic (108, 113, 115); Schubert: Ave Maria (110-11); Wagner: Lohengrin (115).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

The ostinato subject that concludes Brahm's Fourth Symphony has connections to the Baroque tradition of the ostinato bass. However, the subject also refers to the structural coherence of the symphony as a whole, especially in the use of chains of thirds. Brahms thus had other models including Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, and Rubenstein. As a theme in and of itself, the ostinato more closely resembles Buxtehude; as evidence of compositional process, it shows strong links to Beethoven, not only his variation works but also his Fifth Symphony.

Works: Brahms: Fourth Symphony (3-17); Beethoven: Third Symphony (9).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 (3-6), Chaconne for solo violin (6-8); Buxtehude: E-Minor Ciacona (6, 12), D-Minor Passacaglia (6-8); François Couperin: B-Minor Passacaille (8); Beethoven: Variations for Piano, Op. 35 (9), C-Minor Variations (9), Third Symphony (9-10), Fifth Symphony (10), Hammerklavier Sonata (10); Mozart: G-Minor Symphony (10-11, 15).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Brahms uses musical “allusions” in his symphonies to serve two utopia agendas: first, to achieve a pure and organic unity ideal of “absolute music”; second, to revitalize a languishing tradition through multiple allusive sources, thus creating referential meanings that are not devoid of the narrative dimensions or programmatic intentions of the “New German School.” These two agendas, or two “senses of belonging,” are interrelated. Brahms uses a single technique, thematic variation, as the agent of synthesis for two separate frames of reference in order to create referential meaning within a work and at the same time to establish relationships other works within the extended tradition. Brahms achieves organic unity by accommodating allusions to internal process, mainly by manipulating a network of thematic relationships from his allusive sources. Examples from Brahms's symphonies show the different ways he engages his allusive sources to acquire important meanings in a new unified musical context. In all his allusions, Brahms triggers in us the unconscious process of association with well-known music and guides us to feel our response to a shared heritage.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 (139-59), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (159-69), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (169-78), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (178-89).

Sources: Joseph Haydn: Symphony No. 97 in C Major, Hob.I:97 (141-43); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (“Eroica”) (141-44, 152-53, 181-85), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (159-69), Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 (159-69), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (167-73); Schubert: Quintet in C Major, D.956 (141), Symphony No. 9 in C Major, D.944 (“Great”) (182-85); Schumann: Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (141), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 97 (“Rhenish”) (141); Wagner: Tannhäuser (140-151, 154-59); Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 68 (141); Mendelssohn: Ein Sommernachtstraum, Op. 61 (182-88).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1900s

Mahler's innovations in instrumentation required the use of nonmusical instruments in a collage technique, characterized by sounds in free, non-metric patterns that are set against the remaining instruments. 'Nachtmusik I' of the Seventh Symphony employs a cowbell as a nonprogrammatic layer of the texture. Although this style resembles that of Ives, Mahler had no Ivesian connection. However, he undoubtedly borrowed this style from selected textures in Beethoven's Leonore Overture and Meyerbeer's Le Prophète, but he did not use direct quotations.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

A consideration of hermeneutics compounds Lissa's list of methods of citation by proposing the necessity of composer intent in order to defend a possible quotation. The character of the citation is defined by the connection between the composer and the listener, not between the composer and the quoted material. Reasons for parody are found in Bach and Schubert examples, "contrast citation" in Debussy, Beethoven, and Bartók examples, and self quotation in Wagner, Strauss, and Mozart examples. Contemporary composers, such as Cage and Stockhausen, show their affinity for the character of earlier works through citation, even while they vocally reject such styles.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

[On themes in the String Quartet in D Major, K. 499, borrowed from La nozze di Figaro, composed earlier the same year.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

[On the use in the String Quartet in B flat Major, K. 458, of themes from Die Entführung aus dem Serail.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Music for Four Stringed Instruments was first composed in August, 1917, as a tribute to Victor Chapman, the first American aviator killed in World War I and the son of a friend of the composer. Before its publication in 1923, it underwent several revisions, and in publishing the work Loeffler withheld the written program and dedication to Chapman's memory that accompanied the 1919 premiere performance. The revisions emphasize the thematic role of the plainchant melody Resurrexi in the first movement. This chant also appears in the second movement, but there the central role is played by Victimae paschali. The programmatic, episodic third movement also employs Resurrexi, but the climactic statement is of a motive from a plainchant antiphon used in the funeral service. The pervasiveness of the Resurrexi music suggests a spiritual interpretation: an affirmation of spiritual victory over earthly sorrow.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Pedro Almodóvar's use of sentimental boleros and Latin popular musical heritage in his films may have contributed to the renaissance of the bolero song genre in late twentieth-century Spain. He used boleros through a process of bricolage, choosing pre-existing songs to indicate of mood, aid narration, and create commentary, often depicting the bolero as camp or queer. Further, due to semiotic shifters in Spanish, bolero lyrics have multiple meanings which alter depending on the gender identifications of singers and listeners. This reinforces a blurring of boundaries between masculine and feminine as well as a homoerotic articulation of desire through the use of boleros in Almodóvar's films.

Works: Pedro Almodóvar (director): Sound track to Entre tinieblas (Dark Habits) (93, 96-98), Sound track to La ley del deseo (Law of Desire) (93, 98-101), Sound track to Tacones lejanos (High Heels) (93, 100-103), Sound track to Mujeres al borde de un ataque de nervios (Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown) (94), Sound track to La flor de mi secreto (The Flower of My Secret) (94-95); Sound track to Carne trémula (Live Flesh) (95-96).

Sources: Catalino Curet Alonso and La Lupe: Puro teatro (94); Lola Beltrán: Soy infeliz (94); Vargas: En el ultimo trago (95), Somos (95-96); Bola de Nieve: Déjame recordar (99); Jacques Brel: Ne me quitte pas (100); Jean Cocteau: La Voix humaine (100); Agustín Lara: Piensa en mí (100-102); Luz Casal: Un año de amor (102-103).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Composer and transcriber Ferruccio Busoni valued arrangements and new compositions equally, and his compositions mixed borrowed and new musical material even as transcriptions became aesthetically undesirable in the early twentieth century. In his writings, Busoni blurs the line between composition and arrangement with his philosophy that composers do not create music, but rather capture and represent heavenly music already in existence. In many of his transcriptions and arrangements, Busoni “corrects” the original scores in order to conform more closely to his vision of the ideal piece. In the case of Busoni’s unsolicited arrangement of Schoenberg’s Klavierstück, Op. 11, No. 2, this license provoked a negative response from Schoenberg. In his compositional process, Busoni begins with an abstract, non-musical Idee, which is transformed into an abstract musical concept, or Einfall. This must then go through the process of Transkription and Arrangement to translate it into a musical work. Many of his original compositions, such as Fünf kurze Stücke zur Pflege des polyphonen Spiels (1923), mix arrangement, transcription, and composition in unique ways. His edition of Liszt’s Grande Étude de Paganini No. 6 included Paganini’s original Caprice No. 24, Liszt’s two versions of the work (1838 and 1851), and original conflations of the three. An unpublished arrangement of Mozart’s Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453, demonstrates Busoni’s attempt to modernize and perfect Mozart’s score. Occasionally, Busoni describes his work as Nachdichtung, or the assimilation of an older style into a modern idiom. This includes his Fantasia nach J. S. Bach, which combines altered renditions of several Bach chorale compositions. While Busoni’s approach is comparable to contemporary virtuosos creating their own performance arrangements, his idiosyncratic approach to transcription, arrangement, and composition—especially in a musical culture praising originality above all—made him one of the most original thinkers of the early twentieth century.

Works: Ferruccio Busoni: arrangement of Schoenberg’s Klavierstück, Op. 11, No. 2 (228-30), Fantasia Contrappuntistica (234), Fünf kurze Stücke zur Pflege des polyphonen Spiels (238), Doktor Faust (239-40), edition of Liszt’s Grande Étude de Paganini No. 6 in A Minor (243-51), arrangement of Mozart’s Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453 (252-54), Fantasia nach J. S. Bach (256-60)

Sources: Schoenberg: Klavierstück, Op. 11, No. 2 (228-30); J. S. Bach: The Art of the Fugue, BWV 1080 (234), Christ der du bist der helle Tag, BWV 766 (256-60), Gottes Sohn ist kommen, BWV 703 (256-60), Lob sei dem allmächtigen Gott, BWV 602 (256-60); Mozart: The Magic Flute (238), Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453 (252-54); Ferruccio Busoni: Nocturne Symphonique (239-40); Liszt: Grande Étude de Paganini No. 6 in A Minor (243-51); Paganini: Caprice No. 24 (243-51)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the closing movement of his B Minor Mass, Bach parodies the "Gratias agimus tibi" from earlier in the work, instead of drawing on the Kyrie material, as was the more common practice. Friedrich Smend criticized Bach for expressing the final prayer with music from the Gloria, arguing that the Kyrie music would have been more appropriate. Yet Bach's approach is highly convincing. For Bach, the final "Dona nobis pacem" is not a prayer for peace calling for Kyrie material, but an expression of gratitude, "a thanksgiving not only for the completion of his opus ultimum but beyond that for his entire oeuvre." Bach did not borrow here to save time. Contrary to Schering's conclusion that the "strangely unsettled" "Benedictus" originally must have belonged to another text, Bach probably sketched the movement in lighter ink and then traced it with darker ink, which would indicate a careful conception rather than a parody.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Luciano Berio's well-justified and innovative use of the third movement of Mahler's Second Symphony in the middle movement of his Sinfonia has given rise to other uses of borrowed music which are neither innovative or justified. Many more recent pieces using the technique of collage, like George Rochberg's Music for a Magic Theater, are not destined to survive because they do not represent a significant contribution by the composer.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (36); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (36); Berio: Sinfonia (36); Ian Hamilton: Alastor (38); Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann (36); Rochberg: Music for a Magic Theater (38); Richard Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (36); Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée (38), Jeux de Cartes (38), Pulcinella (38); Tippett: Symphony No. 3 (38); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Although there is ample evidence of influence from Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and others in Brahms’s music, the connections between Brahms and Mendelssohn’s works have been largely unexplored. Considering their similar social networks in the 1840s and Brahms’s familiarity with Mendelssohn’s music in his youth, it is worth undertaking a preliminary study of “Mendelssohn reminiscences” in Brahms’s oeuvre. Several of Brahms’s works throughout his career demonstrate affinities with Mendelssohn’s compositions, but the most obvious parallels can be found in Brahms’s piano music. A particularly striking example of Mendelssohn’s influence appears in Brahms’s Intermezzo in B-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 4, which features compelling formal, phrasal, and rhythmic similarities to Mendelssohn’s Song without Words, Op. 67, No. 3. Nevertheless, Brahms’s intermezzo represents a kind of subversion of the model rather than a mere copy. While both pieces are in ternary form and prominently feature syncopated accompaniments and unique phrase structures, Brahms introduces greater harmonic subtleties and elisions between larger sections and individual phrases. The resulting intermezzo is both an engagement with Mendelssohn’s work and a statement of Brahms’s own musical individuality.

Works: Brahms: Rinaldo, Op. 50 (82), Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, Op. 98 (82), Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73 (82), Piano Concerto No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 15 (82), Horn Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 40 (82), Piano Quartet No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 60 (82), Clarinet Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 120, No. 2 (82), Intermezzo in B-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 4 (83, 86-90).

Sources: Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht, Op. 60 (82), Symphony No. 4 in A Major, Op. 90 (“Italian”) (82), Symphony No. 3 in A Minor, Op. 56 (“Scottish”) (82), String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat Major, Op. 12 (82), Piano Trio No. 2 in C Minor, Op. 66 (82), Frage, Op. 9, No. 1 (82), Song without Words, Op. 67, No. 3 (83-90).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Writers addressing the question of Bach's self-parodies have stressed practical concerns, such as the validity of the music to a new text, time pressure, or work economy. Bach's re-use of three movements from the cantata Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208, involves a considerable amount of recomposition. In most cases, the metrical and rhyme scheme of the new texts are completely different, and in the case of Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149, the affect of the text changes from one of pastoral sweetness to a joyful celebration of victory in battle. Although Bach found creative solutions for the problems posed by these self-borrowings, he did not use borrowing as a matter of convenience. Rather, the urge to elaborate all possibilities within a given musical idea was central to Bach's compositional process.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (39-52), Trio, BWV 1040 (48-49), Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (52, 56-57).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208 (38-57), Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (48).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Jazz analysts have frequently pointed to Thelonious Monk's Criss Cross as an exemplar of motivic development and coherence in jazz literature. Full transcriptions of Monk's four recordings of Criss Cross, previously unavailable in analytical literature, confirm and elaborate on this claim. Monk's melody is composed entirely of three measure-long motives and variants of those motives. His improvisations incorporate these motives at their respective places in the original melody. In both the main statement and solo sections of two recordings from 1963 and 1971, Monk augments the motives rhythmically, changes the timings of some eighth-note passages, enriches the accompaniment in the left hand, and adjusts the lengths of concluding notes. Monk's solos occasionally deviate from motivic coherence, especially in two recordings from 1951. Deviations most often occur, however, when previous solos by members of Monk's band focus more on harmonic and scalar improvisation than motivic improvisation. Milt Jackson and Sahib Shibab, both on the two 1951 recordings, use a vocabulary that consists of bebop and quotation. In contrast, Charlie Rouse, on the 1963 and 1971 recordings, maintains motivic coherence in his improvisations with Monk's theme.

Works: Thelonious Monk: Criss Cross as recorded in 1951, 1963, and 1971.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Gustav Mahler’s significant revisions to Bruckner’s Fourth Symphony amount to what Harold Bloom calls “creative misprision,” demonstrating Mahler’s self-understanding of Bruckner’s influence on his work. Publicly and privately, Mahler had a complicated relationship with the older Bruckner. Mahler’s conducting score and the orchestral parts used for his performance of Bruckner’s Fourth Symphony reveal significant changes to the text that went far beyond the standard of the time. He started with Bruckner’s 1888 final version and throughout the work altered orchestrations and cut around fifteen minutes, including nearly one third of the final movement. Major moments in Bruckner’s score were also altered or removed entirely, including both appearances of the fortissimo theme in the finale—precisely the section with the greatest stylistic influence on Mahler. These revisions can be understood by Bloom’s theory of influence, particularly the concept of misprision: the act of alleviating the anxiety of influence by creatively altering earlier works. Other indications of Mahler’s anxiety of Bruckner’s influence include his unease at charges of the similarity between his music and Bruckner’s. The similarities between passages in the scherzos of Mahler’s Symphony No. 1 and Bruckner’s Symphony No. 3, as well as the similarities between the opening themes of the Adagios of Mahler’s Symphony No. 9 and Bruckner’s Symphony No. 9, suggest a creative influence that Mahler was intent on publicly minimizing. Acknowledging this influence helps to recontextualize both Mahler’s and Bruckner’s positions in music history.

Works: Bruckner, Mahler (revisor): Symphony No. 4 in E-flat Major, WAB 104 (367-98, 416-425); Mahler: Symphony No. 1 in D Major (407-8), Symphony No. 9 (409-11), Symphony No. 5 (411-12)

Sources: Bruckner: Symphony No. 4 in E-flat Major, WAB 104 (367-98, 416-425), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor, WAB 103 (407-8), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (409-11), Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, WAB 105 (411-12)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Brahms used Chopin's Ballade, Op. 38 as a model for the second movement of his Quintet, Op. 88. Both pieces experiment with directional tonality (beginning and ending in different keys) and show structural correspondences, such as polarity between contrasted thematic segments that extend tonality, tempo, texture, and mood. In both works the second tonality is anticipated by local tonicizations of it in the initial sections; both pieces end with the opening theme, but in the second key. In addition, Brahms's Op. 88 reshapes his earlier Saraband and Gavotte in A Major (ca. 1855). Analyzing that multifaceted process of borrowing, using Harold Bloom's theory of poetic influence and Mikhail Bakhtin's concept of dialogism, shows that it resulted in a dialogic piece, which is tonally more radical than Chopin's Ballade.

Works: Brahms: String Quintet in F major, Op. 88 (48-55, 60-79).

Sources: Chopin: Ballade Op. 38 (47-55,59-68, 71-79); Brahms: Saraband in A, Gavotte in A Major (45-46, 68-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The ideas of literary critic Harold Bloom may serve as the model for a new theory of mapping musical influence. Bloom's theory (as first proposed in The Anxiety of Influence in 1973) rests on the notion that the true subject matter of poetry is poetry itself; every poem is seen as a "misreading" or "misprision" of a precursor poem or poems. Bloom divides poets into two categories, "strong" and "weak." What differentiates a "strong" poet is his ability to confront his anxiety of influence; a strong poet is one who wrestles with his great precursors to achieve his own originality. In appropriating Bloom's idea for music, compositions become "relational events" rather than "closed and static entities." The model is tested through an interreading of two compositions--Brahms's Romanze, Op. 118, No. 5, and Reger's Träume am Kamin, Op. 143, No. 2--with respect to their essential precursor, Chopin's Berceuse, Op. 57. Reger is shown to have weakly "misread" the Berceuse; although Reger places himself in direct competition with Chopin by overtly adopting the compositional strategy of the precursor (a series of increasingly florid variations over a one-measure ostinato figure, a figure that is virtually identical in both pieces), he fails to go beyond Chopin and forge an original meaning of his own. In contrast, Brahms's Romanze is shown to be a "strong" misreading of the Berceuse. Bloom's six "revisionary ratios" (clinamen, tessera, kenosis, daemonization, askesis, and apophrades) are evoked to demonstrate how Brahms is able to echo Chopin and yet go beyond his precursor, forging his own originality. For example, Bloom defines clinamen as the "initial swerve from the precursor," akin to the rhetorical trope of irony. The harmonic strategy of Chopin's Berceuse is one of extreme tonal stability, being composed almost entirely over a tonic-dominant ostinato; in making his "initial swerve" from Chopin, Brahms departs markedly from this strategy by setting his series of variations (the music most directly reminiscent of the Berceuse) as the D major middle section within a larger ternary design, framed by contrasting music in F major. Brahms's alternate strategy in the Romanze exemplifies Bloom's clinamen: "the framing action of the F major music 'ironizes' the Berceuse reminiscence of the middle section so that it says one thing ('tonal stability') and means another ('tonal instability')."

Works: Brahms: Romanze, Op. 118, No. 5; Reger: Träume am Kamin, Op. 143, No. 2.

Sources: Chopin: Berceuse, Op. 57.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

John Philip Sousa performed many orchestral transcriptions, leading both his professional band and the US Marine Band before that, but only a handful of these transcriptions still exist today. Despite the lack of material, a number of features of Sousa’s transcriptions become apparent, including keeping wind and percussion parts generally intact, writing for choirs of instruments, using clarinets like orchestral violins, and shifting scoring even when the original doesn’t change. Most of the transcriptions performed by the Sousa Band were written by Sousa’s assistants and copyists, not by Sousa himself. Only five orchestral transcriptions in full score in Sousa’s hand remain today: Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman, Elgar’s Salut d’Amour, Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4, and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time. One significant addition not in Sousa’s hand is Wagner’s Overture to Tannhäuser, which does not share the same scoring practices of Sousa’s own transcriptions. Other existing transcriptions come from keyboard music, for example Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2.

Works: Sousa: transcriptions of Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34), Wagner’s Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61), Elgar’s Salut d’Amour (262–66), Massenet’s “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77), and Leo Sowerby’s Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Sources: Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 (214–34); Wagner: Overture to The Flying Dutchman (235–61); Elgar: Salut d’Amour (262–66); Massenet: “Angelus” from Suite No. 4 (267–77); Leo Sowerby: Comes Autumn Time (278–87).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Hindemith, upon becoming a citizen of the United States, began working on what is considered his only nationalistic, American piece: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem "For Those We Love." Like many other American composers living during World War II, Hindemith was drawn to the poetry of Walt Whitman as the essence of American nationalism. Within this composition, however, there are allusions to the Germanic tradition that Hindemith had left. There are many similarities between Hindemith's Whitman Requiem and Brahms's Ein deutsches Requiem, such as elaborate choral fugues, funeral marches, an orchestral prelude that uses an extended pedal point in the bass, almost identical orchestration, tempo indications, and motivic material. Other than the allusion to Brahms, Hindemith uses only two other musical borrowings within the Requiem. The first is an offstage trumpet playing "Taps" during a militaristic march. The last borrowing is found in the eighth movement, entitled "For Those We Love." Previous scholarship has only found parallels in the Whitman text with the text of the popular Episcopal hymn "For Those We Love." However, by looking deeper into the history of this hymn text, one finds it used in another hymnal but set to "Yigdal," a traditional Jewish melody sung either before or after the service proper on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, which is note-for-note the same as the tune used by Hindemith in the eighth movement of the Requiem. Hindemith takes the quotation one step further by using many of the same rhythmic values, the same key, and the same shift to the major mode for the final cadence as the traditional Jewish melody.

Works: Hindemith: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem "For Those We Love" (133-74); Gaza, traditional Jewish melody from The Hymnal of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America 1940 (148-56).

Sources: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem (142-45); Yigdal (155-61).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Index Classifications: 1600s

Lists many folk songs from which Stravinsky quotes in his music. Stravinsky claimed that he was not always conscious of the sources from which he quoted, but there is convincing evidence that his compositional process was deliberate.

Works: Stravinsky: L'Oiseau du feu (135), Petrouchka (135), Le Sacre du Printemps (136), Les Noces (138), Jeu de Cartes (138), Circus Polka (139), Greeting Prelude (139), Four Norwegian Impressions (Moods) (140).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Index Classifications: 1700s

Chopin's Prelude in A Minor is related to recurrent patterns evident in the music and literature of the early nineteenth century. Among these patterns is that of self-quotation and Romantic representations of memory. Thus Shelley in Adonais refers to his own Ode to the West Wind, and Schubert in the String Quartet in A Minor refers to his own music to Rosamunde and to his own setting of Schiller's Die Götter Griechenlands: "Schöne Welt, wo bist du?" (This particular pattern is not, however, evident in the Chopin Prelude.)

Works: Schubert: String Quartet in A Minor (146).

Sources: Schubert: Rosamunde (146), Schöne Welt, wo bist du?, D. 677 (146).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Examining Schubert's lied Ganymed (1817), set to Goethe's poem of 1774, and comparing it to an earlier setting of the same poem by Johann Reichardt (1794) reveals that the latter was Schubert's model. Both settings use directional tonality, ending in a key a third lower than their initial key; both have their crucial division on the same words ("wohin? / hinauf!"); and both have comparable cadential melismas on the last two words. Yet Schubert, surmounting the limitations of his model, realizes the erotic atmosphere of the text by accelerating the tempo and by using lyrical, increasingly flourishing, melismas.

Works: Schubert: Ganymed (118-28).

Sources: Johann Reichardt: Ganymed (127-28).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Beneath the radical heterogeneity of Ives’s style runs a strong undercurrent of moral ambivalence which reinforces the regressive hierarchies—especially those of gender, race, and class—inherent in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century America. By placing certain tunes, such as Protestant hymns, at the top of this hierarchy, Ives musically articulates his nostalgia for his idealized America, where traits such as white-ness, rural-ness, and masculinity dominate social order. In multi-movement works especially, Ives performs his ambivalence using three strategies. First, “Interplay” pits representations of heterogeneity against those of homogenizing idealism within a programmatic context. Second, “Excess” occurs in up-tempo second movements framed by soft, static music that contains and negates the hectic energy and suggests a transcendental truth. Finally, “Hierarchy” resolves the previous movements by privileging a single, often ideologically weighted, musical gesture, affording hegemonic status to white, rural Protestant culture. The recognition of this hierarchical structure leads to a more thorough interpretation of Ives’s music, its cultural context, and the composer’s ideals.

Works: Ives: String Quartet No. 2 (178-79, 187-91), Orchestral Set No. 1: Three Places in New England (182), Majority (185-87), Orchestral Set No. 2 (189-92), Song of Myself (191), Symphony No. 4 (192-94), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (194-98).

Sources: David T. Shaw: Columbia, Gem of the Ocean (178); George Frederick Root: Battle Cry of Freedom (182); Henry Clay Work: Marching Through Georgia (182); Stephen Foster: Old Black Joe (182); Lowell Mason: Watchman, Tell Us of the Night (188); Joseph P. Webster: In the Sweet Bye and Bye (191-92); Lowell Mason: Bethany (194).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone, Daniel Rogers, David G. Rugger

The relationship between Ives’s musical forms and his political beliefs manifests itself in his music, where Ives created progressive sonic backgrounds to house his regressive views of America in the form of American tunes (quoted or otherwise). Ives identified America as New England before the Civil War: a prominently rural, white and Protestant community. His main challenge in creating a true American music was to incorporate tunes of Americana in a musically authentic way. The music needed not to sound American, but intrinsically be American. Ives utilized two compositional techniques to accomplish his aims. The first is the creation of a sparse “acoustic horizon” in which various pieces can be quoted, altered, or layered. The second is a cyclical form that is created when the end of the piece recalls the beginning, though not necessarily the beginning melody. These two methods of composition create the world that Ives thought was destroyed by urban modernity, the old-fashioned America he idealized so much.

Works: Ives: Thanksgiving and Forefathers’ Day (466) and Washington’s Birthday (470) from A Symphony: New England Holidays.

Sources: Ives: Prelude and Postlude for a Thanksgiving Service (466); Edwin Pearce Christy: Goodnight Ladies (470).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux, Cynthia Dretel, Nathan Landes

Despite Adorno's interpretation of Berg's quotation practice as deliberately disjunct, Berg's quotations are painstakingly incorporated into the surrounding musical context, as demonstrated by an analysis of his use of the Carinthian folk song in his Violin Concerto. Berg's quotations fall into four categories: (1) Quotations from Schoenberg, especially Schoenberg's early works; (2) thematic references to works from different stylistic spheres which Berg incorporates into his own idiom; (3) quotations in Wozzeck and Lulu that function as ironic commentary on the stage action; (4) quotations that form an integral part of the surrounding motivic network. The folk-song quotation in the Violin Concerto is an example of the last type. Berg's self-borrowings are largely from a collection of early sonata fragments, dating from 1908 to 1909, and are also of the fourth category. The quotations may work simultaneously on a variety of levels: as the sort of technical problem Berg requires as a creative stimulus; as representative of Berg's desire to retrieve musical ideas important to the evolution of his musical language; and as reminiscences of his period of study with Schoenberg. There is detailed discussion of these self-borrowings as they appear in Wozzeck and the String Quartet, Op. 3. The article's appendix offers a detailed list of Berg's works in which borrowings have been identified and the sources of the borrowings.

Works: Berg: Four Songs, Op. 2, String Quartet, Op. 3, Wozzeck, Chamber Concerto, Lyric Suite,Lulu, Violin Concerto.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

In the late 1960s rock began to appropriate values more closely resembling the classical tradition, such as virtuosity, creativity, and originality. One of the complaints leveled against newly emergent disco by proponents of rock was disco's perpetual use of pre-recorded music as the basis of new dance tracks. Reusing existing music was seen as an affront to rock's newly won creativity and individuality and represented a collective approach to music found frequently in African-American musical traditions. Because of its use of musical borrowing, therefore, disco represented a challenge to white hegemony in the production of popular culture.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Mahler's Kindertotenlieder, written in the aftermath of the nearly fatal hemorrhage of February 24, 1901, may be considered dirges for his own death. The work is thus autobiographical to an important extent. Several musical connections between the Kindertotenlieder cycle and other of Mahler's works are noted. The phrase at mm. 12-15 in "Nun will die Sonn' so hell aufgehn" is used in the Funeral March movement of the Fifth Symphony. The melodic idea at the beginning of "Nun seh' ich wohl" is reshaped to become the principal idea of the Adagietto of the Fifth Symphony and of the song "Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen." Connections exist between the cycle and the Sixth Symphony as well. Important musical relationships exist between the first and last songs of the cycle (p. 345).

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (330-31), Symphony No. 5 (348), Symphony No. 6 (348, 353).

Sources: Mahler: Kindertotenlieder.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Franz Liszt’s piano transcription of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique has been long recognized as a high point of Liszt’s exceptional pianism and technique. Liszt and Berlioz were close friends in the early 1830s, and written correspondence between the two reveals an active collaboration which shaped Liszt’s transcription and possibly even Berlioz’s own revisions to his symphony. Liszt treated this transcription as a means to push his pianistic technique to new extremes, and the Parisian critics praised his ability to magnify the best elements of Berlioz in his arrangement. Liszt’s transcriptions of Symphonie fantastique and other Berlioz works draw attention to the performer and to the original music, and thus promote both Berlioz the composer and Liszt the artistic, musically sensitive virtuoso in a concert setting. Their respective successes ultimately affected each other, and Liszt’s constant stage presence undoubtedly increased Berlioz’s popularity. After distancing himself from Berlioz in the late 1830s, Liszt still applied some of what he had learned in his Symphonie fantastique project to his later arrangements of Schubert and others, using his transcriptions to promote both the original music and his own virtuosity and musical prowess.

Works: Liszt: Grande Symphonie fantastique de Hector Berlioz (195-213, 216-35), Ouverture des francs-juges de Hector Berlioz (212-14), Ouverture du roi Lear de Hector Berlioz (212-16).

Sources: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (195-213, 224-28), Les francs juges (212), Le roi Lear (212).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone, Christine Wisch

The title Sudori Musicali indicates that the works within the collection are new settings of works previously published for instrumental ensembles. The revisions include changes in pitch level, mensuration, texture, thematic material, and form. Cavaccio's canzonas testify to his mastery of the Renaissance techniques of parody. A number of parody canzonas are considered, and the article includes a table of both the canzonas of Sudori Musicali and their models.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

A testimony and dedication precedes the facsimiles of Krenek's Parvula Corona Musicales (1950), notes to each movement, and the derived twelve-tone rows with which he worked. The work was prompted by the idea of creating a musical symbol of a wreath to be placed at the monument of Bach, the master. The work also derives twelve-tone series from Bach's Art of the Fugue, three of Beethoven's last quartets, and Wagner's Tristan.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The use of a musical quotation can create contrast that affects multiple levels of the music and creates multiple meanings. Although the meanings of a quotation can vary, the quotation carries in itself a wealth of connotations and associations. The categories of quotation usage can be divided up into: homage, illustration, commentary, and explication of the composer’s artistic intent. The semantic functions of a quotation reveal the work’s intent, depending on how the quotation is integrated into the piece. A quotation that begins a piece can function like an epigraph or the thematic nucleus of a work, while a quotation placed in a cumulative setting can create striking stylistic interplay. However, when a quotation is inserted suddenly, indicating an abrupt stylistic change, it could indicate satirical intent. A fascinating example that integrates quotations is Shostakovich’s song cycle Satires. Shostakovich uses quotations from Beethoven and Rachmaninoff in a stylized and farcical way prominently throughout the cycle, which almost conceals the composer’s individual style to create a “mask” of quotations.

Works: Strauss: Metamorphosen (93); Debussy: Children’s Corner (93); Britten: Albert Herring (93); Berg: Violin Concerto (94); Mikael Tervidiev: Music (94); Eugène Ysaÿe: Violin Sonata No. 2 (94); Rachmaninoff: Letter to Konstantin Stanislavsky (94); Shostakovich: Satires, Op. 109 (95, 96).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 3, Op. 55 (93), Violin Sonata No. 9, Op. 47 (96); Wagner: Tristan and Isolde (93); Chopin: Ballade No. 1, Op. 23; Johann Sebastian Bach: Violin Partita No. 3, BWV 1006 (94), Wir Danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, BWV 29 (94); Ilya Satz: Blue Bird (94); Anonymous: Dies Irae (93, 94); Rachmaninoff: Spring Waters, Op. 14, No. 11 (96).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

[The many citations from himself and from Wagner in the first version of Bruckner's Third Symphony reveal a clear message in the work.]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Song parodies written in Nazi concentration camps between 1939 and 1945 generally featured two distinct types of newly created lyrics. The first type tended to be pessimistic, but could also include themes of resistance and rebellion, and writers sometimes added poetic phrases to tunes that reminded them of the beauty of their native tongue and music. The second category showcased darker, more macabre subject matter. Despite featuring lyrics describing the horrors of camp life, the transformation of the subject matter provided a way for the writers to gain control over their situation by turning daily horrors into something humorous in order to enliven their spirits. Several songs also feature pre-existing melodies drawn from classical opera arias, hymns, carols, and popular genres such as foxtrots, waltzes, and tangos.

Works: Anonymous: Kolysanke dla synka w kremato-rium (3); Anonymous: Tango truponoszow (3); Anonymous: Dicke Luft (3); Anonymous: Judische Todessang (3); Anonymous: March to the Crematorium (4); E. Polak: How tenderly the wind caresses the birch tree (6).

Sources: Anonymous: Wojtusia z popielnika iskiereczka mruga (4); Beethoven: Germania (7).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Soviet director Grigory Aleksandrov and composer Isaak Dunayevsky’s third musical comedy film, Volga-Volga (1938), successfully balances entertainment and the ideological demands of Socialist Realism in large part through its music. The main conflict of the film is a feud between a folk music ensemble and a classical orchestra that culminates in a joint performance of the film’s theme song, Song about the Volga. During the opening meeting between the two leads, Strelka (folk musician) and Alyosha (classical musician), Alyosha tries to convince Strelka of the grandeur of classical music by performing an excerpt of Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, which Strelka finds boring. Likewise, Alyosha does not immediately accept Strelka’s folk song, Song about the Volga. During a later “divertissement,” various classical and folk ensembles chase a city official around town, eager to demonstrate their musical ability so that they may be selected to represent the town at the upcoming Olympiad. Throughout the film, the performances by Alyosha and Strelka dramatize the apparent divide between high art and low art, a central concern of 1930s Soviet music. Ultimately, the film’s thesis is presented in the final performance of Song about the Volga presented with full orchestral accompaniment, modeling an ideal blend of classical, popular, and folk music traditions that spoke to audiences and Socialist Realist critics alike.

Works: Isaak Dunayevsky: score to Volga-Volga (542-43, 546-47, 549-53, 554)

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (542-43); Mozart: Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major, K. 331 (546-47); Traditional: Samara (546-47), Shire krug (546-47); Iz-za ostrova na strezhen (546-47), Ei ukhnem (Song of the Volga Boatmen) (546-47), Zhil-bïl u babushka serekiy kozlik (546-47); Rossini: William Tell Overture (546-47); Dunayevsky: Molodezhnaya (546-47, 549-53); Schubert: Moment musical No. 3 in F Minor, D. 780 (549), Tchaikovsky: Eugene Onegin (554)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Hungarian composer Ernst von Dohnányi’s American Rhapsody has previously been analyzed as his tribute to America. However, interpreting the rhapsody in the context of his compositional oeuvre reveals more about his conservatism and critical reception. American Rhapsody was commissioned by Ohio University and premiered in 1954. Throughout the work, popular American tunes chosen from Margaret Bradford Boni and Norman Lloyd’s Fireside Book of Folk Songs (1947), including On Top of Old Smokey, I Am a Poor Wayfaring Stranger, and Turkey in the Straw, are used as melodic material. This use is similar to Liszt’s use of folk tunes in his Hungarian Rhapsodies. While a few tunes are heard only in passing, Dohnányi develops the Wayfaring Stranger material, recalling the texture of his earlier Symphonic Minutes, which quotes a Hungarian church song. The use of folksong in Rhapsody also recalls the irony in Dohnányi’s popular Nursery Variations, evoking children’s music alongside more serious orchestral music. After facing accusations of anti-Semitism and war crimes from some US newspapers soon after he arrived in the US in 1948, Dohnányi largely avoided politics in his American period; American Rhapsody was the most political work of his late career. While American Rhapsody can be understood as a musical tribute to his new home, it also represents Dohnányi taking a retrospective look at his own compositional career.

Works: Ernst von Dohnányi: American Rhapsody (203-15)

Sources: Traditional, Margaret Bradford Boni and Norman Lloyd (editors): On Top of Old Smokey (203-4, 212-15), I Am a Poor Wayfaring Stranger (203-4, 206-10), The Riddle (203-4, 212-15), Turkey in the Straw (203-4, 212-15); John A. Stone: Sweet Betsy from Pike (203-4, 215); Kenneth S. Clark: Alma Mater Ohio (203-4); Ernst von Dohnányi: Symphonic Minutes (208-10), Nursery Variations (212-15)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1400s