The idea of the avant-garde has been misinterpreted as the music of the atonalists and experimentalists. These styles of music actually became the standard of Western art music in the early twentieth century because of the support found in academia. The composers still writing in the tonal idiom and looking back to the past for support should be seen more as the avant-garde. These composers, such as Stravinsky, Copland, Prokofiev, Milhaud, and Bernstein were creating new music firmly founded in the tonal traditions of the 1700s and 1800s. The future of tonal music, although impossible to predict, may be rooted in assimilation and dissemination of non-Western music. Though composers like Chavez, Bartók, Villa-Lobos, and Messiaen have borrowed from non-Western music sources in their compositions, the total integration of other musical traditions has yet to be accomplished.

Works: Liebermann: Concerto for Jazzband and Orchestra (40); Stockhausen: Gruppen (41); Tippett: The Knot Garden (41); Stockhausen: Hymnen (41); Rochberg: String Quartet No. 3 (41); Bernstein: Mass (41); Berio: Sinfonia (41).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Resurrection (41).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Index Classifications: 1600s

Two Roman communions were transmitted directly from Rome to other major centers in medieval Europe without Frankish intermediation. The communions Sint lumbi vestri and Domine si tu es failed to be transmitted to Francia during the mid-eighth century but still appear in medieval books outside Rome. This rare occurrence raises questions about how Roman liturgical and stylistic elements were manipulated and preserved in territories other than Francia. Specific considerations include the different degrees of reliance on orality throughout Italy, modal variations in Frankish and peninsular chant dialects, and patterns of conservation of Roman texts and melodies within and outside of Rome. The case of Sint lumbi vestri is especially significant because, since it was transmitted with music notation, the numerous versions of the chant offer evidence of the stylistic specificities in Italian chant dialects before the twelfth century. The melody circulated particularly well in the Beneventan region, with the Abbey of Montecassino being the most likely outpost for its reception outside of Rome. Analyses of the Beneventan melody reveals that the cantors manipulated the received melody according to regional tastes, but did not modify its grammar, retaining the melody’s relationship with the text as well as leaving the modal profile unchanged.

A list of manuscript sigla is provided in the Appendix, listing the other known appearances of these communions.

Works: Sint lumbi vestri; Domine si tu es.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

The motet originated when clausulae were given new words, and then each voice part was given an entirely new text. Many different texts were used, and individual words even stopped working together as a textual unit. In this borrowing, although only the words were new and the notes were essentially unchanged, the character of the piece changed significantly. Primarily, this is seen through alterations in rhythm. The introduction of syllabic text into the formerly textless melisma transformed the melisma's fluid character into something heavier and more solid. Phrasing moved from iambic to trochaic. Essentially, text gave the music a new pulsation. All of these characteristics appear in the motet Verbum patris. Through a relatively simple borrowing technique that utilized complex notions about text and rhythm, a new type of composition emerged.

Works: Motet: Verbum patris (452-53).

Sources: Pérotin: Nativitas (Ex semine) (446, 459-60).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Remix as a discourse (capitalized to distinguish it from remix as a creative technique or genre) affects a wide range of contemporary art and music, and is a pervasive force in modern culture. While there are no set forms of Remix, it is always unoriginal and dependent on existing cultural products. Jacques Attali argues that music precedes political changes and the rise of Remix in the twentieth century confirms this idea. The birth of Remix in 1960s Jamaican dub music led to Remix in all aspects of culture, a facet of Late Capitalism. The history of Remix is broken into four stages—Jamaican dub, New York hip hop, mainstream hip hop, and remix culture—that are related to the history of mechanical reproduction broken into three stages: photography, photomontage, and digital image editing.

Remixes of two techno tracks, Underworld’s Born Slippy (remixed as Born Sleepy) and Kraftwerk’s Tour de France, are examples of a crucial stage in Remix history were Remix becomes cultural discourse rather than just a compositional technique. Underworld’s Born Sleepy .NUXX and Dark + Long (Dark Train) are conceptual remixes of Born Slippy, musically distinct from the original, with the title serving as the main signifier of their connection. Kraftwerk’s Tour de France remixes do something similar by only keeping the lyrics from the original and producing a musically distinct arrangement of the source material. This kind of advanced remix differs from older methods by changing the source so that it is unrecognizable as a remix without extramusical confirmation.

Works: Underworld: Born Sleepy .NUXX (Deep Pan) (68-70), Born Sleepy .NUXX (Darren Price Mix) (68-70), Dark + Long (Dark Train) (68-70); Kraftwerk: Tour de France Étape 1 (71-73), Tour de France Étape 2 (71-73), Tour de France Étape 3 (71-73).

Sources: Underworld: Born Slippy (67-70); Kraftwerk: Tour de France (67-73).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In his late works, Fauré returns to themes of his earlier works. These ideas can be placed in distinct groups such that each forms a sort of musical chain of references. There are three main groups or chains: (1) the Lydia Group which originates in an early song of the same title; (2) the Soir Group which originates in the song of 1894; and (3) the Ulysse Group which is named after the character in the opera Penelope. Nectoux traces these referential chains as the various ideas return in later works and in different guises. Numerous works are mentioned and discussed. The self-borrowings are not evidence of a lack of melodic inspiration since the ideas are always transformed and re-worked. Rather, these references to his earlier works in the late works are "similar in function to the memories of his youth with which his last letters are full"; they relate to the Romantic representation of memory. The chains of references also reveal a unique continuity in his work. "Fauré's output is highly unified."

Works: Fauré: La Bonne Chanson (232), Prométhée (232), Sonata for Violin, Op. 13 (232), Piano Quartet, Op. 15 (232), Elégie (232), Chanson d'Ève (236), Violin Concerto, Op. 14 (237), Symphony in F (or Orchestral Suite), Op. 20 (237), Symphony in D Minor, Op. 40 (237).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1500s

Brahms's Schumann Variations, Op. 9 refer to the theme of Schumann's Variations Op. 9. The influence of Schumann is evident in Brahms's approach to variation form, in his association of certain variations with certain characters, and in the allusion to other pieces by Schumann besides the variation set. Variations 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 all refer in some way or another to works by Schumann. Variation No. 10 refers to Clara Schumann's Romance upon which Schumann based his Impromptus, Op. 5. Furthermore, Clara Schumann's Variations Op. 20 are based on the first Albumblatt of Schumann's Bunte Blätter, Op. 99. In his Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4, Brahms refers to Carnival and includes the A-S-C-H motto. This also constitutes reference to his own Op. 9, No. 11.

Works: Brahms: Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (266), Intermezzo, Op. 76, No. 4 (268); Clara Schumann: Variations, Op. 20.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1500s

Ives's Fourth of July is characterized by polymeter, polytonality, dense textures, and quotations from popular and folk tunes. It is a fully integrated work whose multiple layerings and quotations had deep philosophical implications for the composer. Ives, the Transcendentalist, was able to perceive a unity among superficial and discordant events. In this work, he creates analogies to four types of events: acoustical (music of parades, church services, and so on); natural phenomena (violin glissando passage representing smoke); psychological phenomena; and non-programmatic musical unity.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sergio Bezerra

Despite Stravinsky's claim that his goal was to remain faithful to "the theme as a melody," the degree of relationship to the original melody varies widely in his variation works. While the melody itself is generally recognizable, his treatment of other musical elements is nearly unlimited in its freedom and flexibility. Though his variation works are dominated by free variation techniques, there are examples of clear influence from variation practices dating from the sixteenth century through the nineteenth century. Stravinsky's use of variations frequently creates sharp contrasts of mood within a piece, while maintaining cohesion through the use of repetitive figuration and ostinato figures. Considered as a group, Stravinsky's variations are clearly linked to the traditions of the past while making use of progressive compositional techniques.

Works: Stravinsky: Pulcinella (61), Octet for Wind Instruments (61-63, 64, 69, 70, 71), Concerto for Two Pianos (61-63, 68-69, 70, 71), Jeu de cartes (61-63, 65-66, 71-72), Danses concertantes (61-62, 63, 65, 66-67, 70-71, 72), Sonata for Two Pianos (61-62, 63, 65, 68, 70-71, 72), Ebony Concerto (61-62, 63, 65, 66-67, 72), Septet (61-62, 63, 64-65, 70, 72).

Sources: Haydn: Variations in F minor, Hob. XVII:6 (63); Byrd: John come kisse me now (64); Scheidt: Christe, qui lux es et dies (64); J. S. Bach: Von Himmel hoch, da komm' ich her, BWV 606 (65), Christ, der du bist der helle Tag, BWV 766 (67); Ebner: Variations on an Air (69); Beethoven: Thirty-Three Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli,Op. 120 (71); Schumann: 12 Etudes Symphoniques, Op. 13 (71).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Variations, which often use borrowed material, fall into the following seven historical categories: (1) Renaissance and Baroque variations on secular songs, dances, and arias; (2) Renaissance and Baroque variations on plainchant and chorales; (3) the Baroque basso ostinato variation; (4) the ornamental variation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; (5) the nineteenth-century character variation; (6) the nineteenth-century basso ostinato variation; and (7) the free variation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Variations also fall into two basic plans, structural and free. Variations in categories (1) through (6) above followed the older structural plan, in which basic relationships of parts, sections, and phrases in the theme were preserved in the variations. By the early twentieth century, variations were constructed in two ways: following the structural plan and following the newer free plan, in which basic relationships of sections and phrases in the theme were disregarded. Generally, the most conspicuous elements of themes most emphatically demand change. Rhythm is the most conspicuous element, and thus must be varied the most. The melodic subject is second most conspicuous. The harmonico-structural frame is least conspicuous, was historically generally retained, and therefore may be considered as the substance of the theme. All variations are committed to the task of securing unity within a manifold. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there was a growing trend toward the use of original themes. Renaissance and Baroque themes were frequently borrowed from dances and secular songs. In the ornamental variation, borrowed themes continued to include the dance piece and the popular song and also included the operatic excerpt. In the nineteenth-century character variation, neither the secular song nor the operatic aria were important sources of borrowed themes. Instead, composers used instrumental works (such as suites and sonatas) and instrumentally conceived themes from members of their own circles. Despite the trend toward the use of original themes, borrowed themes, including folk songs, still persisted in the free variation.

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Identification of two borrowings from Beethoven in Schubert's Fantasy for Piano four hands, D. 28 (1813) helps explain Schubert's learning process, as well as the later naming of his work. In the middle Allegro Schubert borrowed elements from Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique). Schubert's friend, Albert Stadler, later affixed to the Fantasie the peculiar title Grande Sonate, which is similar to the one attached to the Pathétique, to draw attention to that borrowing. In the last twenty bars of the Allegro Schubert borrowed elements from Beethoven's Appassionata Sonata, Op. 57, and even ended his movement, which begins in B flat major, in F minor, the key of Op. 57.

Works: Schubert: Fantasie for Piano four hands, D. 28, Grande Sonate (330-31).

Sources: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, Pathétique (330), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, Appassionata (330-31), Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 3, No. 2 (331).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Chopin's fourth ballade, Op. 52 (1842) borrows elements from several preludes and fugues in J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, as well as from Beethoven's Appassionata Sonata. The ballade's harmonic plan is closely linked to these borrowings: the borrowed Bach pieces, which are all in B flat major or minor, make B flat minor prominent in the ballade, most notably in its main theme. The F minor ending of the ballade is best explained as a borrowing from the Appassionata sonata, which is in the same key. Also borrowed from Bach are a five-voice stretto and some thematic material (for instance, a quotation from one fugue is used as a counterpoint to material taken from another fugue). By emulating Bach, Chopin pays homage to him. From Beethoven's Appassionata Chopin borrowed thematic materials, its passionate mood, and form. Chopin also borrowed from the Appassionata in his Prelude in D Minor, Op. 28, No. 24, yet there the borrowing is limited to mood and thematic material and is better construed as competitive with Beethoven. Understanding these borrowings is essential for tracing Chopin's compositional process and explaining the anomalies in the fourth ballade.

Works: Chopin: Ballade No. 4, Op. 52, Prelude Op. 28, No. 24 (104-5).

Sources: Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in B flat Minor, (96-98, 101-3), and Book II, Fugue in B flat Major (97, 109); Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, Appassionata (104-7); Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in B flat Major (108-10).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The Czechs have always admired Mozart and Mozart maintained good relations with many musicians of that country. Thus whole operas or popular numbers from them were arranged for different forces or used as a basis for new songs. An example is Figaro's aria "Se vuol ballare signor contino," used in the Frühlingsliedchen (spring song) from the Sammlung einiger Lieder für die Jugend bei Industrialarbeiten mit den hiezu gehörigen Melodien, published by Franz Stiasny. Josef Mysliwetschek was one of those important friends, whose compositions Mozart liked. The theme from his D Major Symphony shows striking similarities with the opening of the Andante from Mozart's Symphony K. 95, which is also used in the Violin Sonata K. 9, and with the folksong Horela líp. Several Czech folksongs correspond with tunes from Mozart's operas, and Nettl assumes that it is more likely that the latter became folksongs than the other way round.

Works: Stiasny (publisher): Frühlingsliedchen (333); Mozart: Symphony K. 95 (337-38), Violin Sonata K. 9 (338); Mela jsem holoubka (folksong) (338); Já jsem chudej poustevník (folksong) (339); Skroup: Kde domov muj (339).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although the records of the council meetings in Leipzig confirm that Bach wrote a cantata for the town council election (Ratswechselkantate) in 1740, only its text has come down to us. In the original version of the Weimarer Jagdkantate, BWV 208, however, Bach underlaid the soprano part of the final chorus with some verses of the 1740 Ratswechselkantate. Since also other parts from the Jagdkantate could be adapted, Neumann mentions the possibility that Bach parodied several of its movements.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Neumann classifies Bach's works including parody by the following categories (directions of borrowing arias, choral movements, or recitatives): (1) Sacred to sacred; (2) secular to sacred; (3) secular to secular; (4) instrumental to vocal; (5) vocal to instrumental. Bach approached parody in two different ways: either he decided to re-use an existing composition and asked a poet to set a new text, or he adapted an old work to independently conceived poetry. If Bach decided to parody a whole cantata en bloc, the former method was applied, whereas parodies of single movements usually followed the latter procedure. If the text or music of either the original or the parody is missing and if further evidence is not extant, tracing parody becomes problematic, since corresponding prosody is neither a necessary nor a sufficient feature, as Neumann shows with several examples. Bach is not known to have re-used material from sacred works in secular ones. In cases evoking this impression, an even older secular composition exists (or existed) from which both later ones borrowed. Several theories have tried to explain this fact (Schering, Spitta, Rust), but Neumann refutes all these theories as unsound, providing a possible exception: the model of the secular cantata Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 was more likely the sacred cantata Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 than the textually unknown (secular) "Köthener Huldigungskantata" from which Bach re-used five instrumental parts in BWV 184. Therefore Neumann moderates the "rule" of the exclusive one-way parody to a hypothesis, of which the only reasonable explanation is Bach's wish to have his secular cantatas (usually written for a unique occasion) more frequently performed. Besides the complete list (64-71) the following works are mentioned.

Works: Bach: "Jesus soll mein erstes Wort," from Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (73); Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (75); "Domine Deus," from Mass in F Major, BWV 233 (75); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (76); Schwinget freudig euch empor, BWV 36c (76); Herrgott, Beherrscher aller Dinge, BWV 120a (78); Preise Jerusalem den Herrn, BWV 119 (80); Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 (84); Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 (84-85).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

A change in analytical methods for absolute music in the twentieth century may be the cause of a change in the critical evaluation of Schumann's Second Symphony. This analysis considers the biographical nature of the composition and its plot archetype, which is similar to that of Beethoven's Fifth. In the symphony, Schumann quotes thematic material from Haydn's last symphony and Beethoven's An die ferne Geliebte (also found in his Fantasie, Op. 17), and uses the B-A-C-H motive. By so doing he emulates his predecessors and expresses his own personal development. Thus Schumann conveys "complex musical ideas through musical context."

Works: Schumann: Phantasie, Op. 17 (246), Symphony No. 2.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Many features of Schoenberg's music cannot be understood without Mahler. Schoenberg, however, usually goes beyond his predecessor. The clarity of each voice in the orchestral texture is clearly based on Mahler and the concept of beginning a piece tonally and ending atonally is derived from Mahler's way of starting a work in one key and finishing it in another.

Works: Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 2, Gurre-Lieder.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Newlin surveys selected Bloch works from 1921 to 1947. Jewish characteristics, such as melodies incorporating the augmented second, appear not only in explicitly Jewish works, but also in works without overt programmatic significance, such as the Violin Concerto. The America symphony, which eschews Jewish characteristics, quotes extensively from various American musics, but "the stringing together of so many unrelated ideas" has interfered with Bloch's inspiration. The Avodath Hakodesh effectively combines "universal with 'racial' traits," including a lengthy quotation from liturgical chant.

Works: Bloch: Avodath Hakodesh (Sacred Service), America, an Epic Rhapsody in Three Movements.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Film music serves many purposes in supporting the visual media by setting the mood, location, or time-period, suggesting a principal ethnic group, reinforcing action, offering contrary information, and drawing attention away from undesirable visual images. Film scores borrow from well-known pre-existing music to suggest location, time, and ethnic groups. In John Cromwell's Of Human Bondage, the music switches from "La Marseillaise" to "British Grenadiers" to signal the main character's change in location. Film score composers allude stylistically to ethnic folk music idioms to suggest a particular group of people. These idioms are often spuriously employed through the repetitious use of a particular convention, such as a pentatonic scale, gongs, and temple bells to signify Chinese traditional music, or heavy drumbeats and chanting for Native American music. Film music composers often model compositions on stylistic conventions of a given period in Western art music. Max Steiner's score for The Informer, set in Ireland during the 1920s, borrowed the Irish traditional tune, "The Minstrel Boy," Miklos Rozsa's score for Ivanhoe reflects the film's setting through the music of French troubadours, and Elmer Bernstein's score for The Ten Commandments draws on the unique timbre of the ram's horn during the Exodus scene. Bernard Herrmann's score for The 7th Voyage of Sinbad did not directly borrow the corresponding ethnic idiomatic music, but implied its use through the borrowing of Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade. Early American film scores were often modeled on or borrowed directly from late nineteenth-century European composers, as Joseph Carl Breil's score for the 1915 Birth of a Nation used Richard Wagner's "The Ride of the Valkyries." Aaron Copland and Virgil Thomson influenced the move towards sparse orchestration in later American film score composers by incorporating American folksongs. Jazz and popular music became frequent sources of borrowing in the 1940s, as did rock music from the 1950s through the 1970s in films as in Rock Around the Clock,Don't Knock the Rock, and The Twist.American Graffiti used rock music as background for stories of the turbulence and uncertainty of the period. Film score composers are now employing both rich symphonic scoring along with the "musical potpourri" of the silent film era.

Works: Max Steiner: score to Of Human Bondage (27), score to The Informer (28); Miklos Rozsa: score to Ivanhoe (28); Bernard Herrmann: score to The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (28); George Lucas, et al.: score to American Graffiti (32).

Sources: Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade (28); Richard Wagner: "Ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre (29); Jimmy DeKnight and Max Freedman: Rock Around the Clock as performed by Bill Haley and the Comets (32).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

A number of passages in Beethoven's Op. 13 seem to have been derived from Mozart's Sonata K. 457. In addition, both members of a pair of corresponding themes from the slow movements of the sonatas are set in the submediant. The general mood and dramatic impact of the two works is very similar. The C Minor Sonata of Dussek, Op. 35, No. 3 does not share the general "spirit" of Beethoven's Op. 13 as Eric Blom claimed, but several thematic details of the Dussek correspond to the Beethoven. It is difficult to establish a priority for the material, however, since the works were composed at roughly the same time.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13; Dussek: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 35, No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

The use and adaptation of existing music in animated films involved more than mere selective quotation. While small segments and entire movements of "classical" pieces from the 18th to the early 20th centuries were sometimes animated, composers were most often required to be adept at altering the formal structure of an existing work to accommodate the requirements of the animated film. In the lighter, more eclectic style of animated shorts, scores like those by Scott Bradley exhibit characteristics of Stravinsky, including octatonicism, tonally disjunct melody figurations, and orchestration. In major animated films such as those of Disney, Tchaikovsky's ballet music was similarly adapted. Significantly, the forms in which these existing works were used represented the first exposure to these pieces for many spectators of these animated films.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: David Oliver

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The duo Mono's 1997 album Formica Blues samples a variety of sources. For instance, the tenth track of the album, Hello Cleveland, samples works from Berio, Webern, Schoenberg, and Berg, which are combined with Mono's composed ambient setting. Depending on the listener, one would hear this track in two different ways. To a listener unfamiliar with classical music or with these particular source pieces, it might sound like a collection of undifferentiated "classical" sources. But to one more familiar with classical music and the tradition of borrowing, the song is full of potential meaning. However, when Mono provides the listener with such an abundance of sources, the knowing listener is left with a similar result as the unknowing listener: no single, unified narrative.

Works: Mono [Martin Virgo and Siobhan de Maré]: Formica Blues, Hello Cleveland.

Sources: Burt Bacharach: Walk on By; John Barry: Ipcress File; Miles Davis and Gil Evans: The Pan Piper; Berg: Lulu Suite; Schoenberg: Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16; Berio: Sinfonia; Webern: Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Eliot's literary quotations are drawn from many sources and are invested with personal meaning. This situation is also to be found in the music of Ives, Stravinsky, Copland, Crumb, Rochberg and others. Specific examples, such as Ives's reference to the beginning of Beethoven's Fifth in his Concord Sonata (the "Alcotts" movement), Stravinsky's allusions to Bach, Pergolesi and others in his neo-classic music, and Berg's Tristan quotation in the Lyric Suite, are mentioned. The significance of music to Eliot's poetry is discussed. A parallel between the poetry of Eliot and the music of Stravinsky is drawn.

Works: Ives: Concord Sonata (194); Berg: Lyric Suite (194).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications:

Index Classifications: 1900s

Louis Gruenberg frequently borrowed musical characteristics from American jazz, spirituals, and folk songs. Often, he combined the melodic and rhythmic traits of his sources with procedures associated with art-music. For instance, Gruenberg combines imitative technique with ragtime rhythms in the "Fox-Trot" of his suite entitled Jazzberries. Likewise, he integrated Negro spirituals into his violin concerto. The composer's non-literal use of borrowed idioms differentiated him from his contemporaries, namely Aaron Copland and Roy Harris. Gruenberg's finest attribute is his keenly developed variation technique, displayed in the treatments of borrowed motives in Jazz-Suite, Violin Concerto, and other works.

Works: Gruenberg: Four Indiscretions, Op. 20 (26), The Daniel Jazz, Op. 21 (26, 31-34), Animals and Insects, Op. 22 (26), The Creation, Op. 21 (26-27), Jazzberries, Op. 25 (26, 34-36), Jazzettes, Op. 26 (26), Jazz-Suite, Op. 28 (26, 36-38), Emperor Jones, Op. 36 (26, 28), Americana Suite, Op. 48 (26, 28), Violin Sonata No. 2, Op. 18 (28), Six Jazz Epigrams, Op. 30b (28-30), Polychromatics, Op. 16 (30), Concerto for Violin, Op. 47 (38-40).

Sources: Negro Spirituals: I'm A-Rollin (27), Steal Away to Jesus (27), Oh! Holy Lord (38), Reign Massa Jesus (38); Traditional: Arkansas Traveler (38), She'll Be Coming 'round the Mountain (38).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Nitschke's study looks at the cantus firmus primarily as a constructive element,not as an aspect of musical borrowing. Yet many comparisons between cantus firmus and original melody are made. In addition to Dufay's Mass cycles, Nitschke discusses secular pieces included in earlier Mass movements such as (1) the ballata Fior gentil in a Gloria setting and the ballata Deus deorum in a Credo setting by Antonio Zacara da Teramo and (2) the French folk song Tu m' a [sic] monté in the Gloria and the Italian folk song La Villanella non è bella in the Credo setting of the pair BL 33/34. Dufay's Mass Ecce ancilla is based on the two antiphons Ecce ancilla and Beata es Maria. No version of the former can be considered very close to Dufay's cantus firmus, which leads Nitschke to the suggestion that Dufay might have adjusted it to some melodic features of the antiphon Beata es Maria. The cantus firmus based on the latter shares some elements with the version from the Antiphonale Sarisburiense and some with the one from the Roman repertory. In isorhythmic sections, the cantus firmus follows the model exactly, whereas in others it may be paraphrased considerably. Dufay adapts the cantus firmus of the L'homme armé Mass in four different ways: (1) The tenor quotes the song exactly; (2) some features of the song are changed due to the canon instruction; (3) the song is paraphrased; or (4) Dufay creates his own version of the song and repeats it isorhythmically several times. As in the Mass Ecce ancilla, Nitschke could not yet locate the model for the cantus firmus of the Mass Ave regina caelorum. It shares elements with the version from Rouen and Salisbury and the printed ones as found in the Graduale Romanum and the Processionale Romanum. The Mass is also compared to the motet Ave regina caelorum, which is based on the same cantus firmus and was most probably written before the Mass. According to Nitschke it is very remarkable that the Mass borrows only two passages from the motet.

Works: Zacara da Teramo: Gloria Fior gentil (89-95), Credo Deus deorum (96-101); Dufay: Credo-Gloria BL 33/34, Missa Caput,Missa Se la face ay pale,Missa Ecce ancilla domini,Missa L'homme armé,Missa Ave regina caelorum,Missa La mort de Saint Gothardo.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Isaac was a prolific composer and well-known in his time. The idea of contrafacta was widespread among composers of the period, and there are many instances of this procedure in Isaac's works. One particularly striking example is found in his Missae Wohlauf, Gesell, von hinnen, one for four voices, the other for six voices. Noblitt shows that the Mass for six voices is largely a contrafactum of the version for four voices, with the movements of the original rearranged and expanded for the later work.

Works: Isaac: Missae Wohlauf, Gesell, von hinnen.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

A Missa sine nomine attributed to Obrecht in Leipzig 51, of which only the tenor and bassus parts survive, is based on the anonymous chanson Veci la danse Barbari. The Obrecht Mass initiated a tradition of works based on this chanson, including Masses by Adam Rener and Anton Barbé, each of which also drew on previous works in the tradition. The chanson survives only in a set of partbooks lacking the bassus. The tenor of the Mass beginning at Et iterum venturus est in the Credo is almost identical to that of the chanson, and the bass of this passage fits contrapuntally with all voices of the chanson, showing that it must closely approximate the lost bassus of the chanson. This Credo also appears in two other manuscripts, freestanding in one of the Annaberg Choirbooks and as part of a Mass on the same chanson in Jena 36 attributed to Adam Rener. Many musical features tend to confirm Obrecht's authorship of the Mass in Leipzig 51, other than the Credo movement, and none contradict it. The tenor part is almost entirely derived from that of the chanson, and the bassus uses ostinatos based on fragments of the chanson tenor, and little from other voices is used (except the altus, which moves in canon or imitation with the tenor throughout the chanson). By contrast, the Credo also borrows from the bassus and discantus, much more of its bassus is derived from the model, and all four voices of the model are incorporated complete. Along with other stylistic evidence, this suggests strongly that the Credo is not by Obrecht. The Credo borrows directly from Obrecht's Gloria, showing that its composer drew not only on the chanson but also on Obrecht's Mass. These borrowing practices and other stylistic features are also uncharacteristic of the other movements of Rener's Mass, which appear to have been based on a different version of the chanson model, so that Rener is unlikely to have composed the Credo. One hypothesis that explains these facts is that Obrecht (d. 1505) left his Mass unfinished (the Agnus Dei is also missing); an unknown composer wrote the Credo to make the Mass usable, drawing extensively from the model and from Obrecht's Mass; then Rener (d. ca. 1520) wrote his Mass, incorporating the existing Credo, drawing on its material in other movements, and using Obrecht's Mass as a model. A much later Mass by Anton Barbé on the same chanson (in a version similar to that used by Rener) also draws material primarily from tenor and altus, and pays homage to the Masses by Obrecht and Rener by borrowing a brief passage from each in the opening of each movement.

Works: Obrecht: Missa sine nomine (Missa Veci la danse Barbari); Adam Rener: Missa sine nomine (Missa Veci la danse Barbari) (104, 111-12, 116-27); anonymous, Credo Veci la danse Barbari (105, 111-12, 116-27); Anton Barbe', Missa Vecy la danse de Barbarie (124-27).

Sources: Anonymous: Veci la danse Barbari; anonymous, Credo Veci la danse Barbari (111-12, 123-24); Obrecht: Missa sine nomine (Missa Veci la danse Barbari) (118-20, 123, 126-27); Adam Rener: Missa sine nomine (Missa Veci la danse Barbari) (126-27).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

Quotation must be understood as a subdivision of the larger field of borrowing, which is a principal component of composition and can be categorized in terms such as conscious vs. unconscious and legitimate vs. illegitimate. Whereas legal and ethical views of quotation have been historically variable, purely musical criteria employed by musicians have emerged to evaluate quotation practices. Quotation is distinguished from thematic reworking and plagiarism by virtue of its specifically extramusical function, intended to be heard by the listener. Quotation may be employed (1) to evoke time, place, or circumstance, (2) as musical wit, (3) as the basis for parody or caricature, or (4) as the basis for exposition of serious content.

Works: Debussy: La bôite à joujouz (136); Busoni: Arlecchino (136); Mozart: Piano Rondo in A minor, K. 511 (136); Berg: Lyric Suite (136).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher, David Lieberman

[On borrowing. Defines terms on pp. 51-53.]

Index Classifications: General

Liszt's transcription of Schubert's Winterreise represents Liszt's adaptation of Schubert to Romantic performance by introducing some new elements of performance practice, in the process transferring attention from the music to the performer. Liszt's additions of ritardandos and pauses that highlight the emotional quality of the song cycle reflect his embodiment of the contemporary performance style that focused on emotionalism. For instance, Liszt enriches Gute Nacht with several emotional markings, including capricciosamente, delicato, molto appassionato, and un poco più animato. Having a similar function to his emotional markings, his virtuosic figurations were also used to increase excitement, as in the flourishes deployed in Muh.

Works: Liszt: Transcriptions of 12 Songs from Winterreise (522-25).

Sources: Schubert: Winterreise (523-25).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Around 1840, comic blackface minstrelsy became popular with both high and low society audiences as a result of its combining visual and ideological elements from the established “blackface context” with musical elements borrowed either directly or stylistically from the European operatic repertoire. Comparing parodies and other reworkings of contemporary operatic favorites to their sources, it is evident that there were a variety of borrowing practices at work in blackface shows. Through advertising the productions as both novel and yet akin to other legitimate forms of entertainment, and promoting themes of a sentimental and nationalist nature, these shows were capitalizing on the vogues of the time.

Works: Nelson Kneass: I Dreamed Dat I Libed in Hotel Halls (349-52), See! Sir, See! (352-57).

Sources: Michael William Balfe: “I Dreamt I Dwelt in Marble Halls” from The Bohemian Girl (349-52); Vincenzo Bellini: “Vi ravviso o luoghi ameni” from La Sonnambula (352-57).

Index Classifications: 1800s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Peter Maxwell Davies's range of borrowings includes plainchant, English carols, elements from Monteverdi's Vespers, and Taverner's In Nomine. Davies's treatment of his borrowed material can be a simple setting, as in movements I, IV, and VI of the Seven In Nomine, in which the settings by Taverner, Bull, and Blitheman are heard unadorned, or in a contrapuntal treatment, as in the second movement of this set of In Nomine when he presents Taverner's melody in retrograde. Alma Redemptoris Mater, a wind sextet, based on the Dunstable motet, uses a cantus firmus-style presentation of melodic material. Davies also uses a motet in Antechrist, but allows it to be destroyed through glissandi, jazz-like allusions, and other ironic techniques. He uses a similar technique in his Purcell realizations, interpreting Purcell's works as foxtrots. The String Quartet takes ideas from the Monteverdi Vespers and presents the cantus firmus in measured time with generated melismas occurring above the melody.

Works: Davies: Seven In Nomine (36-37, 40), Alma Redemptoris Mater (39), Five Motets (39), String Quartet (39), Leopardi Fragments (39-40), Sinfonia (39), Veni Sancte Spiritus (39-40), Shakespeare Music (40), Antechrist (40), Fantasia on a Ground and Two Pavans (82).

Sources: Plainsong (36); English carols (36); Monteverdi: 1610 Vespers (36, 39); Taverner: In Nomine (36-37); Bull: In Nomine (36); Blitheman: In Nomine; Dunstable: Alma Redemptoris Mater (39); Stravinsky: Agon (40).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

At six points in Act IV of Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, the composer uses musical motives borrowed from earlier in the opera. In each case, the borrowing has a rhetorical significance, referring back to a pertinent circumstance or statement that is newly appropriate or somewhat ironic in its second appearance. This is one more aspect of Mozart's skillful delineation of characters in his operas.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

The works listed below are examples of classical pieces that make use of Hebrew themes.

Works: Ravel: Deux Mélodies Hebraiques (31); Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 131 (31); Bruch: Kol Nidrei, Op. 47 (32); Schoenberg: Kol Nidre, Op. 39 (32).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz