Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

A four-voice madrigal found in the Fourth Book of Arcadelt's madrigals titled Pace non trovo e non ho da far guerra, setting the Petrarchan sonnet by that name, has material in common with two other works. The madrigal, anonymous in Arcadelt's collection, is ascribed to Ivo, probably Ivo Barry, a French musician in the papal choir under Clement VII and Paul III. A madrigal for three voices by Ihan Gero proves to be a modified version of the other. The techniques used to arrive at Gero's madrigal from Ivo's piece are similar to those used by Gero in other parodies, so Ivo's madrigal was probably written first. A third work, a cycle of madrigals by Palestrina titled Canzon di Gianneto sopra di Pace non trovo con quatordici stanze, consists of fourteen pieces all using material from Ivo's madrigal. Palestrina's text is itself a parody, fourteen ottava rima stanzas each ending with a line of the Petrarchan sonnet. The music for these lines consists of a parody of the original setting by Ivo.

Works: Ivo Barry: Pace non trovo e non ho da far guerra (madrigal); Ben mio chi mi ti toglie (madrigal) (116); Ihan Gero: Pace non trovo e non ho da far guerra; Palestrina: Canzon di Gianneto sopra di Pace non trovo con quatordici stanze (madrigal cycle).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Although Palestrina wrote his two L'homme armé masses nearly a century after the majority of masses in this tradition were written, it is clear that he was consciously looking to this tradition for guidance in his own compositions, perhaps as an act of emulation. The influence of the L'homme armé masses of Josquin and Morales is evident, and evidence confirms that Palestrina would have been familiar with these works. Palestrina further followed earlier traditions in his choice of mode, prolation, and notation. It has been suggested that Palestrina chose to use the L'homme armé melody to prove he could equal Josquin's earlier achievements, although this is likely not the sole reason. In acknowledging the practices of the past, it is possible that Palestrina was trying to create a place for himself not only within the L'homme armé tradition, but within the revered traditions associated with composition and the Capella Sistina.

Works: Palestrina: Missa L'homme armé [1570], Missa L'homme armé [1582].

Sources: Josquin: Missa L'homme armé sexti toni (192), Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales (192, 197); Morales: Missa L'homme armé [1540] (192-94), Missa L'homme armé [1544] (192-94); De Orto: Missa L'homme armé (199-200).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Although a general biography, Haas covers specific borrowing on pages 113-57 of his study, where he deals with Bruckner's symphonic music. Haas, as the first editor of Bruckner's collected works, has drawn together a sketch study with biographical material to give an insightful look into developments of particular borrowings that Bruckner used.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: General

[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Distinctive similarities suggest that the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata, K.457 was an inspiration for Beethoven's Opus 10, No. 1. Although no documentation proves Beethoven knew Mozart's Sonata, distinct parallels between the works, including their moods pathos and dramatic intensity, overall shape of primary themes, large-scale structure, and tonal planning suggest he not only knew the work of his predecessor, but also had a profound understnding of it.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 10, No. 1; Mozart: K.309, K.311, K.576 (95).

Sources: Mozart: Piano Sonata, K.457.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

A textual analysis of the six Kyrie verses of the Naples masses, transcribed by Steven Whiting, casts doubt upon Richard Taruskin's hypothesis (1984) that Busnoys was the first to compose on the L'homme armé theme. One can conjecture, based on the text of the last canon (Mass 6), that there are actually two "armed men" involved, possibly representing Philip the Good and his son, Charles the Bold.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Edward D. Latham

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Despite his highly individualistic style of composition, Honegger frequently borrowed music or musical gestures from several composers, with J.S. Bach chief among them. The book includes commentary regarding Honegger’s use of music by Bach, Campra, Debussy, Fauré, and Roussel.

Works: Honegger: Hommage à Albert Roussel (243), String Quartet No. 1 in C Minor (253), Toccata and Variations for Piano (365-66), Toccata on a Theme of Campra (365-66), Suite after J.S. Bach (383-84), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (384), La Danse des Morts (434-35), Les Noces d’Amour (479).

Sources: Fauré: Theme and Variations, Op. 73 (239); Albert Roussel: Le festin de l’araignée, Op. 17 (243), Piano Concerto, Op. 36 (243); Debussy: Sonata for Flute, Viola, and Harp (253); André Campra: Camille (365); Johann Sebastian Bach: English Suites (383-84), Prelude and Fugue for Organ, BWV 545 (384), St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (437).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Keith Clifton

The organ works of Johann Ludwig Krebs borrow pervasively but subtly from his organ teacher, J. S. Bach. The resemblance between the free organ works of Krebs and their Bach models is readily apparent and commented upon by editors of their critical editions. Krebs borrows fugue subjects, pedal work, and other figurations from Bach, although Krebs’s prelude and fugue pairs typically use different models. In the case of Krebs’s Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, the choice of Bach elements that are left out is also notable; Bach’s stylus fantasticus sections are absent from Krebs’s work. Despite Krebs’s reliance on Bach models, he does differ from the style of his teacher on several fronts, most notably in his treatment of counterpoint. While Krebs’s borrowing of Bach’s music has played a role in limiting his own influence, there is still much to enjoy in performing the works of J. L. Krebs.

Works: Johann Ludwig Krebs: Praeludium und Doppelfuge in F Minor (28), Double Fugue in D Minor (29), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (28), Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (28-29), Fugue in A Minor, BWV Anh. 181 (29)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Prelude in B Minor, BWV 544 (28), Prelude and Fugue in E Minor “The Wedge,” BWV 548 (28-29), Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582 (28), Toccata and Fugue in F Major, BWV 540 (28), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 549 (28), Fugue on a Theme of Legrenzi, BWV 574 (28), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 546 (29)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A letter written in response to a previous correspondence by Frank Hill on Shostakovich's borrowings (Oct. 1983 Gramophone). Hall wants to clarify that over 115 composers have used the tune of the British National Anthem in their compositions, in over 125 works of all types. No specific works are mentioned, but the list of composers includes J. C. Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Liszt, Verdi, Brahms, Ives, and Stockhausen.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Index Classifications: 1500s

Schubert's song Auf dem Strom shares a special kinship with Beethoven's cycle An die Ferne Geliebte. Both concern the union of loved ones despite separation, and this general similarity of spirit and sentiment is reinforced in specific musical terms. The coda of Schubert's song appears to have been modeled on that of Beethoven's cycle, and the central strophes are an almost literal quotation of the funeral march from the Erioca Symphony. This latter allusion is particularly appropriate, as the song was written for, and first performed at, a concert held on the first anniversary of Beethoven's death; this song can therefore be seen as Schubert's musical 'memorial' to his great predecessor.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

A phenomenology of musical borrowing as an intentional compositional act can be used to trace the tradition through Western art music history and uncover what musical borrowing is in itself. Borrowing (and related terms) generally implies a sense of ownership, which in turn invokes normative concepts of musical materiality, aesthetic idea, and compositional originality. Two repertories in Western art music stand out for their borrowing practices and different approaches to composition: medieval polyphony and musique concrète. Medieval polyphony lacks the commitment to the aesthetic notion of compositional originality found in modern music. Instead, the Medieval concept of auctoritas, or relying on existing authority to legitimate one’s work, holds that no music originates from one person alone. The relationship between Binchois’s chanson De plus en plus and derivative works such as Leonel Power’s motet Anima mea liquefacta est and Ockeghem’s Missa De plus en plus demonstrates this concept. The different understanding of musical materiality in the Medieval worldview also precludes ownership in the modern sense. Half a millennium later, musique concrète held a similar approach to musical materiality, where the work of a composer is to elaborate on pre-existing material. Pieces like Pierre Schaeffer’s Ètude aux chemins de fer can be construed as “musical borrowing” if the aesthetic potentiality of sound objects is considered. By comparing acts of musical borrowing across history, a more fundamental understanding of the aesthetic and ethical considerations of the phenomenon can be reached. Instead of being seen as a compositional anomaly, musical borrowing should be promoted as a cultivation of a musical community.

Works: Leonel Power: Anima mea liquefacta est (178-79); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa De plus en plus (178-79); Pierre Schaeffer: Ètude aux chemins de fer (180-81).

Sources: Gilles Binchois: De plus en plus (178-79).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Snyder and Berlin’s “coon song” That Opera Rag is a strong case study for examining the complex attitudes towards class, race, nationality, and gender in the early 1900s. That Opera Rag, despite its many conventional features, has three which defy expectations: a mediant relationship between the two tonal areas of A minor and F major, operatic (as well as popular) quotations, and irregular phrase lengths resulting from the opera quotations. This song perhaps began as an instrumental example of “ragging the classics” by combining highbrow operatic music with lowbrow ragtime conventions, and can be heard as a spoof of operatic grandeur. The lyrics, which utilize minstrelsy misspellings, “humorously” portray black housepainter Sam Johnson as an opera neophyte who misidentifies the quotations. Johnson’s recognition of operatic music represents a contemporary fear for white Americans that African Americans were asserting cultural aspirations through the appreciation of opera. Yet That Opera Rag was also used in the Broadway play Getting a Polish, in which a (white) Montana widow tries to transcend her “common” status by seeking refinement in Paris. May Irwin, the star of Getting a Polish, used That Opera Rag as an unconventional vehicle to stardom by performing these racist songs in a masculine fashion; she gained much renown and success despite being a woman and not being traditionally attractive. Thus, critical interpretation of the song renders multiple levels of commentary which represent the coexisting and contradictory cultural spaces that existed in America in the early twentieth century.

Works: Ted Snyder and Irving Berlin: That Opera Rag; Irving Berlin: When the Midnight Choo Choo Leaves for Alabam’ (389).

Sources: Verdi: Miserere from Il Trovatore (387-88); Bizet: Toreador Song from Carmen (389); Donizetti: Sextet from Lucia di Lammermoor (389); Henry Bishop: Home! Sweet Home! from Clari, or the Maid of Milan (389); Ted Snyder and Irving Berlin: That Opera Rag (389-90).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

After the Met’s infamous one-night-only premiere of Richard Strauss’s Salome in 1907, a fad for stage and song representations of Salome and her Dance of the Seven Veils (dubbed “Salomania” by the New York Times) hit America. The reception of Salome in America was contextualized by an earlier fascination with “exotic” Egyptian dancing on display at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair as well as a trend of Salome-themed vaudeville acts. Because of this earlier exposure, songwriters during the Salomania craze tended to be more aware of the inauthenticity of Orientalist dancing and poked fun at the scandalous opera and vaudeville interpreters alike. A popular theme was the artifice of Salome’s exotic seduction. Many Salome songs used the Salomy [sic] melody, a minor-key tune built from a 1–flat 7–5 core that came to be associated with pseudo-oriental dancing. The earliest known examples of the Salomy melody appear in Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (1907) and I’m Going to Get Myself a Black Salome (1908), although it is likely these songs quote an unknown earlier tune. Moreover, songs about a black Salome are likely referencing a real individual, vaudeville dancer Aida Overton Walker, who attempted to perform a restrained Salome as a springboard to artistic legitimacy but was rejected by audiences. After Strauss’s Salome returned to American opera houses in 1909, Salomania reached its peak and interest began to decline. Clarice Vance’s 1909 parody routine “Salome” and others like it lampooned the Salome craze itself. In the aftermath of Salomania, the Salomy melody receded into a general orientalist trope, used indiscriminately to evoke exoticism but not Salome herself.

Works: Harry Von Tilzer: Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (642, 647, 659-60); Stanley Murphy and Ed Wynn: I’m Going to Get Myself a Black Salome (658-64); Ben M. Jerome and Edward Madden: The Dusky Salome (660, 663-65); Archibald Joyce: Vision of Salome (660, 677-80); Jimmie V. Monaco and Joe McCarthy: Fatima Brown (661, 682-84); Abner Silver and Alex Gerber: Becky from Babylon (661, 683-85); Richard Howard: When They Play That Old ‘Salomy’ Melody (661, 686-88); Gus Kahn and Bud De Sylva: Moonlight on the Nile (661, 688-89); Ted Lewis and Frank Ross: Queen of Sheba (661, 688); Sigmund Romberg: Fat, Fat, Fatima (661, 688); Orlando Powell and John P. Harrington: Salome (671-74)

Sources: Unknown: Salomy melody (659-65, 677-88); Harry Von Tilzer: Mariutch Down at Coney Isle (659-60, 676); Felix Mendelssohn: Lieder ohne Worte, Op. 62, No. 6 (Spring Song) (673-74); Richard Strauss: Salome (677-81); Georges Bizet: Carmen (688); Edvard Grieg: In the Hall of the Mountain King from Peer Gynt (688)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Because repetitions in music are over-generalized and under-analyzed, a framework is needed for analyzing transformations of repetitions which happen with an explicit change of context, including clear definitions for terms such as segment, criterion, instantiation, coincidence, realization, musical context, idea, and structural interpretation. This allows for a discussion of how repetitions are altered within a particular musical context, instead of simply noting that repetitions exist. Musical borrowings or quotations fulfill the setup conditions for recontextualization—repetition with an explicit change of context—but it is important that the context of these musical borrowings is actively transformed. In other words, quotations that are simply set down in a new context and are not “actively transplanted” are not recontextualized. The quotation of the opening of Tristan und Isolde in Berg’s Lyric Suite is an excellent example of a musical borrowing that is also recontextualized.

Works: Berg: Lyric Suite (64-65).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (64).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Index Classifications: 1900s

Examines the controversy between Berlioz and Liszt as to who first orchestrated the Rakoczy march. Through an historical examination of how Berlioz came to orchestrate the tune and a comparison of the two pieces, Haraszti determines that Berlioz's accounts in his Memoirs concerning the piece's history are largely correct, and that Berlioz's version is not based on that of Liszt. Haraszti also describes the origins of the tune and its significance to Hungarian society.

Works: Berlioz: Rakoczy March; Liszt: Rakoczy March.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Features of the isorhythmic motet hitherto believed to be typical for the ars nova already can be found in the ars antiqua. Harbinson gives evidence by showing how tenores were rhythmically and melodically transformed for use in the motet.

Works: Motets from the Montpellier Codex: Sans orgueil et sans envie/Iohanne (101); Traveillié du mau d'amour/Et confitebor (104-5); Je gart le bois/Et confitebor (102, 105); Liés et jolis/Je n'ai joie/In seculum (105); Douce dame sans pitié/Sustinere (106); Le premier jor de mai/Par un matin me le vai/Iustus (106).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The opera Taverner by Peter Maxwell Davies highlights the composer's ability to portray the struggle between old and new musical styles. Davies has always been interested in musical borrowing. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, this was manifested by his interest in melodic fragments from the seventeenth century. In the 1970s, his interest turned toward theatrical venues and his borrowing became more extensive. The opera tells the story of the composer John Taverner and is based on Taverner's In Nomine, stated in full only at the end of the work. Throughout the work, Davies plays with certain intervals and phrases from Taverner's piece, including the whole tones found in the cantus firmus and the tritones that appear in several voices. By greatly slowing the harmonic motion, Davies is able to reinterpret the pitches and their functions as they stood in the original. This relates to the theme of the opera, which involves an examination of the artist being in league with the devil and with death.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Index Classifications: 1900s

Maria Szymanowksa’s piano music influenced Chopin as a young composer, and Chopin’s works subsequently influenced the piano works by Pauline Viardot-Garcia and Clara Schumann. Chopin, who attended a number of Szymanowska’s concerts, adopted all of Szymanowska’s musical genres, and there are several musical and stylistic similarities between Chopin’s Études and Szymanowska’s Vingt exercises et preludes. Both composers’ piano works share textural similarities, but Szymanowska’s mazurkas, which were written to accompany salon dances, are not as virtuosic as Chopin’s. Towards the end of Chopin’s life, Pauline Viardot-Garcia arranged fifteen of Chopin’s mazurkas for voice, and it is likely that Chopin’s Mazurka in E minor, Op. 41, No. 2, was the source for some of her settings. Clara Schumann also composed works in several of the genres that Chopin frequently composed in, such as the mazurka and polonaise. Her Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7, may have been inspired by the Adagio from Chopin’s “La ci darem la mano” Variations, Op. 2. Schumann also borrowed gestures, textures, accompaniment styles, and fragments of several themes from Chopin’s piano works. For example, the “sighing” motive of a descending fourth in Schumann’s Soirees musicales, Op. 6 also appears in Chopin’s Mazurka in G minor, Op. 24, No. 1.

Works: Chopin: Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2 (31), Etude, Op. 10, No. 2 (31), Etude in C major, Op. 10, No. 7 (31), Etude in A-flat major, Op. 25, No. 1 (31), Prelude in E-flat major, Op. 28, No. 19 (31); Pauline Viardot-Garcia: L’Oiselet (34); Clara Schumann: Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7 (40), Soirees Musicales, Op. 6 (41), Caprices en forme de valse, Op. 2 (41), Valses Romantiques, Op. 4 (41), Rondo in B minor (41), Souvenir de Vienne, Op. 9 (41), Variations de concert sur la cavatine du Pirate de Bellini, Op. 8 (41), Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7 (42).

Sources: Maria Szymanowska: Etude in D minor (31), Etude No. 15 in C major (31), Etude No. 17 in B-flat major (31), Etude No. 8 in E-flat major (31), Nocturne in B-flat major (31); Chopin: Mazurka in E minor, Op. 41, No. 2 (34), Mazurka, Op. 68, No. 2 (34), Variations, Op. 2 (41-42), Mazurka in G minor, Op. 6, No. 6 (41), Mazurka in G minor, Op. 24, No. 1 (41), Mazurka in B major, Op. 7, No. 1 (41), Mazurka in E major, Op. 6, No. 3 (41), Mazurka in F-sharp minor, Op. 6, No. 1 (42), Mazurka in E minor, Op. 17, No. 2 (42).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

The 2011 viral music video Rebecca Black—Friday, the widespread derision aimed at the video and Black herself, and the later success of “cover” videos that alter Black’s contribution to the song are part of a larger phenomenon in digital pop culture that sees “girlhood” as a problem. The music video, performed by thirteen-year-old Rebecca Black and produced by Ark Music Factory in 2010, first garnered widespread attention in March 2011 after it was posted to sites like the Daily What and Reddit and mocked by users. By the end of March, legacy media outlets were reporting on the trend and the original YouTube video received a record-breaking 1.192 million dislikes. The hyperbolic criticism the video attracted online—its designation as bad music—is due in part to a mismatch between the intent of the performer and the appraisal of the online audience resulting in an instance of what media theorists call context collapse. Much of the abuse was aimed directly or indirectly at Black’s feminine voice, which mirrored gendered critiques of contemporary popular music as vapid, inauthentic, and feminine. Fueled by YouTube’s “Recommended Videos” feature, a body of reaction and cover videos circulated alongside the original. The most successful covers of Friday are genre-reset covers, which effectively aim to solve the problem of the song’s girlishness by erasing or replacing Black’s voice. The reactions to these masculinized cover versions, even when engaging in ironic humor, overwhelmingly regard the song as improved or redeemed with the removal of Black’s vocals. In the aftermath of the song’s viral success, the initial scorn towards Friday has softened to ambivalence and even begrudging affection, and the process by which this happened reveals how girlhood and pop music fit within 2010s viral internet culture.

Works: @Toxin08 (YouTube channel): Rebecca Black—Friday [DUBSTEP Remix] (228-29); @dannydodgeofficial (YouTube channel): Death Metal Friday (229-30); @HeyMikeBauer (YouTube channel): Rebecca Black—Friday, as performed by Bob Dylan (230); Stephen Colbert, Jimmy Fallon, and The Roots, featuring Taylor Hicks: Friday (233); Adam Anders and Peer Astrom (arrangers), Glee (TV) cast: Friday (232-33)

Sources: Clarence Jey and Patrice Wilson (performed by Rebecca Black): Friday (227-33)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Handel scholars have criticized or sought to justify Handel's borrowing practices based on issues external to the composing process, such as illness, time-constraints, and lack of talent. Handelians must accept the fact of Handel's borrowing and acknowledge the integrity of Handel's compositional methods by focusing on compositional intent and searching for semantic meanings of the borrowings. Compositional intent is vital to distinguishing between "borrowing" or related benevolent practices, and "plagiarism," which suggests intent to deceive. Performance practice involves elements of improvisation that affect our appreciation of a work, but integrity belongs to the composer and the compositional process. Handel scholars may learn from the methodologies of analysis used by scholars in other areas. For example, Geoffrey Bullough, in his work on Shakespeare's borrowings, does not entertain notions of plagiarism, but argues that Shakespeare drew inspiration from the source and molded it into something new. In his book Painting as an Art, Richard Wollheim argues that it is the intention of the artist while painting that determines whether a work is art. Scholars such as Peter Burkholder and Christopher Ballantine have dealt with the semantic connotations of Ives's borrowing. Evidence of semantic connotations in Handel's borrowings emerge in Israel in Egypt; he pairs related Old Testament and New Testament material from Erba's Magnificat, which suggests he is reinterpreting the texts.

Works: Bach: Fugue in E Major BWV 878 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (308); Handel, Israel in Egypt.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300, 1300s, 1400s

Many twentieth-century composers are motivated to borrow musical materials out of a sense of nostalgia. Two practices can be found: that of Mahler and Ives and that of the neo-classicists. Mahler and Ives both used quoted material drawn from popular and folk culture, Mahler for the purpose of capturing the spirit of the people and thus enabling himself to speak for them, Ives for the purpose of presenting his observations of life and nature; both seldom develop their musical materials. Ives's process of composition is similar to that of the writer James Joyce, in that both begin with simple subjects and use them to create multi-layered meanings. In contrast to Mahler and Ives, the neo-classicists display their nostalgia through reference not to popular music but to the art music of the 18th century. Ironically, the listener finds neo-classicism, with its limited frame of reference, easier to grasp than the music of Ives and Mahler, which draws from a larger pool of resources.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra, Randal Tucker, Jessica Sternfeld

A quotation in the fourth movement of Shostakovich's Piano Concerto No. 1 is incorrectly attributed as Ach du Lieber Augustin. According to Hart, the quotation is actually from an English nursery song titled Poor Jennie is a-weeping, a-weeping.

Works: Shostakovich: Piano Concerto No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Aaron Copland’s Old American Songs are a window into his career-spanning struggle with the nature of American music in the evolving Cold War political landscape. The earliest sketches for Old American Songs are dated to 1941, during a period in Copland’s career largely defined by his political engagement with the leftist Popular Front, but the two sets were not published until 1950 and 1954 respectively. The ten songs Copland selected for Old American Songs come from somewhat diverse origins: three Protestant hymns, three minstrel songs, two children’s songs, a campaign song, and an Anglo-American ballad. However, the songs are considerably more focused on white Anglo-Saxon traditions than the pluralist aesthetic of the Popular Front. In sketches, Copland also included John Henry, a ballad about the African American folk (and labor) hero that was widely performed by Popular Front-affiliated musicians. Copland removed John Henry from Old American Songs prior to publication, apparently for political reasons. The two late additions to Old American Songs, Zion’s Walls and The Little Horses, also support the idea that Copland was distancing himself from the Popular Front by the 1950s; Zion’s Walls in particular was drawn from a collection published by George Pullen Jackson, a major figure in the reactionary White Top Folk Festival. Copland also made numerous musical and textual changes throughout the set, softening any (left leaning) political lyrics and removing the dialect and references to African American traditions from the reworked minstrel songs. Through the presentation of a white, Anglo-Saxon American past and the omission of class and racial tensions from the source material, Old American Songs represents Copland’s retreat from populist causes in the face of Cold War politics and the threat of McCarthyism.

Works: Aaron Copland: Old American Songs (318-39)

Sources: Dan D. Emmett: The Boatman’s Dance (319-23, 337-39); Traditional, John A. Lomax and Alan Lomax (editors): The Dodger (319-23, 328-30, 335-37), The Little Horses (319-23, 325-27, 334-35); George Pope Morris (lyricist) and Charles Edward Horn (arranger): Long Time Ago (319-23, 331); Elder Joseph Brackett, Edward D. Andrews (editor): Simple Gifts (319-23); Traditional: I Bought Me A Cat (319-23), The Golden Willow Tree (319-23), Ching-a-Ring Chaw (319-23, 331-33, 338); John G. McCurry: Zion’s Walls (319-23, 325-27); Rev. Robert Lowry: At The River (319-23)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Shostakovich's Symphony No. 15 quotes Rossini's William Tell Overture in the first movement and Wagner's "Annunciation of Death" motive from Die Walküre in the final movement. These quotations are symbolically related to Eine Kapitulation (1870), a play by Wagner that expressed "contempt for the lost ideals of failed revolutionaries." Shostakovich, through the use of musical allusion, was making a forbidden political statement and giving his Soviet masters "the Russian equivalent of two fingers."

Works: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15.

Sources: Rossini: William Tell Overture; Wagner: Die Walküre.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Discusses the use of satirical elements in Ravel’s second and final opera. Suggests correspondences between the opera and specific borrowed works, including Massenet’s Manon, Stravinsky’s Le Rossignol, and self-borrowing from La Valse, Valses nobles et sentimentales, and the Sonata for Violin and Cello.

Works: Ravel: L’Enfant et les sortilèges.

Sources: Massenet: Manon (3, 6); Stravinsky: Le Rossignol (3, 6); Ravel: La Valse (3, 11-12), Valses nobles et sentimentales (3, 11), Sonata for Violin and Cello (3, 12).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Keith Clifton

Index Classifications: 2000s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Intertextuality may be defined as "the view of a literary work as a text whose richness of meaning results from its location in a potentially infinite network of other texts." In adapting this notion for music, intertextuality operates on two essential levels: stylistic and strategic. A purely stylistic intertextuality arises when a composer makes reference to the conventions of an earlier style or musical tradition without evoking any particular earlier work. Beethoven exploits stylistic intertextuality in the third movement of his String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132, where the music is imbued with richer meaning through the conscious evocation of Renaissance and Baroque styles. Strategic intertextuality arises when a composer makes reference to a specific earlier work or works. A "spectacular, perhaps unique, example of strategic intertextuality" occurs in the third movement of Berio's Sinfonia, which represents the end of a chain of intertextual references involving the third movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 2, Schumann's "Das ist ein Flöten und Geigen" from Dichterliebe, and Bach's Cantata No. 19 ("Es erhub sich ein Streit") along with an extensive collage of shorter quotations from musical, literary, and non-literary sources.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Saint-Saëns's song Danse macabre (1872), his symphonic poem based on the melody of the song (1874), and Liszt's transcription of the symphonic poem (1876) all demonstrate Saint-Saëns's ironic compositional style as well as its influence on Liszt. Saint-Saëns and Liszt showed esteem for one another. Liszt?s high estimation of Saint-Saëns is evident in his writings, including one in 1874 when Saint-Saëns composed the symphonic poem. In comparison with Saint-Saëns's symphonic poem, Liszt's transcription heightens the dramatic effect, expands the length, inserts his own unifying elements, and adds complexity. For example, in the introduction, Liszt inserts a new harmonically unstable passage before the theme of Saint-Saëns's introduction appears. He also retains the regularity of four-bar phrasing from the model and at the same time interrupts it by a three-beat pause, adding rhythmic uncertainty. In Scene two, he develops Saint-Saëns's penchant for modulation in mediant relationships, which in Liszt's version goes further to Eb major/D# major, a major third from both G and B. Liszt's transformations of the model enrich the complexity of his work, at the same time eliminating the humor with which Saint-Saëns imbued his work.

Works: Liszt: Danse macabre (106-15).

Sources: Saint-Saëns: Danse macabre (95-106).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

By drawing on elements of existing folk music instead of creating music that simply sounded "different," Haydn often departed from eighteenth-century conventions of exoticism. For instance, eighteenth-century composers would often represent Turkish culture through the use of bass drum, cymbals, and triangles. Although Haydn does follow this procedure in L'incontro improvviso (1775), largely to provide cultural critique and musical farce, he does not use it in Lo speziale (1768). In the latter opera, the aria "Salamelica" draws upon a type of Hungarian popular dance, the Törökös, which features a duple meter and melodic lines centered on the first and third scale-degrees. In his Piano Trio in G Major, Hob:XV 25, Haydn follows a similar procedure by drawing in elements of the Verbunkos for the rondo theme. Haydn's settings of Scottish melodies also exhibit a respect toward folk music. His accompaniments to these songs follow the progression of the melody, providing modern harmonic support to enhance, but not overwhelm, the original material. Haydn also keeps the accompaniment simple, so as not to compete with the rhythmic vitality of the folk tune. In this way, Haydn does not present folk melodies as exotic curiosities, but as music in its own right.

Works: Haydn: Lo speziale (77-79), Symphony No. 103 in A Major (79), A Selection of Original Scots Songs in Three Parts, The Harmony by Haydn, Vol. II, No. 16, "O'ver Bogie" (87-89), Piano Trio in G Major, Hob:XV 25 (89-90).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Messiaen’s Cantéyodijayâ, a single-movement work for solo piano best known for its incorporation of total serialism, contains numerous thematic, harmonic, and rhythmic features that derive from other Messiaen works. So many gestures, passages, and harmonic excerpts are self-borrowed that only 53 of the 347 measures of this work cannot be traced to other Messiaen pieces. Short melodic phrases (1-3 measures) are taken unchanged from the Turangalîla Symphony and from Cinq Rechants. These melodic self-quotations often contain the same timbres, rhythms, and pitches, making their source material clear. Instead of incorporating harmonic changes based on the “Modes of limited transposition” as in other works, in Cantéyodijayâ Messiaen reprises earlier harmonic progressions, such as those in Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jesus and the Turangalîla Symphony, and relies on earlier formulations such as the “Chords of inverted transposition on the same bass note.” Past rhythmic procedures are also incorporated in Cantéyodijayâ, as well as other self-borrowed compositional features such as serial organization and large-scale formal designs. On the whole, these self-quotations create a “collage” of Messiaen’s works of the past, by retaining their core technical features. A multi-page table summarizes thematic, harmonic, and rhythmic features of Cantéyodijayâ that derive from other Messiaen works.

Works: Messiaen: Cantéyodijayâ (60-71).

Sources: Messiaen: Turangalîla Symphony (63-65), Cinq Rechants (64), Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jesus (65-66).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Duo and trio chansons are usually derived from the text and top part of a chanson for four parts. Au pres de vous is typical. First appearing as a four-part piece in Attaingnant's collection Chansons nouvelles (1528), it was reprinted by Attaingnant and others several times in this format. Later it was substantially reworked in fewer-voice arrangements. As Heartz points out, "A composition of such neatness and clarity, such concision and elegance of detail, offered perfect grist for the arranger's mill." A three-part version from an incomplete publication of Attaingnant, later copied into Moderne's Parangon . . . Quart livre (1539) includes the original superius surrounded by two canonic parts. A duo arrangement in Rhaw's second book of Bicinia also may come from a previous Attaingnant publication, the missing Quarante et quatre chansons à deux, ou duo, chose delectable aux fleustes (1529). Like the three-part arrangement, this duo keeps the superius intact and adds a lower voice that derives much of its material from the original tenor. These few-voiced chansons were meant for the growing market of amateur players and singers.

Works: various anonymous: Au pres de vous.

Sources: Sermisy: Au pres de vous.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

Index Classifications: 1700s

Haydn's opera Acide e Galatea, composed for the wedding of Prince Esterzahy's son, was inspired by two earlier works, Gluck's Tetide, and Hasse's Alcide al Bivio, both written for the festivities surrounding the wedding of Archduke Joseph. Aware of the immense popularity of the two former works, Haydn felt obliged to create an opera that captured the same dramatic intensity and standard of magnificence. He accomplished this goal by borrowing elements of their musical style. From Alcide al Bivio he borrowed features of the melodic construction, and from Tetie the treatment of dissonance and conjunction of three contrasting ideas within a single number.

Works: Mozart: Entführung aus dem Serail (335), Idomeneo (338); Gluck: L'Invrogne Corrigi (335); Haydn: Neuer krummer Teufel (336), Symphony No. 6 ("Le Matin"), Symphony No. 7 ("Le Midi"), Symphony No. 8 ("Le Soir") (336); Gluck: Diable a Quatre (336).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

While Mozart was in Vienna, he faithfully attended the operatic performances of his Italian contemporaries, carefully observing the novelties and fashions that most pleased Viennese audiences. He would then incorporate several of these elements into his own compositions. For example, Paisiello's pastoral opera Nina, which was well received all over Italy, was produced in Vienna in the fall of 1790. Several parallels can be seen between it and Mozart's last Italian opera, La clemenza di Tito. For his protagonist's final aria, Mozart draws on Paisiello's unornamented melodic style. This contrasts greatly with the ornamental elaboration commonly found in other contemporary Italian operas. Mozart also uses Paisiello's "economical" type of orchestration, which features a thin texture and certain accompanimental figures. Similarities are also found in both composers' use of heightened rhythmic drive for climactic effect.

Works: Mozart: La clemenza di Tito (287-93).

Sources: Paisiello: Nina (287-92).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Mozart's overtures were usually the last part of his operas to be written, since they required only a run-through by the orchestra, while the other sections had to be in the hands of performers ahead of time for study and rehearsal. However Mozart's overtures since Idomeneo are extremely important, because they present with economy of means the emotional and intellectual content of the drama. Among Mozart's overtures, the one to La clemenza di Tito uses the greatest number of musical ideas from the body of the opera. A possible reason for this fact is that Mozart had a very limited amount of time to compose it. The overture to Titus reproduces the harmonic scheme of the opera as a whole, and the sequence of tonalities of different numbers of the opera is also reflected in some of the cadential progressions such as IV-V-I. The music of two of the main characters also plays a major role in the overture, preparing us for the heroism of Sextus and the fiery and scheming Vitellia.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Vaudeville comedies of the eighteenth century continued to use antiquated sixteenth-century dances as well as more contemporary contredanses within the same work. In the early history of fair entertainment in France, dialogues and monologues were banned. Verse was set to popular vaudeville tunes in order to get around this rule. Alain-René Lesage's comedies were among the first to be mostly sung. Lesage chooses songs that the audience will recognize and provides text which acts as commentary on the original meaning of the songs. He refers back to earlier parts of his work by using the same popular vaudeville tune in several places. He also ties his comedies to works being performed at the opera houses by using similar situations for scenes, but changing the character of them through borrowed popular tune accompaniment instead of the newly composed music at the opera. Some of these source songs such as Du Cap de Bonne Espérance also allude to older dance styles of La Folia, the gavotte, or many of the branle types. In Les Couplets en process, Lesage takes advantage of these dance associations to string together tunes to create larger dance numbers. This is also Lesage's first work to use songs referring to both older and newer styles of dance music.

Works: Alain-René Lesage: Arlequin roi de Sérendib (139-46), Les Couplets en process (146-58).

Sources: Anonymous: Je laisse à la fortune Matelots, Galions (140), Quand le peril est agreeable (140), Grimaudin (140-48), Menuet de M. de Granval (141), Je ne suis pas si diable (141), Du Cap de Bonne Espérance (141), Ne m'entendez-vous pas (141), Le fameaux Diogenes (142), Reveillez-vous, belle Endormie (142, 153), Quel plaisir de voir Claudine (142), Folies d'Espagne (143-44), Ma Mére, mariez-moi (143), Ah! Vraiment, je m'y connois bien (144), Faire l'amour la nuit et le jour (144), Monsieur Lapalisse est mort (145), Joconde (145, 155), Flon, flon, larira dondaine (147), Oüida, ma Comère (147), Le Mitron de Gonesse (147), Marotte Mignonne (147), Pierre Bagnolet (147), La Belle Diguedon (147), Le Traquenard Grisellidis (147), Mon père, je vien devant vous (148), Je ne suis né, ni Roi, ni Prince (148), Lucas se plaint que sa (149), En tapinois, quand les nuits sont brunes (149), Les Cordons-bleus (149-50), Le son de la clochette (149-50), Je suis malheureuse en Amant (150), Allons à la Guinguette, allons (150), Qu'elle est belle? (150-51, 155), Et pourquoi donc dessus l'herbette (151), Les sept sauts (152), Je vais toujours le même train (152-53), Il étoit un Avocat (153-54), De l'Horoscope accompli (153), Je ferai mon devoir (154), Robin, turelure lure (154), Quand on a prononcé ce malheureaux oui (155), N'aurai-je jamais un Amant? (155), Or écoutez petits &Grands (155), Oüistan-voire (155), Hé bon, bon, bon! Je t'en répond (156), Voulez-vous sçavoir qui des deux (157), Un certain je ne sçai quoi (157), Toque mon Tambourinet (157); Lully: "Les Trembleurs" from Isis (142); André Cardinal Destouches: "Coulez, hâtez-vous de couler" from Callihoé (144); Jean-Claude Gillier: La ceinture de Vénus (153), Vive Michel Nostradamus (157); Alain-René Lesage: Télémaque (156).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Jazz pianist Uri Caine quotes extensively from symphonic and vocal works by composers in the classical or art music tradition. On his albums Dark Flame (2003) and Urlicht/Primal Light (1997), Caine's borrowing from Mahler takes a variety of forms, ranging from quotation of a full piece to selective quotation of important and sequential melodic fragments in order to mimic the structure of Mahler's original in a more condensed form. Mahler is a particularly appropriate source for the jazz artist's borrowing, as the earlier composer's use of "folk" materials provides a model for Caine's own appropriation of musical material to explore Jewish identity. Caine's use of Mahler's music is not simply a matter of performance, or of arrangement for different voices; rather, Caine's borrowing is a reflection upon Mahler, history, and subjectivity. Even so, Caine's borrowing within a jazz context raises valuable questions about the validity of the frequently assumed dichotomy between composition and improvisation.

Works: Uri Caine: Dark Flame (230-31, 237-38, 241, 248, 250-52), Urlicht/Primal Light (230-31, 233, 237-39, 241-42, 248-52).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (237, 238), Symphony No. 1 (237, 242, 247), Symphony No. 2 (238, 250), Des Knaben Wunderhorn (238, 241), Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (238, 250), Das Lied von der Erde (239, 241, 248), Fünf Rückertlieder (241); Anonymous, Frère Jacques (237).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Scholarship often portrays John Cage as a composer at odds with tradition, but such a portrayal obscures the composer's engagement with Gesamtkunstwerk and its utopian aesthetics. In 1967 Cage was working at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign with Lejaren Hiller. The university at this time had cutting-edge computer technology. Cage and Hiller collaborated to plan HPSCHD, a four-hour work for seven harpsichords, 51 tape players, 208 computer generated tapes, 64 slide projectors and 8 film projectors. Cage used chance procedures to create the harpsichord parts from pieces by Mozart, as well as Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Gottschalk, Busoni, Hiller, and himself. In HPSCHD, Cage aimed to create a microcosm of an ideal, utopian anarchist world of abundance. This is analogous to Wagner's conception of Gesamtkunstwerk as a model for social unity. HPSCHD is also a theater piece and offers a space in which participants can create their own postmodern narrative. Seeing Cage's work in conjunction with his politics helps one to see his participation in high modern European traditions like Gesamtkunstwerk.

Works: John Cage, HPSCHD (474-98).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 57 (Appassionata) (493); Chopin: Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24 (493); Schumann: "Reconaissance" from Carnaval (493); Gottschalk: The Banjo (493); Busoni: Sonatina No. 2 (493); Cage: Winter Music (493); Lejaren Hiller: Sonata No. 5 (493).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Schoenberg's setting in A Survivor from Warsaw of the Shema Yisrael has an audible similarity to traditional melodies used for this prayer. The emphasis of the minor second as the concluding interval in Schoenberg's version evokes the "Avavoh Rabboh" Jewish cantillation mode, closely related to the Phrygian mode of Western music. Schoenberg seems to have constructed the basis twelve-tone row used in this piece with its application to the Shema in mind. Heller joins Christian Schmidt in disputing the contention of Wilfried Gruhn that other material in this work also has sources in traditional Jewish music.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Index Classifications: General

Ives's method of quotation is seen as a reworking of borrowed material by altering melodic segments. These modifications range from omission or substitution of several notes to the paraphrasing of a hymn, with preexistent forms used in order to describe and/or serve as a structural foundation. Many musical examples illustrating Ives's techniques are cited. Examples are rhythmic transformation seen in the Fourth Symphony's use of Nettleton, treatment of the head motive of Foster's Old Black Joe in the Three Places in New England, and the improvised qualities of Erie in the First Piano Sonata. The article concludes with a diagram of the architectonic structure of."The 'St. Gaudens' in Boston Common" from Three Places in New England.

Works: Ives: Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano (24), Piano Sonata No. 2 ("Concord, Mass., 1840-1860") (24), Three Places in New England (24, 25, 28), Washington's Birthday (25), Symphony No. 4 (24-26), String Quartet No. 2 (24), Three Quarter-tone Piano Pieces (26), Piano Sonata No. 1 (26), Central Park in the Dark (26), Symphony No. 3 (26), General William Booth Enters into Heaven (26), Sonata No. 3 for Violin and Piano (26).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Henderson gives a survey of Ives's structural use of borrowed material and in some cases mentions its extramusical value. The following features are discussed and partially illustrated in figures: (1) Quotation in a rhapsodic/improvisatory style; (2) quotation in a chorale-oriented style (reminiscent of organ music); and quotations to create (3) a rondo form; (4) verse and refrain structures; (5) ternary forms; (6) arch-forms; and (7) cyclic forms. Several designs can be combined in one piece.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 1 (438), Symphony No. 3 (439), Symphony No. 4 (442), Central Park in the Dark (439), General William Booth Enters Into Heaven (439), Violin Sonata No. 3 (439), A Symphony: "New England Holidays" (440), "The 'St. Gaudens' in Boston Common" from Three Places in New England (441), Piano Sonata No. 2 ("Concord, Mass., 1840-1860") (443).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Pfitzner's opera about Palestrina's divinely inspired act of composing the Pope Marcellus Mass upholds the musical tradition of the Wagnerian music drama and the philosophical tradition of Schopenhauer. A quotation from the Pope Marcellus Mass, the Kyrie eleison head-motive, provides the structural and philosophical cornerstone of the work. Pfitzner's theory of composition based on divine musical inspiration receives its finest realization in the first act of the opera, which focuses on Palestrina's reception of that head-motive.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Henderson points out in detail the cut and paste approach Prokofiev used to create a symphony from his unsuccessful opera, The Flaming Angel. Entire sections of the opera are simply added one after the other to form the various movements of this orchestral piece. A chart at the end of the article lists the measure numbers of the symphony followed by the location of their sources in the opera.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1500s

The search for unnamed musical models that were adopted by sixteenth- and seventeenth-century composers is problematic because the musical language of the time made extensive use of stereotyped formulas. For example, it would be misleading to think of the descending chromatic passage of a fourth in John Dowland's lute solo Forlorn Hope Fancy as a "theme" composed by Dowland, because it was simply a commonly used formula of the time. Dowland's famous tune Lachrymae (which was quoted throughout the seventeenth century in a large number of compositions) also consists of a descending scalar line and therefore poses similar problems in that it could be merely an example of a common melodic formula. It is possible, however, that Cipriano De Rore's frequently printed 1548 madrigal Quando lieta sperarai was the model for Dowland's tune. It contains a very similar melodic passage set to the words "Lagrimae dunque." It is likely that Dowland became familiar with this madrigal on his 1595 trip to Italy and incorporated it into his composition.

Works: Dowland: Lachrymae (65-68).

Sources: Rore: Quando lieta sperarai (65-68).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Index Classifications: 1900s

This essay, written in 1975, is part of a collection of personal memoirs by the composer. Although many of his works involve borrowings of various kinds, this essay deals with the concept explicitly and presents a subjective, first-hand account of the process. In 1972, Henze wrote a piano piece he called "Prélude" which distantly recalled Wagner's Tristan und Isolde. Through further thinking and dreaming, the orchestra piece Tristan began to take shape. Part of the process involved a computer analysis of the first four measures of Act III of Wagner's opera. Tristan, written in 1973, uses tapes generated by the computer analysis of the Wagner excerpt as well as a full orchestra. Other quotations in the work include several bars of Brahms's First Symphony, which Henze explains is intended to represent an enemy, and Chopin's funeral march from his Sonata in B-flat major.

Works: Henze: Prélude (222), Tristan (223-29).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Debussy's early works involve explicit reliance on existing models while in his later works the models become more tacit and personalized. This process can be observed in his formulaic openings to works. There are three main categories of such openings: (1) monophonic openings, (2) modal/chordal openings, and (3) introductory sequences and expansions. Numerous examples are cited for each. Such formulas are primarily a mid-to-late nineteenth-century phenomenon. Hepokoski invokes Dahlhaus's concept of originality and the influence of the Symbolists.

Works: Debussy: Printemps (46), La Damoiselle élue (48).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Two paradoxical interpretations of Charles Ives’s use of borrowed music coexist: an authorial reading and a reading based on the element of lost time (“temps perdu”). The mature music of Charles Ives is internally teleological, building pieces or movements out of “memory fragments” of pre-existing American popular or sacred tunes and quoting the entire tune only at the end of the work (a form called “teleological genesis” or elsewhere “cumulative form”). An authorial reading of this technique situates the meaning of the piece in the creation of a peak experience, which itself intimates to the audience a transcendental understanding of the music beyond the sound itself. Listeners might consider thinking of Ives’s use of “memory-fragments,” or musical borrowings, through the filter of Ives’s personal experiences with his sources, which they may discover (at least in part) through his writings. The second reading of this phenomenon is that striking dissonance, “memory fragments,” and musical manipulation in Ives’s mature pieces represent his attempt to protect a treasured American past from the effects of adulthood and the modern world. Ives’s stylistic plurality in his mature years can be heard as a radical attempt to recover traditional securities of the past, a narrative thread (the “Motive of Lost Wholeness”) common in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century thought in general. Such pieces depict the past as only existing imperfectly in memory; thus listeners are invited by Ives to embark on a musical journey in search of lost time.

Works: Ives: The Fourth of July (747), Symphony No. 3 (747), Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord, Mass., 1840-60) (747), String Quartet No. 2 (747), Violin Sonata No. 2 (747-49), Violin Sonata No. 4 (749-50), Violin Sonata No. 3 (750).

Sources: Robert Lowry: Need (750); Asahel Nettleton or John Wyeth (attr.): Nettleton (747); David T. Shaw: The Red, White, and Blue (Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean) (747-49); William Bradbury: Jesus Loves Me (749-50).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kate Altizer, Chelsea Hamm, Daniel Rogers

A comparison of Charles Ives’s Concord Sonata with his Essays Before a Sonata shows shifts in Ives’s compositional practice from a patterned linearity of German classicism to coloristic explorations of the Romantic form and new models based on perception. Ives’s innovations, including cumulative form, sonic exuviation, and a mixing of voices (heteroglossia), have European precursors. The Concord Sonata can be interpreted as a further development of the virtuosic piano works by several European composers, a piece where Ives pushed the boundaries of form and sound while simultaneously breaking from earlier European models. The use of cumulative form in the Concord Sonata shows Ives’s rejection of the strict European sonata form; it can be seen also as a move toward psycho-perceptual models possibly derived from Liszt’s Sonata in B Minor. In addition, the use of stylistic traits such as the development and manipulation of motives and the modeling of visual sound, found in the solo piano works of Beethoven, Debussy, Chopin, and Scriabin, indicates Ives’s stylistic competency in canonic solo piano repertoire. Ives’s Essays Before a Sonata, published together with the Concord Sonata, offers an Emersonian insight into the potential method and purpose of the sonata. Historically and aesthetically speaking, Ives is similar to American poets Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson, and an understanding of the poetics and ideology of these literary figures is necessary for understanding Ives’s own ideology and musical innovations.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord, Mass., 1840-60) (75-117), Violin Sonata No. 3 (81), The Unanswered Question (87).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier) (82, 84, 86-87, 92, 102, 114), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (82-84, 91, 95-99, 102); Liszt: Piano Sonata in B Minor (82, 88-90, 92-93, 96-99, 102); Charles Zeuner: Missionary Chant (83, 85, 94, 114-15); Simeon B. Marsh: Martyn (83, 85, 87, 94, 114); Stephen Foster: Massa’s in de Cold Ground (94, 114); Chopin: Ballade No. 1 in G Minor, Op. 23 (100), Ballade No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 52 (100), Étude in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 12 (Revolutionary) (100-101), Piano Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 35 (100), Piano Sonata in B Minor, Op. 58 (103), Prelude in G Major, Op. 28, No. 3 (100); Debussy: Arabesques (103), Estampes (103), Images (103-5), L’isle joyeuse (104-5), Des pas sur la neige (104), Bruyères (104), Etudes, Book 2, No. 11 (“Pour les arpèges composes”) (107); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 5 (107-8), Piano Sonata No. 8 (107, 109), Piano Sonata No. 10 (109-11).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Index Classifications: 1900s

Perhaps the quintessential Lutheran hymn, Ein feste Burg embodies Martin Luther's faith and had lasting musical effects, not only on his own generation but also on generations of composers to come. The verse structure of Psalm 46 appealed to Luther most strongly in the last line, which stands on its own in the rhyme scheme and makes the text more powerful, as though one could reduce the psalm to a simple statement of faith. Further, Luther's musical setting, with three repeated notes to begin the tune, made a lasting impression on future composers. Some composers, such as J. S. Bach and Mendelssohn, use the tune in order to let it emerge from a complex texture, reinforcing its victorious and ultimately religious connotations. Others, including Meyerbeer, use the tune for programmatic rather than religious purposes, as the tune accompanies "undressing girls." The diversity of uses, whether religious or not, reflects the lasting power of Luther's original.

Works: J. S. Bach: "Ein feste Burg" from In Festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (166); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (167); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier, Op. 191 (167); Wagner: Huldigungsmarsch (167); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (167); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op.127 (167); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (167-68).

Sources: Martin Luther: Ein feste Burg (159-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: General

The rondeau Fors seulement seems to have inspired imitation by composers of numerous secular chansons in much the way that L'Homme armé inspired Mass settings. Thirty-five surviving works are based on Fors seulement. Although the rondeau itself was written before 1470, twenty-six of the Fors seulement parodies are based on Ockeghem's three-part setting, which appeared five years later. Ockeghem's superius is the part most often borrowed by other composers, but it is often placed in a different voice using a transposed mode. Two later sources seem to point toward the creation of a new cantus firmus, which served as the model for the setting (probably by Matthaeus Pipelare) published by Petrucci in Canti B in 1502. Pipelare's setting, in turn, served as a model for Antoine de Févin's setting using Fors seulement la mort rather than the original Fors seulement l'attente. Willaert's five-part setting is drawn in turn from Févin. Appendices list all thirty-five settings with their sources, and trace the lineage of borrowing from Ockeghem to Willaert.

Works: Antoine de Févin: Fors seulement (100, 116, 123, 124, 126); Adrian Willaert: Fors seulement (101-02, 117, 126).

Sources: Johannes Ockeghem: Fors seulement (94-96, 108-09, 122); Anonymous: Fors seulement (97-98, 115, 123-4); Mattheus Pipelare: Fors seulement (98-100, 115-16, 125, 126).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

[Has list of related works.]

Index Classifications: 1400s

Discusses Stravinsky's incorporation of ragtime elements into Histoire du Soldat, Ragtime for Eleven Instruments, and Piano-Rag Music. Heyman presents convincing evidence that Stravinsky likely heard early jazz in Europe before 1918, contradicting Stravinsky's own statements that he had not. Stravinsky neither quoted from specific pieces nor used jazz pieces as formal models, but he used characteristic ragtime rhythms and instrumental colors of early jazz.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Berio's aesthetic is one of communication and commentary. The third movement of the Sinfonia is first and foremost a setting and interpretation of the main text, Beckett's The Unnamable. Mahler's scherzo from the Second Symphony is the cantus firmus of the movement. An understanding of the song upon which Mahler based his movement, "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" from Des Knaben Wunderhorn, aids in the understanding of the Berio movement. A discussion of quotation and allusion includes reference to James Joyce. In the cases of Beckett, Mahler, Joyce, and Berio, "the artist has become the subject of art." A complete analysis of Berio's movement is beyond the scope of the article. Allusions to Schoenberg, Debussy, Mahler, Hindemith, Berg, Brahms, Ravel, Strauss, Berlioz, Stravinsky, Berio himself, Pousseur, Beethoven, Boulez, Webern, Stockhausen, and perhaps Schumann are pointed out. In music of the 1970s, especially in the music of American composers, quotation is the rule rather than the exception.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

While this correspondence has nothing to do with Shostakovich's borrowings, it contains several interesting comments on musical borrowings in general. Hill states that "Notte e giorno faticar" from Mozart's Don Giovanni is quoted in Offenbach's Tales of Hoffman because Hoffman is waiting for his latest love, Stella, who is appearing in a performance of Don Giovanni in the theater next door. Hill parenthetically adds that "it is very difficult to think of a work of any length without a quote," and states that at least 24 works borrow from God Save the King.

Works: Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

Index Classifications: 1700s

Pre-existing music creates historical montage in a film, layering historical times to occur simultaneously in a single cinematic act. Reflecting their proximity to and distance from World War II, the films created by West German directors of the 1970s and early 1980s are particularly engaged in this act of historical montage. They are also distinct from Hollywood in their particular use of nineteenth-century art music, and New German filmmakers used the cultural weight of and audience deference to art music to resist traditional bourgeois values and highlight filmic and musical auteurs. Filmmakers juxtaposed the historically recent reception of Germanic music under the Nazis and the immediate reception of it by modern audiences, culturally marking the music, highlighting questions of national identity, and asserting cultural resilience in the face of both Germany’s history and the encroachment of Hollywood. Due to historical Germanic emphasis on music as a nonrepresentational art form, Germanic film music must transcend the theory of mimesis, commonly demonstrated by movies outside Germany. While reception theory is a promising tool for uncovering musical meaning, semiotics and the musical language of the borrowed work are also crucial elements in film music studies.

Works: Billy Wilder (director): soundtrack to A Foreign Affair (28); Rainer Werner Fassbinder (director): Deutschland im Herbst (35); Hans-Jürgen Syberberg (director): soundtrack to Hitler: A Film from Germany (37).

Sources: Miklós Rózsa: Violin Concerto, Op. 24 (28); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (36-37, 41, 44-45); Haydn: Deutschlandlied (36-37, 44-45); Wagner: Götterdämmerung (37).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Unlike many New German filmmakers, director Werner Herzog is not concerned about the historical baggage of twentieth-century Germany but is rather focused on forging new territory for the cinematic image. Similarly, he ignores the reception history of the Western art music he uses, in particular Germanic music. Herzog resists interpretation of his musical choices, despite the variety of music he employs, as well as his diverse treatment of that music. Music is used quite differently in the films Woyzeck (to underscore the transcendence of society), Fitzcarraldo (to enhance artifice and unreality and to underscore Herzog’s self-generated mythos in cinematic history), and Lessons of Darkness (to be a universal, rather than Germanic, herald of death and destruction). In each film, Herzog selects pre-existing music to enhance dramatic and narrative elements specific to the film, but does not engage the historic memory of the music itself.

Works: Werner Herzog (director): Nosferatu (148-49), Woyzeck (139-40), Fitzcarraldo (140-46), Lessons of Darkness (146-50).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a (139); Richard Strauss: Death and Transfiguration (141); Bellini: I Puritani (141, 145-46); Verdi: Un ballo in maschera (141), Requiem (147, 150), Ernani (141-46); Wagner: Die Walküre (141), Parsifal (147-48), Das Rheingold (147-49), Götterdämmerung (147); Grieg: Peer Gynt (147, 149); Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (147, 149); Pärt: Stabat Mater (147); Prokofiev: Sonata for Two Violins, Op. 56 (147); Schubert: Notturno in E-flat Major, Op. 148 (147).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Index Classifications: 1900s

A list of twenty-nine works using B-A-C-H, the majority of which are by German composers.

Works: Joseph Ahrens: Triptichon; Johann Albrechtsberger: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. C. Bach: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue on the name BACH, Art of Fugue; Otto Barblan: Chaconne, Op. 10, Passacaglia, Variations, and Triple Fugue, Op. 24; Ludwig van Beethoven: 2 sketches for an Overture and Canon, 10th Symphony; Heinrich Bellerman: Organ Prelude and Fugue, Op. 8; Johannes Brahms: Cadenza to Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major; Alfred Herbert Brewer: Meditation; Ferruccio Busoni: Fantasia Contrappuntistica; Alfredo Casella: Due Ricercari sul nome di Bach; Cyril S. Christopher: Soliloquy on B-A-C-H and the Chorale "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein; Hanns Eisler: Piano Trio on the 12-tone Scale; Wolfgang Fortner: Fantasia; Vincent d'Indy: "Beuron," No. 11 from Tableaux de Voyage, Op. 33; Sigfrid Karg-Elert: Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 150, Basso Ostinato, Op. 58, repeated in one of his two Op. 142, Sempre Semplice; Johann Ludwig Krebs: Organ Fugue in B-flat Major; Franz Liszt: Prelude and Fugue for Organ, Fantasia and Fugue for Piano; Felix Mendelssohn: 6 Fugues; Wilhelm Middelschulte: Canonical Fantasia; Riccardo Nielsen: Ricercare, Chorale and Toccata; Ernst Pepping: Three Fugues; Walter Piston: Chromatic Fantasy; Max Reger: Organ Fantasia and Fugue, Op. 46; Josef Rheinberger: Organ Fughetta, Op. 123a No. 3; Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: Six Variations, Op. 1; Robert Schumann: 6 Fugues, Op. 60; Georg Andreas Sorge: 3 Fugues.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Because of the speed with which it was written and the collaborative nature of the project, the true origins of The Threepenny Opera are difficult to trace with precision. Nominally the work is a parody of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, which had enjoyed a successful revival in London from 1920 to 1923. In fact the publisher Schott had contacted the young Paul Hindemith with the idea of providing new music for this play. Weill retained only one of the 69 melodies from the original Beggar's Opera, but several other tunes may have been patterned after specific models.

Works: Kurt Weill, The Threepenny Opera (13, 36-40).

Sources: Johann Christoph Pepusch: The Beggar's Opera (13, 36); Eduard Künneke: Der Vetter aus Dingsda (36); Puccini: Madame Butterfly (40); Engelbert Humperdinck: Hänsel und Gretel (40-41).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1900s

In Psalm 90, Ives quotes Louis Moreau Gottschalk's famous piano work, The Last Hope. The quotation appears in the second half of Verse 6, with the text "in the evening it is cut down, and withereth." Ives's borrowing may refer to The Last Hope, subtitled "religious meditation," or to the hymn Mercy, also known as Gottschalk, itself derived from The Last Hope and attributed to Edwin Pound Parker.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Reflexive parody is a genre of musical comedy that can, through the musical and comedic devices it employs, both honor and satirize an artist or genre of music. Comedy in music often employs musical borrowing, either in small-scale interjections or in large-scale musical structures like quodlibets, medleys, and parodies. Reflexive parodies are distinct in that they re-examine genre conventions by transposing song into a disconnected musical genre. Heavy metal and rat pack swing are two genres often paired together in reflexive parody, creating a vehicle for comedic points about virtue, vice, and masculinity. Richard Cheese (created by Mark Jonathan Davis) and Bud E. Luv (created by Robert Vickers) are two characters that perform “swankified” heavy metal music with an exaggerated rat pack lounge singer persona. In doing so, they strip away the imagery of hegemonic masculinity inherent to heavy metal and replace it with another form of exaggerated masculine imagery associate with 1950s swing. By poking holes in the self-seriousness of heavy metal, Davis and Vickers uncover the underlying musical quality of heavy metal. Humor is created in their acts in several ways. Recognition of the source material is treated as part of the joke, as are interjections of other familiar tunes. Lyrics are not usually altered, as the dissonance of a clean-cut lounge singer voicing brazen profanity is also comedic, but occasional in-character changes are made. Musical quotations from genres beyond heavy metal or swing can also heighten the comedic absurdity. For example, Richard Cheese’s version of Closer by Nine Inch Nails includes snippets of the theme to Sesame Street, Linus and Lucy, and Old MacDonald Had a Farm. Reflexive parody is different from genre reinterpretations in that it relies on the comedic mediator or buffer of the comedian’s persona. Self-reflexive humor, along with the interpretive space it opens up, emerges from the sum of its musical parts.

Works: Beatallica: Sandman (63); “Weird Al” Yankovic: Angry White Boy Polka (63); Tom Lehrer: The Elements (63); Tim Minchin: Beelz (64), Rock and Roll Nerd (64); Barenaked Ladies: Grade 9 (64); Robert Vickers (as Bud E. Luv): Iron Man (70), Paranoid (70), Whole Lotta Love/Free Bird (70); Mark Jonathan Davis (as Richard Cheese): I’m Only Happy When It Rains (70), Enter Sandman (70), Bust A Move (70), People Equals Shit (70-71), Welcome to the Jungle (71), Girls, Girls, Girls (71), Closer (71-72); Lee Presson and the Nails: Mr. Crowley (71).

Sources: The Beatles: Taxman (63); Metallica: Enter Sandman (63, 70); System of a Down: Chop Suey (63); Disturbed: Down With the Sickness (63); Arthur Sullivan (composer), W. S. Gilbert (lyricist): I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major General from The Pirates of Penzance (63); Charlie Daniels: The Devil Went Down to Georgia (64); Rush: Tom Sawyer (64); Led Zeppelin: Stairway to Heaven (64); Garbage: I’m Only Happy When It Rains (70); Nacio Herb Brown (composer) and Arthur Freed (lyricist): Singing in the Rain (70); Pat Ballard: Mr. Sandman (70); Slipknot: People Equals Shit (70-71); Guns N’ Roses: Welcome to the Jungle (71); Solomon Linda: The Lion Sleeps Tonight (71); Mötley Crüe: Girls, Girls, Girls (71); Van Morrison: Brown Eyed Girl (71); Ozzy Osbourne Mr. Crowley (71); Europe: The Final Countdown (71); Nine Inch Nails: Closer (71-72); Joe Raposo (composer), Jon Stone, Bruce Hart, and Joe Raposo (lyricists): Can You Tell Me How to Get to Sesame Street (71-72); Vince Guaraldi: Linus and Lucy (71-72); Thomas d’Urfey (composer), Frederick Thomas Nettlingham (lyricist): Old MacDonald Had a Farm (71-72).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Fifteenth- and sixteenth-century borrowing is apparent not only in a composer-to-composer context but also in the extemporized practice of singing. Contrapuntal procedures that developed out of discanting or coordination of consonances were not borrowed from individuals but belonged instead to the community. Though the relationships between the singers' improvised performances and the actual notated form are ambiguous, scribal alterations to chansons indicate that notated works were not "fixed" once they were committed to paper. Didactic exercises containing embellishments for chant tenors further suggest a strong relationship between the use of improvisatory gestures and their notated versions. Christopher Reynolds and other scholars have also identified these patterns or fundamental contrapuntal procedures as melodic and contrapuntal allusions—a process by which composers quoted or paraphrased short melodic fragments from each other with the intent of establishing a musico-textual allusion between the work and its model. Like the scribal variants and embellishment formulas, the allusions are found in the superius lines of chansons and masses and are typically no more than two perfections in length. It is clear, however, that these patterns are not allusions in many cases but resulted from shared compositional processes. The concordances between the anonymous Naples set of six L'homme armé masses and Caron's masses provide such examples: the highly stylized and commonplace contrapuntal and melodic gestures are the result of shared discant frameworks, which owe more to a particular institution's improvisational practices rather than to any individual author. The compositional frameworks within these masses thus illustrate that communal borrowings within extemporized polyphony continued even after the beginning of the "composer" era.

Works: Anonymous: Missa L'homme armé in Naples I (80-81), II (74-75, 83-84), VI (73-74); Caron: Missa L'homme armé (73-76, 80), Missa Jesus autem transiens (76, 80), Missa Clemens et benigna (77-78, 80), Pour regard doeul (78-79), Missa Accueilly m'a la belle (78-79).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The poetic trope of distance is central to philosophical definitions of Romanticism as well as Robert Schumann’s music criticism and composition. Schumann’s Papillons, Op. 2, was influenced by the ideas of romantic distance and the sublime in Jean Paul’s novel Flegeljahre, which often uses musical metaphors in conceptualizing the sublime. An example of Schumann’s musical aesthetic of distance is the Aria movement of his Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, adapted from his earlier song An Anna, which itself borrows from Carl Gottlieb Reissiger’s Heimweh. The aria is presented as a purely instrumental song without words, but it is descended from song and echoes the aesthetics of vocal music. Schumann expresses a more personal form of distance and memory with his quotation of Clara Schumann’s Valses romantiques in both Carnaval and multiple numbers in Davidsbündlertänze. Similarly, Schumann’s Fantasie, Op. 17, evokes the imagery of romantic distance present in Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte through veiled melodic references. In the Im Legendenton movement of the Fantasie, Schumann again appropriates Clara’s music, this time her Romanza variée. The musical exchange between Robert and Clara Schumann can be read as a way of musically closing the distance between them. In closing the distance between lover and beloved, Schumann also closes the distance between music and language.

Works: Robert Schumann: An Anna II (83-91), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 11 (86-91), Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 2 (100-9), Carnaval, Op. 9 (102-9), Fantasie, Op. 17 (113-126), Novelletten, Op. 21 (126-31)

Sources: Carl Gottlieb Reissiger: Heimweh (83-91); Robert Schumann: An Anna II (86-91); Clara Schumann: Valses romantiques, Op. 4 (102-9), Romanza variée, Op. 3 (121-24), Soirées musicales, Op. 6 (126-31); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (113-19)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Ronsard's poem "Bon jour mon coeur" was set to music by five composers during the 1560s and 1570s, including Lassus, Goudimel, Jean de Castro, Philippe de Monte, and André Pevernage. The latter composed a parody of Lassus's chanson that doubles the length and number of voices of the model.

Works: Buus: Douce memoire (369); Gardane: Amours sans fin est le cordier cordant (369); Pevernage: Bon jour mon coeur (368-77).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

In his discussion of the composition process of thirteenth-century motets, Hofmann emphasizes the adaptation of the plainchant excerpt In seculum and its influence on the upper parts. He distinguishes two categories of notes, the ones in the chain of thirds including d-f-a-c'-etc. (U-class) and the ones of the chain c-e-g-h-etc. (Pu-class). Composers arranged the tenors in a rhythmic mode that would enable as many notes from the U-class to fall on a "locus impar" (Garlandia), i.e., for example, in the first mode on the first and third note of the rhythmic pattern. The upper voice is divided into the same classes of notes and organized according to similar melodic principles as the tenor. Thus not primarily rules concerning intervals but melodic features of the parts determine the consonances (Zusammenklänge) of the motet. Most vernacular motets borrow refrains, i.e., preexistent textual and musical entities that stand at the beginning of the compositional process. The tenor--hitherto believed to have been the unchangeable point of departure--undergoes changes to meet the requirements of consonance with the refrain and relationship of phrases. The composer, who most probably was also the poet, related the remainder of the motetus textually and musically to the refrain, which resulted in its optimal integration. The page numbers for the following motets are listed in the appendix of Hofmann's study (p. XV-XXII).

Works: Mout est fous qui s'entremet/Morrai je en atendant, amour/Omnes; Ma loiauté m'a nuisi/A la bele Ysabelet/Omnes; Salve, laborancium/Celi luminarium/Omnes; Chorus innocentium/In Bethleem Herodes iratus/In Bethleem; O Maria, decus angelorum/De virgula/Et confitebor; Ecclesie princeps/Et confitebor; In serena facie/In seculum; Si vere vis adherere Uti vere/Si vere vis adherere Vitis palmes/In seculum; Trop m'a amours/In seculum; Peto linis oculum/In seculum; Li douz maus/Trop ai lonc tens/Ma loiauté/In seculum; O felix puerpera/In seculum; Chascun dit/Sa j'ai amé folement/In seculum; Bien doit avoir joie/In seculum; Je cuidai mes maus celer/In seculum; Tout adés mi trouverés/In seculum; A une ajornée/Douce dame en cui dangier/In seculum; Cil brunés ne me meine mie/In seculum; Trop fu li regart amer/J'ai si mal/In seculum; La fille den Hue/In seculum; Ma loiaus pensée/In seculum; Ja n'avrés deduit de moi/In seculum; Se j'ai folloié d'amours/In seculum; Nus ne puet chanter/In seculum; Amours en boine volenté/In seculum; Lonc tens ai mon cuer/In seculum; La bele m'ocit/In seculum; J'ai trouvé qui me veut/In seculum; Ne m'a pas oublié/In seculum; Quant iver la bise/In seculum; Li maus amourous me tient/In seculum; Trop souvent me duel/Brunete, a cui j'ai mon cuer doné/In seculum; Salus virgini per quam/Hodie natus in Israhel/In seculum; Dieus! de chanter/Chant d'oisiaus/In seculum; Liés et jolis/Je n'ai joie/In seculum; Hé! trés douces amouretes/D'amours esloigniés/In seculum; L'autr'ier trouvai/L'autr'ier lés une espinete/In seculum; En son service amourous/Tant est plaisant/In seculum; La biauté ma dame/On doit fine amour/In seculum; J'ai les biens d'amours/Que ferai/In seculum; Se griés m'est au cors/A qui dirai/In seculum; Qu'ai je forfait ne mespris/Bons amis/Am in seculum; En nom Dieu, que que nus die, Trop/En nom Dieu, que que nus die, L'amour/Am in seculum; Mout me fu griés/In omni fratre tuo/In seculum; J'os bien m'amie a parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/In seculum; L'autre jour par un matin/Au tens pascour/In seculum; O felix puerpera, Flos virginum/In seculum; Eva, quid deciperis/In seculum; Amours en cui/En mon cuer/In seculum; Resurrexit hodie/In seculum; Quant se depart/He! cuer joli/In seculum; Puisqu'en amer/Quant li jolis/In seculum; In seculum aritfex/In seculum supra/In seculum; Ja n'amerai/Sire Dieus/In seculum; ...mpendia cujus natura/O homo de pulvere/In seculum; Que demandés vous/Latus; Ja de boine amour/Ne sai tant amours/Sustinere; Li maus amourous/Dieus! pour quoi/Virgo; Q pia capud hostis/Virgo; Au douz mai/Vigro; Li douz chans des oisellons/Virgo; M'ocirés vous/Audia filia; O homo, considera/O homo de pulvere/Filie Jherusalem; Je cuidai mes maus celer Et soustenir/[??].

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

A web of influence and borrowing exerted itself in the friendships between Edvard Grieg, Frederick Delius, and Percy Grainger. Grieg's Norwegian folksong settings served as models for Grainger's own folksong arrangements, and specific musical quotations exist in Delius's On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring, a meditation on Grieg's "I Ola Dalom." Delius quotes the melody from Grieg's setting, but was also influenced by his textures, harmonic structure, free variation, and development. It has also been noted that Delius's composition has a resemblance to Grieg's "The Students' Serenade" from Moods, Op. 73, No. 6. Furthermore, the interval of a descending minor third from leading tone to dominant is borrowed from Grieg. This melodic interval resembles a cuckoo call and was likely to have prompted Delius to use Grieg's setting as a model from which to draw.

Works: Delius: On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring (13, 15-19).

Sources: Grieg: Norwegian Folk Songs, Op. 66: "Je gaar I tusind tanker" (12),"I Ola Dalom (12-18), Moods, Op. 73, No. 6, "The Student's Serenade" (17-18).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes, Tong Cheng Blackburn

Beethoven's influence on Schubert was a psychological as much as musical one, against which the composer struggled. The Great C Major Symphony is an illustration of how much of this influence had been absorbed by the end of his life. Important rhythmic and formal features of the central movements are related to those of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, and a theme in the finale is strongly reminiscent of the "Ode to Joy" theme from his Ninth. However, the most important influence of Beethoven can be seen in the tight-knit thematic organicism (based primarily on the third-motive of the Introduction) that characterizes the entire work.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

The subjective nature of Schubert's music is manifested in his use of self-quotation. Symbols found in the early songs recur in later works with their significance deepened through personal experience, including musical usage. One such symbol, dactylic rhythm, which represents the wanderer (Schubert himself) and death, appears in various guises throughout Schubert's compositions, including recall of melodic themes in similar psychological situations. This form of self-quotation differs from that found in other Schubert compositions such as variations on his own themes.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Schubert's Wanderer Fantasie; Schubert: Fantasia for Violin and Piano in C Major, Impromptu No. 4 in B-flat Major, Der Jüngling und der Tod, Octet in F Major, Rosamunde, String Quartet in A Minor, String Quartet in D Minor, Der Tod und das Mädchen, Variations on Die Forelle, Variations on Trockne Blumen for Flute and Piano, Wiegenlied, Der Wanderer, Wanderer Fantasie, Wanderers Nachtlied.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Advances in technology in the twentieth century, such as the reproduction and manipulation of sound, have led to controversies regarding intellectual property, copyright law, and even the very definition of the "musical work." Modern sampling techniques allow artists to appropriate pre-existing musical material and then alter its codes of meaning through processes of recontextualization and alteration. This act of generating meaning through the use of existing "musical artifacts" can be highly subversive, as is the case with John Oswald's 1989 CD Plunderphonics and subsequent CD Rubaiyat (Elektrax). For Rubaiyat (Elektrax), commissioned by Electra records for the company's fortieth anniversary, Oswald utilized pre-existing material recorded by Electra artists as raw material that was then altered using various techniques that undermine and change the work's original meaning. Oswald's techniques include recontexualization of familiar material, the restoration of a previously controversial or "banished" text, and encouraging the listener to create similar works at home with available technology.

Works: John Oswald: O Hell (25-28), Vane (28-29), Mother (29-30), Plunderphonics (24-25), Rubaiyat (Elektrax) (25-34).

Sources: John Densmore, Robbie Krieger, Ray Manzarek, and Jim Morrison [The Doors]: Hello, I Love You (26-28), When the Music's Over (26-28); Carly Simon: You're So Vain (28-29), You're So Vain as performed by Faster Pussycat (28-29); Michael Davis, Wayne Kramer, Fred "Sonic" Smith, Dennis Thompson, and Rob Tyner [MC5]: Kick Out the Jams (29-30).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Though sampling only emerged with the invention of digital technology in the 1980s, it is best understood as part of the long history of musical borrowing. Specific melodic quotation, akin to literal sampling, can be found throughout western art music in the works of composers like Bach, Berlioz, Tchaikovsky, and Ives. In this repertoire, the context in which the quotation appears imposes commentary or new meaning on the original. A similar process occurs with digital sampling where meaning is often generated through recontextualization and juxtaposition of samples. In attempts to generate a "taxonomy" of sampling practices, scholars David Sanjek, Thomas Porcello, and Chris Cutler have created classification systems based, respectively, on reconcilability of the source, procedural methods, and in terms similar to Christopher Ballentine's "musical-philosophical" ideals. The central difference between digital sampling and traditional borrowing is that "the timbre is appropriated in addition to pitch and rhythm." In addition to illustrating the role of recontextualization of sampled material in creating meaning, John Oswald's works Plunderphonics and Plexure demonstrate the role of timbre in conveying musical meaning. For example, Oswald experiments with the timbre of Michael Jackson's voice in the piece "DAB" on Plunderphonics.

Works: Alex Paterson and Youth [Orb]: Little Fluffy Clouds (18-19); James Tenney: Collage #1: Blue Suede (19); John Oswald: Plunderphonics (20-23), DAB (21-22), Plexure (23-24).

Sources: Ennio Morricone: Score for Once Upon a Time in the West (18-19); Steve Reich: Electric Counterpoint (18-19); Carl Perkins: Blue Suede Shoes as performed by Elvis Presley (19); Michael Jackson: Bad (21-22).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

A comparison of the great responsories for Matins in various western European codices from the tenth to thirteenth centuries suggests that the melismatic closes were conceived as musical tropes. Such melismas were also transferred in whole or part from one responsory to another. Evidence for the conception of these melismas as tropes includes their appearance in a fixed point of the respond, a melodic repeat structure foreign to the style of the neumatic and syllabic parts of the responsories, and stylistic differences to the respond even when repeat structure is not present.

Works: Responsory: O pastor apostolice (36-38), Sanctissimi martyris Stephani (36-37, 39), Electus est dilectus (39), Filie ierusalem (39), Christe miles preciosus (45). Related works: Respond: Ego pro te rogavi (44), Hic est discipulus (44-45), Sine lumbi vestry (44-45), Symon bariona tu vocaberis (45-46).

Sources: Responsory: Descendit de celis (36-37), Cuthbertus puer bone indolis (39), Hec est ierusalem (39).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Liszt's piano transcriptions of Chopin's songs, Op. 74, illustrate how Liszt expanded the range of pianistic techniques and sonorities, and how he intended to create technically demanding music for his own concert repertoire as well as to promote Chopin?s songs. The nineteenth century saw growing interest in and popularity of piano transcriptions--of which Liszt was the most prolific composer--which provided a vehicle for new sonorities in a different medium. Liszt's transcriptions focus on the composer's musical portrayal of the original text, as well as his use of expression markings, virtuosic and improvisational elements, and ossia. For example, in Liszt's transcription, Frühling, of Chopin?s song Wiosna, Liszt transforms Chopin's tempo and markings of andantino with semplice and sempre legato to andantino malinconico with una corda and un poco pesante, creating more descriptive instructions. Liszt's transcription, Meine Freunden, of Chopin's Moja Pieszczotka shows Liszt's free, improvisatory writing style, his own tempo and expression marks, his virtuosic writing, and his use of ossia. The comparisons among several editions of the Liszt transcriptions with respect to editorial indications, including pedaling, fingering, and text, are a useful source for modern pianists.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Chopin's Six Chant Polonais, Op. 74 (64-131).

Sources: Chopin: Six Chant Polonais, Op. 74 (64-131).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Niels Gade was a great influence on Grieg's style and compositions as seen in the formal structures, choice of keys, number of movements, tempos, and related themes of the latter's works. Gade's works show the influence of Scotch and Danish folksongs, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Wagner. Grieg experienced difficulties with sonata form movements and hence relied on models; Gerald Abraham's comparison of the Schumann and Grieg piano concertos illustrates this point. Gade and Grieg's first symphonies, both in C Minor, and each composer's only piano sonata, both in E Minor, are compared. Musical examples and a brief history of the Grieg Symphony are provided.

Works: Gade: Balders drom (28), Ossian Overture (28), Piano Sonata (1840) (28, 33), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor, Op. 5 (28), Siegfried og Brunhilde (operatic fragment, 1847) (28); Edward Grieg: Piano Concerto in A Minor (32), Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 28 (32), Symphony No. 1 in C Minor (29).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Willem Pijper (1894-1947) crusaded actively for the cause of a Dutch musical style independent from the German and French traditions. His campaign was waged both in his writings and in some nationalist compositions. The opera Halewijn is based on the Halewijn Lied, one of the oldest known Dutch songs. The song recurs within the opera, and in addition, Pijper derived the scalar material of the entire work from one line of the Lied. Pijper's work Six Symphonic Epigrams uses a motive from the Dutch song O Nederland let op U saeck (Oh Netherlands, Heed Thy Cause), which is part of a seventeenth-century collection of national songs.

Works: Willem Pijper: Halewijn (369-70), Six Symphonic Epigrams (370-71).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

An inventory of the uses of self-quotation in Schubert's works is provided. In addition to the well-known cases of self-borrowing, Hoorickx cites 33 lesser known compositions in which Schubert reuses his own material. Each individual case of self-borrowing is discussed in enough detail to establish a clear relationship between the borrowed material and its former setting. Hoorickx proves that self-borrowing was a compositional device frequently employed by Schubert.

Works: Schubert: Ich sass an einer Tempelhalle, D. 39 (373), Fantasia for Piano Duet in G Major, D. 1 (373), Leichenfantasie, D. 7 (374), Overture for String Orchestra, D. 8 (374), Piano Duet Fantasia in G Minor, D. 9 (375), String Quartet No. 7 in D Major, D. 94 (375), Octet for Wind Instruments (376), Piano Piece in C Major, D. 29 (376), String Quartet in C Major, D. 32 (376), String Quartet in B-flat Major, D. 36 (376), Salve Regina, D. 223 (377), Der Jüngling am Bache, D. 30 (377), String Quartet in C Major, D. 46 (378), Fantasy in C Major for Piano Duet, D. 48 (378), Sehnsucht, D. 52 (378), Gesang der Geister über den Wassern, D. 484 (379), Fierarbras, D. 796, No. 18 (379), Drei Klavierstücke, D. 946, No. 2 (379), An die Nachtigall, D. 497 (380), Hermann und Thusnelda, D. 328 (380), Ellen's Gesang I, D. 837 (380), Atys, D. 585 (380), Octet in F Major, D. 803 (380), Geist der Liebe, D. 414 (381), Lied der Mignon, D. 877, No. 4 (383), Elysium, D. 584 (383), Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 (384), Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 784 (384), "Der Tag entflieht" from Das Zauberglöckchen (385), Deutsche Messe, D. 872 (385), Der häusliche Krieg (386), Nachtgesang im Walde, D. 913 (386), Täuschung, D. 911, No. 19 (386), Rosamunde Overture, Op. 26 (387), Der Jäger, D. 795, No. 14 (388), Violin Sonata in A Major, Op. 160, D. 574 (388).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

In contrast to the long-held view that the cyclic mass originated in polyphonic settings, it has recently been demonstrated by Leo Schrade that unified cycles of plainchant masses existed for several hundred years before the first documented polyphonic mass. The argument can be strongly made, however, that these early plainchant masses were unified far more by liturgical considerations than by musical ones. An exception to this may be six plainchant masses found in the Cypriot manuscript, in which each mass is unified by general similarities of melodic style and use of a single mode. Although this concept may not have originated with these works, if the 1413 dating of the Cypriot manuscript is correct, then these six masses predate any known complete polyphonic mass cycles.

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

The repertory of the Cypriot manuscript developed at the court of Cyprus as various court poets contributed poems that were borrowed and used in musical compositions. These works draw from a good deal of the same literature for their references, and consistently refer to characters from Greek mythology such as Jason, Medea, Pygmalion, and Oedipus. Contrary to earlier scholarship, some similarities between this repertory and music of the west do exist. Strong textual and formal similarities exist between the anonymous motet Toustans que mon esprit mire and Machaut's Lay de Notre Dame. Both focus especially on simultaneous appearances of sustained notes. Incessanter expectari/Virtutis ineffabilis also bears a strong textual connection with Vitry's Impudenter circuivi. This repertory does in fact bear connections with western music.

Works: Motet: Toustans que mon esprit mire (96-97), Incessanter expectari/Virtutis ineffabilis (98-99).

Sources: Machaut: Lay de Notre Dame (96); Vitry: Impudenter circuivi (98-99).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Index Classifications: 1700s

Reactions to Art Tatum have been divided between admiration of his technical proficiency and criticism of his perceived lack of creativity. Both of these stances, however, ignore the complex intertextual nature of Tatum's music. Tatum's music from throughout his career contains a significant number of quotations of tunes recorded by others during the 1920s and 1930s, recordings which Tatum would have heard and which might have had a greater impact on him than on many other musicians because of his partial blindness and his resulting difficulty in reading sheet music. Two consistent features in the majority of Tatum's quotations are the retention of the original melody, and the ornamentation of that melody in a manner which embellishes without comment or critique. The result is a relationship--frequently dialogic--between the original and the quotation.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Originality is considered among the most essential qualities in the age of Enlightenment. It is especially difficult to attain in music, an entirely imitative art, and music plagiarism is seen in both young composers struggling to pass mediocrity as well as great composers. The measure of their offenses often increases in proportion with their experience and reputation. There are composers guilty of "musical felony" such as Corelli and Handel. Handel's adaptations of pre-existing music have been noted by historians, but none have accused Handel of plagiarism. Boyce, Mozart, Clementi, and Rossini have all committed different degrees of "petty larcenies." The act of musical plagiarism must be brought to light in order to warn young composers and encourage them to create styles of their own.

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1800s

Monteverdi used a monodic setting of Sfogava con le stelle by Caccini included in Le nuove musiche as the basis of his madrigal by that name, included in Book IV of the madrigals. Monteverdi altered the melodic line to achieve a smoother contour, and adjusted the text-setting to remove unimportant syllables from positions of prominence. He manipulated the material in Caccini's piece in various ways, using Caccini's melody as a bass line, for example. As only seven months separated the publication of Le nuove musiche and the publication of Book IV of Monteverdi's madrigals containing its parody, Horsley speculates that Monteverdi used the parody as an indirect reply to criticism leveled by Caccini in the preface to his volume aimed at the new style of polyphonic madrigals, a style championed by Monteverdi. Monteverdi's setting of Sfogava con le stelle is somewhat atypical of his style, and it counters each of Caccini's points of contention.

Works: Caccini: Sfogava con le stelle; Monteverdi: Sfogava con le stelle.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

The variation techniques exploited by English keyboard composers in the late sixteenth century were those found in early sixteenth-century lute intabulations of pavanes and passamezzi. The pavana alla venetiana and pavana alla ferrarese exemplify the two most prominent variation forms: (1) the single-strain variation, where each variation is governed by a fixed harmonic progression, and (2) the multiple-strain variation (e.g., AA' BB' etc.), where both the melody and accompaniment are retained in each variation. Both pavanes became prototypes of other variations in later lute and keyboard dance music. The pavana alla venetiana led to the passamezzo, which also involved written-out improvisations over a bass theme. The sixteenth-century "theme" was treated as a skeletal form to be filled in with new melodies, motives, texture or figuration at each repetition. The pavana alla ferrarese led to other multiple-strain variations (such as the galliard) where the technique of diminution is used. In diminution, the performer took care that the consonances on the strong beats were not violated when making the melody more florid. The historical place of English composers in the development of the variation should be re-evaluated because their techniques were used in the Continent long before they appeared in English keyboard music.

Works: J. A. Dalza: Pavana alla venetiana (119), Pavana alla ferrarese (120); Iacomo Gorzanis: Passamezzo Anticho (125, 131); Diego Pisador: Las Bacas sus differencias (126); P. Paulo Borrono: Pavana detta La Borroncina (128).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Baroque variation procedures shared techniques of improvisation found in sixteenth-century dance variations. Among sixteenth-century dances, the Pavane and the Passamezzo have strong chordal textures. In the Pavane, each strain is varied through diminution and changes in accompanimental texture before going to the next (AA' BB' CC' etc.) In the Passamezzo, a single strain is varied through free passagi and strict figurations. The brevity of Passamezzo themes (acting as chord roots) makes more demands on the composer, who has to search out a variety of textures and melodic and rhythmic ideas. The variable elements in both dances are controlled by a prescribed harmonic framework; florid melodies of the Pavane are controlled by a strong gravitation toward members of the governing chords while the passagi used in the Passamezzo are limited by the chord tones within a slower harmonic rhythm. The growing dependence upon figuration and motives as a unifying device in the late sixteenth century points to procedures common in Baroque variations.

Works: P. P. Borrono: Salterello Secondo dette el Vercelese (160); A. de Valderravano: Diferencias sobre el tenor del Conde Claros (163); Diego Pisador: Las Bacas sus Differencias (164); Iacomo Gorzanis: Passamezzo Anticho (165).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Index Classifications: 1700s

[Reviewed by Margery Stomne Selden, Journal of the American Musicological Society 29 (Spring 1976): 148-51.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

John Oswald's now infamous works were created through analogue and digital editing and recombining of pre-existing musical material. Oswald adjusted the speed, timbre, pitch, and other aspects of various fragments of music and then combined and layered them to create a type of musical collage. In 1989, he generated a great deal of controversy with the release of his album Plunderphonics, which consisted of exclusively borrowed material. Though Oswald had produced the album at his own expense and was receiving no profit from the endeavor, giving the copies away to libraries, radio stations, and others for free, legal action was taken by Michael Jackson, CBS Records, and the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). Oswald was forced to destroy the Plunderphonics master copy and any remaining copies in his possession. Since then, Oswald has produced Rubaiyat for Electra Records' 40th anniversary and the two-CD set Plexure. In Plexure, Oswald plays with the "threshold of recognizability" or the amount of material a listener must hear to identify the original source.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

The use of quotation in the context of opera creates a significant rhetorical and syntactical relationship to the text into which it is juxtaposed. It can be used to provide ironic commentary and lend deeper levels of meaning to characters and situations. Brecht and Weill use sources from Wagner, Weber, popular jazz, and folk tunes.

Works: Weill: Aufsteig und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

The four-voiced chanson Doulce Memoire by Pierre Sandrin (c. 1490-1561), first published in 1538, was so popular that it was frequently reprinted for almost 90 years. It became the subject for a large number of instrumental and vocal arrangements, including versions for solo lute, viola da gamba with keyboard instrument, and solo keyboard instrument, as well as versions for two-, three-, four-, five-, and six-part vocal ensemble. Among these examples are an instrumental improvisation manual (1553) by Spaniard Diego Ortiz that teaches the user to improvise on the chanson, a 5-part parody mass (1577) by Orlando di Lasso, and a highly embellished version for viola da gamba and keyboard instrument (1626) by Vicenzo Bonizzi. Of the 36 versions of the chanson discussed here, 24 have been transcribed complete into modern notation.

Works: Ortiz: Recercada Prima (17, 50-51), Recercada Segonda (54-57), Recercada Tercera (58-61), Recercada Quarta que es una Quinta Boz (62-65); Clemens non Papa: Magnificat (91-93); Orlando di Lasso: Missa ad imitationem moduli Doulce memoire (20); Cipriano de Rore: Missa super Dulcis memoria (20).

Sources: Sandrin: Doulce Memoire (1-22).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Textual and musical ambiguity in Charles Ives's four war songs, In Flanders Fields, Tom Sails Away, He Is There!, and They Are There!, may reflect Ives's own ambiguous attitude towards war. In the first three songs, written in 1917, Ives quotes several patriotic, martial, and popular tunes, but these quotations do not always retain their original meaning. Ives uses patchwork technique or other means of quotation to include melodic fragments from unambiguously patriotic songs; however, he often combines these fragments with a morose character, complex harmonies, and inconclusive cadences. Collectively, these three songs reflect Ives's ambivalence towards World War I. Twenty-five years later, They Are There!, a World War II revision of the earlier He Is There!, moves from ambivalence to a direct expression of Ives's anti-war sentiments. In conjunction with contemporary biographical evidence and Ives's own biting recording of the song, They Are There! demonstrates a shift in Ives's personal stance towards war and brings into question the possibility of parody in his three earlier war songs.

Works: Charles Ives: In Flanders Fields (72-80), Tom Sails Away (80-84), He Is There! (84-87), They Are There! (91-97).

Sources: Taps (75, 77-78, 81-82); David T. Shaw: The Red, White, and Blue (Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean) (75-76, 78-79, 82, 86); George F. Root: The Battle Cry of Freedom (76-77, 86); Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle: La Marseillaise (76, 78, 86); America (God Save the King) (77-79); Reveille (78, 86); Henry S. Cutler: All Saints New (78); Samuel Woodworth and George Kiallmark: Araby's Daughter (The Old Oaken Bucket) (81); George M. Cohan: Over There (82, 86); Ives: Country Band March (86), He Is There! (91-97); Walter Kittredge: Tenting on the Old Camp Ground (86-87).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla, Laura B. Dallman, Paul Killinger

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Information on stylistic borrowing, such as the Viennese Classic style and church music, is located in the preliminary section of this dissertation. Specific information about Bruckner and the Caecilian movement (pp. 29-37) focuses on Bruckner's attitude toward the movement. Details of specific stylistic borrowing and quotation appear from page 270 to the end of the dissertation, including an exhaustive list of borrowings from Bruckner's own sacred music in his symphonies (pp. 289ff). Howie maintains that Bruckner's sacred music is shrouded in spiritualism and symbolism without sacrificing the composer's unique and eclectic compositional style.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Duke Ellington’s and James P. Johnson’s concert jazz compositions of the 1930s and 1940s embody an urban-entertainment vision for racial uplift developed a generation earlier that promotes the high art potential of Harlem’s popular music. Ellington’s 1935 concert film Symphony in Black: A Rhapsody of Negro Life exemplifies the glorified entertainment aesthetic and symphonic jazz idiom developed in Tin Pan Alley and Harlem musical theater in the 1920s. An early example of symphonic jazz emerging from entertainment circles is Will Marion “Dad” Cook’s 1924 stage revue Negro Nuances. The production (which predates Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue) presents a version of the Africa-to-Dixie-to-Harlem narrative later used by Ellington in Black, Brown, and Beige. Musically, Negro Nuances is a pastiche of recycled material—some by Cook himself—arranged for Cook’s twenty-five-piece orchestra. The vaudeville aesthetic of the late 1920s and early 1930s was also influential in establishing stylistic formulas for arranging spirituals and vernacular music for an orchestral idiom. J. Rosamond Johnson’s choral arrangements of W. C. Handy’s St. Louis Blues for a 1929 short film of the same name and Rhapsody in Blue for the 1931 review Rhapsody in Black: A Symphony of Blue Notes and Black Rhythms exemplify the shifting textures and spectacle of musical theater arranging. For Ellington and James P. Johnson, both of whom worked in the entertainment space, the leap to symphonic jazz works was relatively small. James P. Johnson’s Mississippi Moan: Symphony Poem, Drums: Symphonic Poem, and Ellington’s Symphony in Black all closely adhere to the production number model and incorporate the sonic tropes of the Harlem stage. A critical understanding of these symphonic jazz works in terms of Afrological vernacular modernism highlights their artistic value and cross-cultural exchange.

Works: Will Marion Cook: Negro Nuances (330-333); Spencer Williams: Moan, You Moaners! (Fox Trot Spirituelle) (336-37); J. Rosamond Johnson: score to St. Louis Blues (337-42), Rhapsody in Blue from Rhapsody in Black: A Symphony of Blue Notes and Black Rhythm (345-47); Duke Ellington: The Blackberries of 1930 (344-45); James P. Johnson: Mississippi Moan: Symphonic Poem (347-51)

Sources: James P. Johnson: Runnin’ Wild (330-333); Anonymous: Deep River (336-37); W. C. Handy: St. Louis Blues (337-42); Stephen Foster: Swanee River (344-45); George Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (345-47); Perry Bradford and James P. Johnson: Echoes of Ole Dixieland (348-49), Mississippi River Flood (348-51); James P. Johnson: Yarnekraw: A Negro Rhapsody (350)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Billie Holiday's recordings reveal a sophisticated use of tempo rubato, the slowing-down and speeding-up of a melody over a steady accompaniment. While Holiday's version of a tune rarely strays from the pitch material of the original, the rhythmic comparison is considerably more complex. Holiday tends to begin her lines or melodic fragments late relative to the accompaniment, yet she catches up to the accompaniment by the end of the passage. In fact, Holiday takes the given melody at a faster tempo than the original. Transcriptions of Holiday's recordings indicate that the ratio between her tempo and that of the accompaniment is as advanced as 6 to 5 or 7 to 5, a much higher ratio than similar procedures found in African, Afro-Cuban, and African-American music (such as the music of Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith).

Works: Cole Porter: What is This Thing Called Love as performed by Billie Holiday (182-92) and Ella Fitzgerald (185-86); Gerald Marks and Seymour Simons (composers) and Billie Holiday (performer): All of Me (192-94).

Sources: Cole Porter: What is This Thing Called Love (182-92); Gerald Marks and Seymour Simons: All of Me (192-94).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Discusses the reasons behind Cage's use of Satie's Socrate and also what Cage himself says about how he utilized the music to compose a new piece. Through musical analysis Huber shows how Cage follows the precepts he set in borrowing Satie's work. Huber also mentions the beginning to Beethoven's Eroica and the second movement of Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 as employing similar compositional techniques.

Works: John Cage: Cheap Imitation.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Obrecht's Missa Sicut spina rosam occupies an unusual place in the composer's output in that its cantus firmus is taken from the final portion of the respond from the Responsory Ad nutum Domini, rather than from the beginning of the chant. Also unusual is the very free treatment of the cantus firmus during the course of the mass, recalling procedures more closely associated with Ockeghem than with Obrecht. The attribution to Obrecht, however, is strengthened by the clear phrases, active rhythms, and carefully prepared cadences found throughout the mass. It seems, then, as if Obrecht was consciously alluding to Ockeghem's style, even quoting portions of his Missa Mi-Mi, though his reasons for doing so are uncertain. If one allows that Obrecht's mass was composed in the 1490s, then a likely motivation for composition was Ockeghem's death in 1497, making the Missa Sicut spina rosam one of several works written to commemorate the elder composer's death.

Works: Obrecht: Missa Sicut spina rosam (3-13).

Sources: Gregorian Chant: Ad nutum Domini (4); Ockeghem: Missa Mi-Mi (5).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Although the Missa Malheur me bat and Missa Fortuna desperata of Jacob Obrecht pose problems for chronology and dating, it is likely that both masses were composed during Obrecht's first visit to Ferrara in 1487-1488. This conclusion is based on three elements: (1) the models are located in sources that circulated first in Italy and were probably written by composers working there; (2) the stemmata suggest that their transmission began in Italy; and (3) the earliest manuscript sources predate Obrecht's second visit to Ferrara, which took place in 1504-1505. It is further likely that these masses originated in Italy because Josquin also wrote two masses on the same models. Obrecht quoted from Josquin's Missa Fortuna desperata in the Osanna section of his mass, and he also drew from Josquin's cantus firmus techniques overall.

Works: Obrecht: Missa Malheur me bat (277-89, 298-300), Missa Fortuna desperata (277, 289-300).

Sources: Martini or Malcourt: Malheur me bat (279-83); Busnois (?): Fortuna desperata (290-96); Josquin: Missa Malheur me bat (298-99), Missa Fortuna desperata (298-99).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The identities of the passacaglia and the ciaccona are recognized through their different treatment of harmonies within a similar neutral I-IV-V progression. The passacaglia-ciaccona technique can be described as an ostinato of bass formulae within which internal harmonies are free to change. The essential quality of the passacaglia-ciaccona ostinato comes from the recurrence of a number of familiar bass progressions related to one another through harmony or melody (since progressions formed by the roots of chords often evolve into melodic bass lines). Guitar books from the early sixteenth century maintain a harmonic distinction between the passacaglia and the ciaconna, and there was a tendency to favor the minor mode for the passacaglia as a contrast to the major mode of the ciaccona. The type of progression used is dependent on the composer's process of form building: Italian composers are more concerned with constant variation, where no phrase is ever repeated exactly, while French composers are more interested in sectional form building than the process of variation itself. Passacaglia forms are mainly distinct from ciaccona forms through the difference in mode and in the variable activities within the harmonic progression rather than through rhythmic characteristics.

Works: Montesardo: Nuova inventione d'intavolatura (308); Sanseverino: Intavolatura facile (309); Frescobaldi: Il secondo libro di toccate (311).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Index Classifications: 1600s

The ripresa, ritornello, and passacaglia are based on the sixteenth-century Italian dance form. The ripresa or ritornello (often appearing as V-I or IV-V-I) is a unit of music that precedes, follows, or alternates with a dance. The internal ripresa could be used as a portion within a dance or as a conclusion. While the number of internal riprese varies according to the time elapsing between sections of a piece, its harmonic design (i.e., the basic V-I pattern) is fixed. The concluding ripresa, on the other hand, occurs at the end of a piece and shows a greater harmonic variety through the insertion or substitution of alternate chords. In the concluding ripresa, the basic V-I pattern could be varied through the insertion, reshuffling, and mixing of chords, resulting in unpredictable chains of chord progressions such as IV-V-I-I, V-V-I-IV, V-V-I-II, or V-V-I-I. During the seventeenth century, these concluding riprese became independent sets and took the name of the passacaglia or ciaccona. The technique of the passacaglia or ciaccona then, is simply an ostinato of derived formulas of the ripresa. Thus, the ripresa, ritornello, and passacaglia evolved from the same harmonic pattern which originally functioned as a unit of the Italian dance form.

Works: Pass'emezzo semplice from MS 2804, Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence (368); Passamezzo per B quadro from MS 586, Biblioteca Comunale, Perugia (368); Carlo Milanuzzi: Secondo scherzo delle ariose vaghezze (369); Pass'emezo nuovo from Intabolatura nova di varie sorte de balli (360); Mattäus Waissel: Salterello (376-78, 382); Pietro Paolo Borrono: Pavana chiamata la Milanesa (390).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

The use of library music (also called production music or stock music) in contemporary travel television shows as analyzed at the level of episode, series, and genre is complex in its communication of meaning, engaging with notions of celebrity and location. A case study of library music in the first season of British travel series Travel Man (Channel 4, 2015-) demonstrates the production process of using library music and offers conceptual tools for its analysis. The conceit of Travel Man is that the host, comedian Richard Ayoade, does not actually like traveling. Most of the music in the show is licensed from Audio Network, a leading British music library company specializing in recorded (as opposed to synthesized) music. After a library track is selected for a particular scene based in part on metadata tags supplied by Audio Network, editors select one of several mixes provided by Audio Network and manipulate the track to fit the specific timing of the scene. The Audio Network track Travelling Circus, composed by Bob Bradley, Adam Dennis, and Chris Egan, is used in several episodes of Travel Man covering trips to Paris, Naples, Brussels, Oslo, Madeira, Ljubljana, and Milan. Travelling Circus is often used in combination with voiceover to signify a broad sense of “travel” rather than any specific location, despite one section containing a stereotypically French accordion melody. In another comedic travel program, Jack Whitehall: Travels with My Father (Netflix, 2017-), this accordion section is used to comedically signify the “French-ness” of a French colonial resort in Vietnam. Throughout the first season of Travel Man, much of the library music, especially tracks used in opening/closing and transitional scenes, falls within the “vintage orchestral” genre, which draws on the style of light orchestral music and studio era Hollywood film scores. In tourist activity scenes, the genres used are much more varied, highlighting Ayoade and his celebrity guest over the location. Another Audio Network track, Paris Afternoon (composed by Joachim Horsley), is used many in British television programs spanning several genres, but its repeated use in travel shows is an example of how the “vintage orchestral” genre has come to signify travel as well as travel show. The self-aware foregrounding of library music as a parody of travel programs in Travel Man demonstrates that the use of library music can be an aesthetic strategy, not just an economic necessity.

Works: Nicola Silk (series director): soundtrack to Travel Man (7-16); Rupert Clague (story producer): soundtrack to Jack Whitehall: Travels with My Father (12)

Sources: Bob Bradley, Adam Dennis, and Chris Egan: Travelling Circus (7-12); Joachim Horsley: Paris Afternoon (16-17)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1300s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Beethoven's Irische Lieder can be traced to three sources (which, in turn, are the origins of Irish national music): the work of the bards (the Irish equivalent to the German Meistersinger), non-vocal harp tunes (music for dancing, tunes for convivial uses and funeral dirges), and ballads. Beethoven took the preexistent melody and provided a harmony, unaware of the history or nature of the tunes (which often lacked words). The question is posed whether Beethoven's setting of these tunes reflects their true nature.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1800s

Progressive rock, a loose label for music which combines elements of rock and roll with those of various forms of art music from around the world, has in the past been viewed by critics and scholars as being most successful (or most appalling) when elements of “high” and “low” culture are synthesized. However, Emerson, Lake, and Palmer’s popular “free transcription” of Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky frequently shifts between different styles, suggesting that its success is due not to stylistic synthesis but an “ever-changing, channel-surfing quality.” Pictures at an Exhibition, which was played at every Emerson, Lake, and Palmer concert from 1970 to 1988, allowed fans to react to the changes in texture as they happened, dancing when it was appropriate and cheering when Emerson would destroy his organ in the final “Great Gate of Kiev” movement. These fans showed an interest in being “present” at concerts, enjoying each subjective moment as it happens now, like the counter-cultural hippies from the 1960s. This is related to Susan Sontag’s call in “Against Interpretation” for greater focus on “presentness” in art criticism, and to Tom Gunning’s “cinema of attractions” concept, which states that in films before 1908 the audience’s focus was not on the plot narrative but on the moment-to-moment spectacle.

Works: Emerson, Lake, and Palmer: Pictures at an Exhibition (247-53).

Sources: Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (247-53).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Interculturalism, musical borrowing from multiple cultures, is a burgeoning trend in twentieth-century art music, theatrical music (opera, musicals, Gesamtkunstwerks), film music, and popular music. "World beat," an aesthetic that fuses popular styles from different parts of the world, is one manifestation of interculturalism. Interculturalism creates meaning in musical works, which manifest as political statements, instructional tools, "syntheses of styles, cultures and perspectives," or works that embrace or reject particular cultural values. These extramusical meanings result from various intercultural borrowing techniques, including patchwork, collage, and "suggestive" allusion (stylistic and pertaining to specific works).

Works: Dissidenten: Sahara Electric (190); Toshi Tsuchotoris: score to Mahabharata (192); Bob Telson: score to Sister Suzie Cinema (192-93), score to The Gospel at Colona (193), score to The Warrior Ant (194); Philip Glass: Satyagraha (196), Akhnaten (197-98); John Cage: Truckera (200), Europeras 1 &2 (200-201).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Film

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Handel composed four works in the summer of 1743: Semele, Dettingen Te Deum, Dettingen Anthem, and Joseph and his Brethren. The methods of borrowing Handel uses in these works encompass all of his parody techniques as identified by Bernd Baselt. The pages that still remain of the first (unused) version of "Bless the glad earth" from Semele closely match "Zaphnath Egypt's Fate" from Joseph. The layout of the manuscripts further supports this borrowing claim. Handel's compositional process can be analyzed to find when the first version was replaced by the final version of "Bless the glad earth." The final version has a seemingly uncertain chronology with "And why? Because of the King" from the Anthem because of their similar composition dates. However, by examining Handel's composition process and changes in drafts of the Anthem, it can be argued that "Bless the glad earth" (final version) was written earlier. The use of this borrowed material can be traced in his sketching process. This is seen in Handel's adaptation of small sections of the "Bless the glad earth" (final version) to create the solo introduction to "And why? Because of the King."

Works: Handel: Joseph and his Brethren (174-75, 178-80), Dettingen Anthem (175, 180-91).

Sources: Handel: Semele (175, 178-91).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The performance of John Cage's and Lejaren Hiller's HPSCHD, for seven harpsichords, tape, and a menagerie of multimedia, at the University of Illinois in 1969 was an event unlike any other, and especially unlike MUSICIRCUS, put on at the same university two years previous. For HPSCHD, Cage and Hiller set out to write a computer program that could divide the octave 52 ways, since this was something a computer could do that a human could not. Mozart's Musical Dice Game was used to come up with the material for the seven solo harpsichord parts, in conjunction with the I-Ching. For Solo Harpsichord II, 20 "passes" of the original part devised from the Dice Game and I-Ching were performed. Solo Harpsichords III and IV played the same material, but with replacement parts culled from Mozart piano sonatas included in place of some measures from the Dice Game. Parts V and VI were similar to III and IV, except that their replacement measures came from Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Gottschalk, Busoni, Cage, and Hiller piano pieces. Solo Harpsichord I was a transcription of the tape-orchestra part in which the octave was divided into 12 tones. Finally, VII played any Mozart piece or anything else anybody else was playing, at any time. Cage's interest in what happened when many layers were superimposed was the impetus behind the work, in addition to exploring different levels of microtonality.

Works: Cage and Hiller: HPSCHD.

Sources: Mozart: Musical Dice Game, K. 294d/K. Anh. C 30.01 (7-9), Piano Sonata in D Major, K. 284 (7), Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 330, Piano Sonata in G Major, K. 283, Fantasy in C Minor, K. 475, Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, K. 281; Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 23 in F Minor, Op. 57, Appasionata (8); Frédéric Chopin: Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28 (8); Robert Schumann: Carnaval (8); Ferrucio Busoni: Sonatina No. 2 (8); Cage: Winter Music (8); Hiller: Sonata No. 5 (8).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Some troubadour and trouvère songs are found in Latin contrafacta that show, in contrast to the French settings, an advanced rhythmic notation. By comparing the different versions, Husmann finds rhythmic solutions for the songs in the vernacular, for example the conclusion that not only in melismatic organa but also in syllabic monophonic songs frequent rhythmic changes are possible.

Works: Uns lais de nostre dame contre le lai Markiol (6); Vite perdite (6); Veris ad imperia (14-16); Legis in volumine (14-16); Philippe le Chancelier: Veritas, equitas (6).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

According to Anonymous IV, Pérotin made revisions to Léonin’s Magnus liber organi. The extent of these revisions is apparent in the two-part organa in three manuscripts, W₁, F, and W₂. The pieces contained in all three sources are generally considered to form the body of the original Magnus liber organi. However, while all three have many pieces in common, each also contains clausulae not found in the others. This conflicts with Anonymous IV’s account that Pérotin abbreviated Léonin’s Magnus liber organi. Thus, all of these manuscripts represent enlarged forms of the Magnus liber organi, and also show different stylistic developments, particularly in the clausulae. Additionally, the total body of new organa nearly doubles the size of the collection’s original form. The additions to the Magnus liber organi show the extent of the technique of “Tenortausch,” the replacement of tenor melismas with melismas of other, related tenors contained within the same manuscript. This technique is evident in a large selection of pieces, primarily the Alleluia settings.

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner