A comparison of two lute intabulations of Wert's madrigal Cara la vita shows how two different composers (Emmanuel Adriensen and Giovanni Antonio Terzi) adapted their style and techniques to specific performance settings. Adriensen's intabulation of the madrigal mostly maintains the texture, melody, and rhythms of the original so that the intabulation can still be played as an accompaniment for singing. Terzi on the other hand intended his intabulation for solo performance. The outer voices are still delineated in the first section of Terzi's intabulation. The second section departs from the model as less effort is made to preserve the melodic material. Although the outline of the original is discontinued, the harmonic structure of the original remains clear. The two intabulations show how both composers adhere closely to the tonal structure within their elaboration of the music and how they were still inclined to preserve their model rather than obscure it.

Works: Adriensen: Intabulation of Cara la vita (95-97); Terzi: Intabulation of Cara la vita (96-98).

Sources: Wert: Cara la vita mia (94).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

A fairly extensive catalogue of Berlioz's re-use of his own compositions in later works. Macdonald reaches several important conclusions: (1) Berlioz's borrowings show "a gradual perfecting and distillation of a musical idea which is notably enhanced in detail and in aptness at each appearance" (p. 41). This idea explains to a great extent why Berlioz destroyed many of the earlier versions of pieces that were borrowed. (2) Berlioz generated most of his borrowed materials in the earliest period of his career (1825-30) in which he produced only one major work, but which yielded material that he drew upon when "time, money, or the immediate stimulus of a new literary movement . . . were lacking" (p. 39). Conversely, in his later pieces he borrowed insignificantly, if at all. (3) Berlioz did not always borrow music with the same specific programmatic elements, but instead re-used music with similar extramusical connections wherever he felt the occurrence of a similar idea. For this reason the same music is used for "the sentiments of the Abruzzi brigands boasting of their spoils [Harold in Italy], and those of the heroes of Napoleon's army returning home from their victories [Rob Roy]." (p. 41).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Two psalm motets attributed to Josquin, Levavi oculos meos in montes (c.1539) and Nunc dimittis (c.1530) are probably the work of lesser composers. Research into the authenticity of these works entails a careful examination of sources and musical style. Levavi oculos occurs only in the second volume of psalm motets of Johannes Petreius (1539), an unreliable source. Nunc dimittis is preserved in only two Italian manuscripts (1522 and c.1530). Levavi oculos and Nunc dimittis were probably modeled on the structure of Josquin's motets Qui habitat in audiutorio altissimi (c.1530) and Memor esto verbi tui (c.1510), respectively. Especially similar are the dimensions of the opening and closing sections of each pair of motets. Although the unknown composers incorporated Josquin's subjects, they failed to capture the interesting contours and initial rhythmic thrusts of those subjects. In addition, the passages not modeled on Josquin's motets are often contrapuntally awkward and the text-setting by the unknown composers is inferior to that of Josquin. Like Cicero, Josquin was a model of perfection, especially in Germany in the 1530s and 1540s. Josquin's music was particularly important in the early sixteenth century because, unlike the situation in literature, no music had survived from antiquity to serve as a model for Renaissance composers. The term imitatio serves a useful function as long as one qualifies the type of imitatio as being student emulation, as in the motets Levavi oculos and Nunc dimittis, or homage of a certain kind.

Works: Anonymous: Levavi oculos; Nunc dimittis.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

In the early 1920s, when public familiarity and associations with jazz were amorphous and inconsistent, Irving Berlin cultivated a sense that his theatrical music defined jazz. In addition to textual and musical references to ragtime or blues characteristics, Berlin used quotations of his own music, which had already gained ragtime associations, to reinforce this idea. One notable example is Berlin's quotation of his earlier songs Alexander's Ragtime Band, Everybody's Doing It Now, and The Syncopated Walk in his 1921 Everybody Step. Berlin's self-borrowing ranged from nearly exact quotation of a full phrase of both music and lyrics to more subtle use of one- or two-measure units of rhythms, fills, or pick-ups that were nevertheless recognizable as being drawn from his earlier pieces. The earlier songs' associations with jazz implied that Berlin's newer music also fit into the genre. To further build upon this personal jazz lineage, Berlin borrowed from Everybody Step in later works.

Works: Irving Berlin: Everybody Step (698-10), The Syncopated Vamp (706, 708), Pack Up Your Sins and Go to The Devil (710-12).

Sources: Irving Berlin: Alexander's Ragtime Band (706-07, 709-10), Everybody's Doing It Now (706, 708-09), The Syncopated Walk (706-09), Everybody Step (710-13).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Applying the technique of a "song profile," or the compositional and performance history of a tune that reveals socially constructed meanings, to Irving Berlin's Blue Skies reveals several borrowings that suggest reinterpretation. Many of Berlin's songs reflect a Jewish tradition, incorporating modal mixture and chromatic inflection. Although this tradition is not uniquely Jewish, listeners interpreted as such in Manhattan in Berlin's day. Looking at the tune history of Blue Skies demonstrates the shift from its Jewish origins in the 1920s to subsequent revisions that change its ethnic associations. A performer such as Belle Baker, for example, who sang the song in Betsy, attempted to identify directly with Jewish culture, whereas Al Jolson, who played straightforward and jazzy renditions in The Jazz Singer, gave the song, in addition to its Jewish characteristics, jazz overtones. Benny Goodman and Mary Lou Williams employed allusion; Bing Crosby crooned a slow, balladic version and marketed it toward a broader, Caucasian, middle-class audience. Through contrafact, Thelonius Monk virtually disguised the source in In Walked Bud, while Ella Fitzgerald used scat. Willie Nelson and Pete Seeger reinterpreted the song further to represent an American folk song. Above all, the transcendent power of the tune proves the "assimilative power of Jewish culture" and effectively reinforces its roots.

Works: Rodgers and Hart: Betsy (552-57); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Al Jolson in The Jazz Singer (557-59), Fletcher Henderson and Benny Goodman (559-63); Mary Lou Williams: Trumpet No End, arrangement for Duke Ellington (560-62); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Bing Crosby (563-65); Thelonius Monk: In Walked Bud (566-69); Berlin: Blue Skies as performed by Ella Fitzgerald (569-70), Willie Nelson (570-71), Pete Seeger (571-72).

Sources: Berlin: Blue Skies (537-38, 540-44, 547, 549-52, 572-73).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

The musicological “war” over the interpretation of Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 5 as an expression of political dissidence has over time generated alternative facts, adversarial rhetoric, and cynical apathy among scholars, all of which get in the way of fully analyzing the music. Setting aside the prominent, polarized interpretations, the symphony illustrates the simultaneous presence of multiple layers of meaning and purposeful ambiguity in Shostakovich’s music. By fusing abstract musical structures with specifically meaningful references, Shostakovich may have created his own kind of alternative fact, making his symphony both provably dissident and provably not dissident. In his extensive Shostakovich scholarship, Richard Taruskin’s main concern seems to be debunking the image of “dissident” Shostakovich as inaccurate. Despite this position, Taruskin identifies a “near citation” of the Orthodox requiem hymn Vechnaya pamyat in the third movement. While the passage does not actually contain a “near citation,” this claim has been repeated by other scholars, becoming an alternative fact. A full quotation of the hymn would likely have been dangerous to include in the Stalin era, but Vechnaya may possibly be referenced in motivic fragments throughout the entire symphony. Three motives—three ascending steps in equal, long note value; three repeated notes in equal, long note value; and three steps ascending or descending half-step to whole-step—are musically significant throughout the symphony and are present in the Vechnaya melody. The three-note ascending motive is especially prominent in the principal theme of the fourth movement. At various points in the third movement, the exact motives, rhythms, and timbre of Vechnaya are present and audible, lending credence to an intentional reference on the part of Shostakovich. The half step-whole step variation of the three-note ascending motive may also be (as Taruskin suggests) a reference to Shostakovich’s setting of Vozrozhdeniye (rebirth), which was composed immediately prior to the symphony and is directly quoted elsewhere in the symphony. The motive of three repeated notes also appears throughout the symphony in a few forms. The repeated short-short-long form could also remind listeners of the (arguably funereal) second movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7. The meaning of these three motives can be multivalent without being mutually exclusive; the motives could reference Vechnaya or Vozrozhdeniye, convey a dead-end feeling, or simply be repeated rhythmic and scalar patterns. Although the nature of truth or meaning in a work of art differs from truth in other fields, musical “data” (the notes on the page) are like any other data, open to different analysis and contextualization by people with different goals and perspectives.

Works: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Op. 47 (90-107)

Sources: Anonymous: Vechnaya pamyat’ (90-107); Shostakovich: Vozrozhdeniye (98-101)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Scholars have disagreed over the extent of Gregorian chant’s influence on Bruckner’s sacred works, with some arguing that Bruckner’s church compositions are fundamentally rooted in the techniques of chant, and others claiming that any correspondences between Bruckner’s sacred music and Gregorian chant is coincidental. A more nuanced approach demonstrates that Bruckner’s use of chant melodies and chant-like procedures varied considerably and included direct quotation, use of alternatim, and modeling his melodic phrase structure on chants. Of the works based directly on Gregorian chant melodies, Bruckner’s Veni Creator Spiritus, WAB 50, is a useful example of nineteenth-century chant harmonization practices, while the paraphrase Ave regina coelorum, WAB 8, is an original composition derived from an existing chant melody. Other works, such as Tota pulchra es, WAB 46, and Ecce Sacerdos, WAB 13, feature more indirect allusions to the Gregorian chant tradition—for instance, setting the piece in the Phrygian mode, or adopting a call-and-response format between a single voice and full choir—which could be considered “unconscious borrowing.” It is unclear how deeply Bruckner’s use of chant and chant-like procedures was intertwined with nineteenth-century movements in reforming sacred music, and the aesthetic significance of these borrowings—particularly for the congregations who first heard Bruckner’s sacred works—warrants further study.

Works: Bruckner: Veni Creator Spiritus, WAB 50 (114-15), Ave regina coelorum, WAB 8 (115-16), Inveni David, WAB 20 (117), Tota pulchra es, WAB 46 (118-19), Ecce Sacerdos, WAB 13 (118-19), Salvum fac populum tuum, WAB 40 (119), Windhaager Messe, WAB 25 (119), Asperges me, WAB 4 (120), Tantum ergo, WAB 41 (120), Ave Maria, WAB 7 (120), Pange lingua, WAB 33 (120-21).

Sources: Anonymous (chant): Veni Creator Spiritus (114-15); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from Missa de Sancta Maria ab Adventu usque ad Nativitatem Domini (115); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from In medio ecclesiae (117); Anonymous (chant): “Alleluia” from Officium in festo Immaculatae Conceptionis Beatae Mariae Virginis (118); Anonymous (chant): Tonus solemnis (118); Anonymous (chant): “Kyrie” from Kyrie Deus sempiterne (119); Attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas: Pange lingua (120-21); Anonymous (chant): “In Festis Beatae Mariae Virginis” from Antiphonale Monasticum (120).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

The relationship between music and image, particularly understood through the idea of melodic connection, is central to Samuel Beckett’s late works. This relationship is predicated on two observations about Beckett’s work. First, deconstruction is used as a tool for constructing meaning, not as an end in itself. Second, Beckett viewed music as an “ideal art,” therefore musical form is used as an end in itself. In Beckett’s 1953 novel Watt, singing makes several appearances. In one instance, the character Watt recalls a frog concert in which a trio of frogs croak in a rhythmically organized pattern which is remarkably similar to a scene in Jean-Philippe Rameau’s opera Platée. Music also plays a major part in Beckett’s 1982 television play Nacht und Träume, which includes barely audible hummed and sung excerpts of Franz Schubert’s lied of the same title. By removing the harmonic context, Beckett emphasizes the melodic essence and references Schopenhauer’s philosophy of Zusammenhang (connection), or the idea of temporal coherence connecting moments to form a continuity of conscience. The music in Nacht und Träume, along with other aspects of the play, depicts a standpoint “from within” as opposed to the “from without” standpoint of the earlier Watt.

Works: Samuel Beckett: Nacht und Träume (396-405)

Sources: Franz Schubert: Nacht und Träume (396-405)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 2000s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1900s

The combinative chansons of the Dijon Chansonnier (Dijon, Bibliothèque Municipale, MS 517) demonstrate characteristics of a well-defined genre. All of the combinative chansons of the Dijon Chansonnier feature a forme fixe in the Superius, with inner voices employing a popular melody, usually a chanson à refrain. In many cases, the popular melody is presented in canon. The aim of these chansons was to combine popular and courtly styles in a humorous and ironic way. Courtly and popular texts were presented in succession. True stylistic integration was undesirable because it would have hidden the antithetical construction of the combinative elements. Appendices provide an annotated list of combinative compositions and a catalogue and transcriptions of popular melodies quoted in the combinative chansons.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The combinative chansons of the Escorial Chansonnier (Escorial, Biblioteca del Monasterio, MS IV.a.24) show that while the witty textual allegory had reached sophisticated levels quite early, musical techniques were slower to develop. Imitative and canonic use of the popular tunes, as well as true triple chansons, did not appear for another generation. Nevertheless, some of the combinative chansons of the Escorial Chansonnier show considerable musical sophistication. Diagrams show how courtly and popular materials are distributed among voice parts. Appendices provide an annotated list of combinative compositions and a catalogue and transcriptions of popular melodies quoted in the combinative chansons.

Works: O Rosa bella/Hé Robinet (69, 107); Se je suis despourvue/Veni veni clerice (79-80, 108-10); A Florence/Hélas la fille Guilhemin (63-65, 7172, 111-13); N'oés-vous point le coc/Cocq en l'orge (74-75, 115-16); Madame de nom/Sur la rive de la mer (71, 118-19)

Index Classifications: 1400s

Combinative music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries uses different methods to unite heterogeneous texts and melodies: simultaneous, successive, and a combination of the two. Franco-Flemish practice focused on the first two of these categories. Serious motets and melancholy songs combined texts and tunes with symbolic relationships. Double and triple chansons and compositions with mixed sacred and secular texts used satire to produce humor on an ironic level. The type of combinative writing most often found in German regions featured a combination of successive fragments within a loose form, producing a broader, nonsensical type of humor. Thus the term "quodlibet" should be understood to refer to this specific sixteenth-century German type.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Scholars have perceived polytextual Franco-Flemish polyphony from 1450 to 1530 as medieval (rather than Renaissance) in style. In reality, such polyphony from this era demonstrates complexity, obscure symbolism, deliberate artificiality, and ingenuity that are all mannerist features from a more Renaissance than medieval spirit.

Polytextual polyphony from this era exhibits the mannerist tendency to demonstrate obscure relationships through uniting disparate texts and musical topoi in a deliberately artificial and ingenious form. Motets on sacred subjects were constructed on secular cantus firmi or on liturgical melodies whose original text differed from that of the polyphonic setting. Double- and triple-texted chansons often quoted one or more pre-existent melodies whose musical style and textual content differ radically from their polyphonic context. Besides uniting diverse melodic and poetic styles, the double chanson in its mature phase fuses antithetical structures, combining the asymmetrical formes fixes with symmetrical forms in canonic layout. As a result, each composition displays a starling disparity of musical styles. This disparity of styles is what distinguishes Renaissance polytextual polyphony from medieval polyphony: medieval polyphony strove to unify various elements into a coherent whole, while Renaissance polyphony deliberately juxtaposed various elements in a complex manner.

Works: Busnois: Puis qu’aultrement – Marchez là dureau (20-27); Compère: Plaine d’ennuy – Anima mea (28-29); Josquin: Videte omnes populi (30).

Sources: Anonymous (Sarum chant): Circumdederunt me (30).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

Index Classifications: 1400s

The multidimensionality of Bach's borrowing technique defies efforts to characterize it with terms such as "parody" or "transcription." The derogatory associations that these terms carry obscure the variety of Bach's techniques, such as reorchestration, intensification of counterpoint or melodic material, and even "reminiscence" of material from a different location in the same work. For example, the Triple Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1044, is not a simple transcription of the concertino from the Fifth Brandenburg Concerto, but a reworking that results in a far greater complexity of texture, while the opening of the Gloria from the Mass in A Major, BWV 234, is a parody of the last movement of Cantata 67 yet resembles the Kyrie from the same Mass, for which no model can be found. The idea of "transcription" is clearly too narrow to describe some works whose relationships extend beyond the ostensible model to other compositions. Bach's parody technique should be regarded as an elaboration of pre-existing works into new compositions, as well as a manifestation of his power of invention.

Works: Bach: Triple Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1044 (115-16), Cantata, BWV 146, Wir müssen durch viel Trübsal (117), Harpsichord Concerto in D Minor, BWV 1052, Mass in A Major, BWV 234 (117-19), Mass in F Major, BWV 233 (117-22), Prelude, Fugue, and Allegro in E-flat Major, BWV 998 (122-23).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher, Sergio Bezerra

The term "self borrowing" is not only grammatically contradictory (what one owns, one needs not borrow), it also tends to obscure the compositional process. Composers such as Bach and Handel did not stop thinking about musical material once it was committed to paper; rather, they continued to revise and expand on it. In Handel's case, expansion and elaboration of a theme can be seen in manuscript sketches.

Works: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Trio in E-flat, K. 498 (147-48), Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Act II, "Welche Wonne, welche lust" (147, 149); Anonymous, attributed to Handel: St. John Passion (150); George Frideric Handel: Organ Concerto, Op. 7, No. 4 (150-52), Nel dolce dell' oblio (150, 153), composition studies for Princess Anne (157-59), Sixth Chandos Anthem (159-63); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232, "Patrem omnipotentem" (155-56).

Sources: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Quartet in G minor, K. 478 (147-48), Flute Concerto, K. 314 (147, 149); Georg Philipp Telemann: Musique de table, second set (150, 153); Johann Sebastian Bach: Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (155-56); George Frideric Handel: Utrecht Te Deum (159).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Among Strauss's fifteen operas, there are a large number of quotations, stylistic allusions, and melodic derivatives, most of which have a programmatic intent. The musical borrowings are cited but are not included on separate lists.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

While it is known that Liszt and Wagner borrowed from one another, specific instances of borrowing have been difficult to prove. Although it has been previously argued that Wagner’s crowning motif in Parsifal, the “Grail” motive, is derived from Liszt’s prelude Excelsior, evidence reveals Wagner was unsympathetic to the work, lending the borrowing problematic to explain. However, Wagner’s utilization of a similarly constructed theme could be justified due to the composers’ sharing of an identical poetic intent. Both Wagner and Liszt believed in the suffering of the artist for the cause of true and holy Art. Evidence alludes to Liszt’s composition of Excelsior being significantly influenced by Longfellow’s poem Excelsior, which was meant to serve as “the motto of Poetry and Music.” If Liszt communicated these thoughts to Wagner, which was highly probable, it is possible Wagner’s use of the theme to represent the Grail was not merely a borrowing, but a tribute and homage to Liszt, as his partner in their artistic brotherhood. A recent discovery of Liszt’s work Am Grabe Richard Wagner confirms distinct influence from Wagner’s Parsifal and Liszt’s Excelsior. This piece thus serves as Liszt’s homage to Wagner’s artistic goals, which he felt Wagner had achieved to the highest echelon.

Works: Liszt: Am Grabe Richard Wagner (107–24), Excelsior (107–24); Wagner: Parsifal (107–24).

Sources: Liszt: Excelsior (107–24); Wagner: Parsifal (107–24).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Britten's Quatre Chansons Françaises, written in 1928, show four possible sources of influences: Frank Bridge, Britten's composition teacher; works whose scores Britten owned; broadcasts, recordings, and concerts; and orchestration books. Britten may have used Bridge as a model for some of the harmonies and orchestration in the first song "Les Nuits de Juin," but this is difficult to trace. Of the works he knew in score, those that seem to have had the most influence are Wagner's Tristan und Isolde and Siegfried and Ravel's Introduction and Allegro.Tristan serves as a model for the end of the song cycle where the similarities are key (B Major/C-flat Major), and the spacing of the strings in the final chord, which is repeated three times as in Tristan. Also, the soprano ends on the same note (F-sharp/G-flat); the utilization of suspensions is similar; and the "Tristan chord" is blatantly quoted in the third song "L'Enfance." The influence of Ravel, along with that of Debussy, may have been acquired through broadcasts as well as scores. This French influence appears in the vocal writing; the use of non-functional progressions of seventh and ninth chords; an oscillating triplet figure in "Les Nuits de Juin"; a melodic line constructed from a chain of 025 trichords in the final song "Chanson d'Automne"; and modal inflection such as is found in the second song "Sagesse." Finally, Cecil Forsyth's book Orchestration appears to have influenced not only the orchestration but also various instructions written in the parts.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Index Classifications: 1700s

Many modern jazz and popular compositions have been written based on the chord progressions of standard popular songs and other jazz compositions. They provide a fresh approach, both melodically and harmonically, to familiar material, and serve jazz musicians in jam sessions as an acceptable common denominator of chord progressions known to all. In addition to brief introductory comments, this book lists groups of compositions (more than one hundred compositions are included) that share the same chord progressions. Compositions based on the twelve-bar blues harmonic scheme and George Gershwin's song I Got Rhythm are not included.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Music in film can serve to strengthen the plot and emotional intensity if it is made an essential part of the narrative. In the case of Casablanca, Max Steiner scores approximately forty-five minutes of music that makes an indelible mark on the film's narrative through borrowing the French national anthem, La Marseillaise, the German national anthem, Deutschland über alles,As Time Goes By, and Watch on the Rhine, scoring them repeatedly in various ways to show sympathy for the star-crossed lovers. Adolph Deutsch's score for the Maltese Falcon contains fifty minutes of composed music that does not contain borrowed tunes, lending itself to a less noticeable role in the film's narrative. Steiner borrowed La Marseillaise to symbolize the French, and by extension, the Allied resistance to Nazi oppression. Deutschland über alles and Watch on the Rhine were used to symbolize the Nazi German menace. As Time Goes By is scored unobtrusively with background music throughout the score as a theme song, enhancing the unity of the film and imbuing the narrative with a strong sense of nostalgia.

Works: Max Steiner: score to Casablanca (118); Adolph Deutsch: score to The Maltese Falcon (128).

Sources: Joseph Haydn (tune), Hoffman and Fallersleben (poem): Deutschland über alles (119); Herman Hupfeld: As Time Goes By (121); Karl Wilhelm: Watch on the Rhine (121).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kathleen Widden

The 1948 screwball comedy Unfaithfully Yours, written, produced, and directed by Preston Sturges, satirizes the elevated status of classical music through an extended fantasy sequence set in the mind of a conductor during a concert. Sir Alfred De Carter, the conductor, suspects his wife’s infidelity and imagines three scenarios inspired by the three works on the concert program: Rossini’s Semiramide, Wagner’s Tannhäuser, and Tchaikovsky’s Francesca da Rimini. Throughout the film, Alfred is depicted as a caricature of high society, only enjoying the veneer of high culture. During the fantasy sequences, the classical soundtrack fluctuates between being in the foreground and functioning as underscoring. Alfred’s fantasies take the original narratives of the music and distort them to comedic effect. In the Tannhäuser sequence, Alfred turns the opera’s theme of love and redemption on its head by patronizingly redeeming his adulterous wife, treating her as a prop for his noble act of forgiveness. In the sequence featuring Francesca da Rimini, based on a vignette from Dante’s Inferno, Alfred imagines himself the melodramatic hero, tormented in hell. The Semiramide sequence is the most involved, opening with a six-minute scene of the orchestra rehearsing the overture before delving into Alfred’s fantasy. In the rehearsal, Rossini’s overture serves as the background for slapstick humor, as in a bit where a percussionist has to rush offstage to grab a pair of comically large cymbals. At one point during the Semiramide fantasy, musical cues in pop styles humorously intrude on the classical score as Alfred sneaks boogie-woogie records into a stack of classical records within his fantasy. Music is core to the humor in other ways as well: several running jokes are tied to repeated musical cues. The final scene offers one last send-up of Hollywood’s use of classical music to evoke sentiment. Tannhäuser is heard once again, this time as non-diegetic underscoring to Alfred reaffirming his undying love for his wife, which—given his misreading of the music in his fantasies—rings flowery and hollow. Unfaithfully Yours demonstrates Preston Sturges’s control over his film score and his assessment of classical music’s role in American culture.

Works: Preston Sturges (director) and Alfred Newman (music director): score to Unfaithfully Yours (246-260)

Sources: Wagner: Tannhäuser (246-247), Tristan und Isolde (258-260); Tchaikovsky: Francesca da Rimini (247); Rossini: Semiramide (247-258); James Lord Pierpont, et al.: Jingle Bells (258-260)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The enormous variety of borrowing (citation) in free jazz cannot be adequately described by our current rigid and limited terminology. The rhetoric and ideology present in outmoded descriptions of borrowing that use language and assumptions advanced by Philippe Carles and Jean-Louis Comolli obligate us to intervene and create a new system for writing about borrowing. We must do away with mythical and mystical language of inspiration and creation, as well as the inflexible idea that jazz emerged solely from the condition of Black Americans. Furthermore, distinctions between types of borrowing are useless if divorced from the texts--"text" in this case being a flexible term that refers not just to our traditional ideas of notated music, but to any heard performance. If we separate term and text, we slide back towards old unconstructive accusations of copying and plagiarism. The new terminology should incorporate the many types of borrowing that occur, including collage, mélange, collision, juxtaposition, reminiscence, and self-borrowing, as well as the performance conditions and the reason for the use of a particular source.

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Despite Stravinsky's protestations to the contrary, it is possible to find meaning in his music, especially in Le baiser de la fée. As the work borrows from Tchaikovsky and makes reference to Richard Wagner a great deal, meaning can be found by examining Le baiser de la fée's borrowing and incorporations. The ballet's climax uses the half-diminished seventh chord, which is identical to the "Curse structure" of Wagner's Ring and the "Tristan structure" in Tristan und Isolde. Incidentally, this particular chord is also found in many of the Tchaikovsky works from which Stravinsky borrows. This structure is used abundantly throughout Le baiser de la fée, by both avoiding it and eventually capitulating. This is one example of a "symbol" that can be traced throughout the work and that can be said to carry "meaning."

Works: Stravinsky: Le baiser de la fée (51-83).

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Soir d'Hiver (62), Tant Triste, Tant Douce (62), Polka peu dansante (63), Ah, qui brûla d'amour (63, 68); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (64, 70, 71); Tchaikovsky: Humoreske (71-73, 81-82), Reverie du Soir (72, 81), Berceuse de la Tempête (75-76); Wagner: Das Rheingold (76).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

The common assumption that Ives's use of borrowed material is primarily programmatic is not valid. Ives himself differentiated between "mannered" quotation, or the use of "local musical sources merely for surface effect," and the creation of meaning, substance, and compositional structure in a work through various types of quotation, paraphrase, and motivic and structural development related to borrowed material. The juxtaposition of sacred hymns with ragtime in the second and fourth movements of Ives's First Piano Sonata provides an example. Ives used both the formal and melodic organization of three hymns, I Hear Thy Welcome Voice, Bringing in the Sheaves, and Happy Day, as a basis for the ragtime movements. The simultaneous use of both sacred and secular music may be a result of Ives's Transcendentalist philosophy, which prompted him to draw on the entire range of music he knew. But Ives also selected his sources for quotation according to the motivic relationships present in the borrowed material. For example, the hymn tune Missionary Chant plays an important role in the Second Piano Sonata ("Concord") because of its melodic similarity to the opening motive from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. In The Fourth of July, Ives uses the patriotic song The Red, White, and Blue throughout, a procedure that is comparable to the chorale preludes of J. S. Bach.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 1 (46-53), Orchestral Set No. 2 (46), Piano Sonata No. 2, "Concord, Mass., 1840-60" (54), The Fourth of July (54-56).

Sources: Ives: Set of Four Ragtime Pieces (46); Hartsough: "I Hear Thy Welcome Voice" (46-47, 49-50); Minor: "Bringing in the Sheaves" (46, 48, 50-53); Rimbault: "Happy Day" (46, 49-53); Zeuner: "Missionary Chant" (54); David T. Shaw: "The Red, White and Blue" (55-56); William Steffe?: "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" (55-56).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Palestrina composed nine polyphonic Masses based on plainsong hymns. One is canonic, two in cantus-firmus style, and six are paraphrase Masses. It is likely that his choice of hymns was influenced by his role in the post-Tridentine chant reform, which resulted in the publication of Johannes Guidetti's Directorium chori. All the hymns used by Palestrina in paraphrase Masses are contained in this publication. He usually states the borrowed melody in even note values, freeing him from the metrical structure of the hymn text.

Works: Palestrina: Missa Te Deum (349), Missa Veni Creator Spiritus, Missa Iam Christus (354), Missa Aeterna Christi (355), Missa Jesu nostra, Missa Ad coenam (357), Missa Octavi toni, Missa Iste confessor (360), Missa Sanctorum meritis (362).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

By examining the criticism and liner notes written by The Roots’ drummer Questlove (Ahmir Thompson), the notion that sampling is what determines authenticity in hip-hop can be questioned. Though Questlove frequently admits that sampling is highly important to hip-hop, he notes that many of the earliest and some of the most successful hip-hop recordings use studio instrumentalists performing “samples” of hit breaks and grooves. He also notes the ability of producers to sample is severely limited by the amount of money required to license many well-known samples. When performing and recording with The Roots, Questlove has sought to recreate the sound and rhythmic character of sampled drums through various studio techniques and playing in a funk-based, relatively invariable fashion. Examples of this can be found on “Dynamite” and “Double Trouble” from Illadelph Halflife. The Roots have also utilized beatboxers Scratch and Rahzel, who can imitate the sounds of samples and record scratching in their beatboxing. Such efforts to mimic sampled sounds on “traditional” instruments demonstrate both the importance of sampling for hip-hop and the desire to explore other avenues of music making while staying true to hip-hop’s essence.

Works: De La Soul: Transmitting Live from Mars (868); Biz Markie: Alone Again (868); Afrika Bambaataa: Planet Rock (874); Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (874); Sugar Hill Gang: Rapper’s Delight (874); Yes: Owner of a Lonely Heart (876); Common: Like Water for Chocolate (876); The Roots: Concerto of the Desperado (880).

Sources: Jim McGuinn and Gene Clark (songwriters) and The Turtles (performers): You Showed Me (868); Gilbert O’Sullivan: Alone Again (Naturally) (868); Kraftwerk: Trans-Europe Express (874); Funk Inc.: Kool is Back (876); Lionel Bart: Theme from From Russia with Love (880).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

As suggested by John Ward and others, when a sixteenth-century composition borrows only melodic material from another work, the term "paraphrase" should be used rather than "parody." By contrast, "parody" should refer to the practice of appropriating "vertical slices" (chords and imitative structures) of the thematic complex of the borrowed music in a fairly strict manner. Giovanni Paolo Paladino's 1560 monothematic fantasia based on Vincenzo Ruffo's madrigal Alcun non puo saper subjects the original madrigal to a variety of techniques that include modification of the basic imitative structure (changing the distance between points of imitation), rhythmic alterations such as diminution and augmentation, and transposition of some of the melodic material to different modes. The intent of Paladino's borrowing remains an open question. Given the diatonicism of subjects and the control of dissonance in sixteenth-century counterpoint, it is possible that many "borrowed" relationships may simply arise from the use of a common subject. Paladino's Fantasia occupies a middle ground between parody and paraphrase since it appropriates, but radically alters, the vertical structure of Ruffo's madrigal.

Works: Paladino: Fantasia on "Alcun non puo saper" (1-12).

Sources: Ruffo: Alcun non puo saper (2-10).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb, Jir Shin Boey

The musical material of Stravinsky's "Petit concert" from the Histoire du soldat consists only of quotations from the remaining movements of the piece. The beginning vertically combines two motives from the "Music to Scene 1" that are developed according to parameters inherent in the musical material, especially the major second or ninth. Stravinsky derived it from the space between the g and a strings of the violin that in the story is the actual reason for the "Petit concert." This development leads to new ideas that, once they are firmly established, turn out to be quotations themselves. Stravinsky quotes from movements with about the same tempo and uses consistent rhythmic patterns in order to achieve an optimal integration.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, opera selections have had an important place in the repertoire for concert bands, but the recent trend in concert bands away from playing opera transcriptions has been detrimental to the popularity of opera in America. In the 1830s, opera tunes became a dominant genre of popular music thanks to performances by military, civic, and professional concert bands, which represented a significant portion of the music consumed by the public throughout the 1800s. The first celebrity bandleader was Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, who gained national fame in 1872 organizing music for the National Peace Jubilee after the Civil War. Through the late nineteenth century, Gilmore organized a private band with varied programs that included operatic transcriptions. Taking Gilmore’s place in the public spotlight around the turn of the century was John Philip Sousa, who also programmed a variety of music including modern opera repertoire like Richard Wagner. After Sousa’s death in 1932, nationally touring bands of that scale became a thing of the past, especially with the rise of radio and sound recording. While a few professional bands, like the Goldman Band, remained through the mid-twentieth century, performing a traditional mix of music including operatic repertoire, collegiate bands began to replace them as the dominant concert band force. Collegiate bands, especially those modelled on Frederick Fennell’s Eastman Wind Ensemble, began programming more original works for band and distanced themselves from operatic transcriptions. Without the widespread performance of opera by bands, its popularity in American declined.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

In his youth, Handel became acquainted with contemporary Italian opera during his travels to Berlin, Weißenfelser, and elsewhere, so he was already well-versed in the genre by the time he arrived in Hamburg, aged 18, to work at the Gänsemarkt Opera under Reinhard Keiser. During his two-year apprenticeship as both a performer and composer, he further familiarized himself with the art form’s inner workings, and he gained valuable formative experience from the musicians, the extensive archive of operatic repertory, and the overall quality of the theater’s productions. Handel also gained much from Keiser himself, learning the importance of a good libretto, sensitivity to text, and careful dramatic pacing in operatic composition. Keiser’s influence can be witnessed in some of Handel’s early works, as Handel incorporates a number of melodic passages from Keiser’s operas in his cantata Arresta il passo HWV 83 and his opera Teseo HWV 9. Notably, though, rather than simply copying Keiser’s melodies, Handel combines disparate melodic segments into completely new passages while making several alterations to the rhythm, meter, tempo, and musical structure of the source material. This procedure, “varied borrowing” (“verändernde Übernahme”), was a common compositional technique for budding composers in Handel’s day and reflects the practice of “moduli” as described in Johann Mattheson’s Vollkommene Capellmeister. A table outlining Handel’s complete borrowings from Keiser is included.

Works: Handel: Arresta il passo HWV 83 (42-43), Teseo HWV 9 (43-44).

Sources: Reinhard Keiser: Octavia (32-39, 42), Du schöne Morgenröthe (42-43), La forza della virtù (43).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

Although most polyphonic lamentations of the sixteenth century are based on the Roman lamentation tone, we find a few examples (including some outside of Spain) that are based on the Spanish version. The latter is especially characterized by its initial formula for the Hebrew letter. This formula may be quoted literally, paraphrased in one or several voices, transposed, and even reused in the initium of the actual lamentation. There is even an example where both the Roman and Spanish tone are vertically combined. One should beware, however, of confusing quotation with accidental melodic concordances.

Works: Morales: Aleph. Quomodo sedet (for five parts; from Ms. Toledo, Catedral, Bibl. Capitular, Libros de facistol Ms. 21) (232-33); Fuenllana: Aleph. Quomodo sedet; Morales: Lamentation, arranged for voice and vihuela (233); Créquillon: Lamed. O vos omnes (234-35), Mem. De excelso misit ignem (234); Valera: Ya no quiero aver plaser (236).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1400s

In the medieval period, the motet was both an applied art and a speculative discipline. It was cultivated within very exclusive social circles. The aesthetic of these groups and the overall contemporary culture allowed for extensive borrowing from and transformation of monophonic and polyphonic music to create new works. Chant developed into organum through medieval rules of consonance, as is the case with the two-part organum Sed sic eum volo. This work also happens to be an organum mensuratum, which means that rhythms exist in a concrete form within the manuscript. Such notation enables modern scholars to more closely study the harmonies and counterpoint of the work. Many motets also allude to their own music. Overall, the most important sources of quotation in the medieval motet are other polyphonic upper voices and the chansonnier repertoire.

Works: Motet: Benedicamus domino (22); Organum: Sed sic eum volo (23-24); Motet: Cest quadruble sans reason (43-44), Trois serors, sor rive mer (43-44), De vulgari eloquentia (91-93).

Sources: Chant: Benedicamus domino (22); Gradual verse: Sed sic eum volo (23).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

An English codex from 1343 includes a nearly complete exemplar of the Office for the Feast of Corpus Christi, with notation, providing new clues to the development of this office. Both texts and chants differ in some respects from other sources. Neither the texts nor the chants for this office were composed by St. Thomas Aquinas, as tradition holds. The chants were borrowed from numerous earlier sources, accurately listed in the marginalia in a Paris manuscript for the feast. These sources include the relatively late feasts of St. Thomas of Cantebury and St. Bernard, who were canonized in 1173 and 1174.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, 1300s

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Britten's Third Quartet uses material from Death in Venice, his last opera. Like Mahler with his late works and Aschenbach in the opera, Britten's inspiration "returned only under the shadow of death," and a preoccupation with life, death, peace, and beauty may be observed in the quartet. The final movement, "Passacaglia," subtitled "La Serenissima," is prefaced by five quotations from Death in Venice. The first quotation is the Barcarolle, which, in the opera, is "a transformation of the chorus's repeated calls of 'Serenissima'"; the final quotation is the love motive from the end of Act I (Aschenbach's confession of love for Tadzio, "I love you"). E Major, associated in Death in Venice with Aschenbach's quest for ideal beauty, is also used for the Passacaglia.

Works: Britten: String Quartet No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

This issue of Tempo is dedicated to the works of Robin Holloway, and this article focuses on his chamber works. Scenes from Schumann involves paraphrases of six Schumann songs: two from Myrthen, one from Dichterliebe, and three from the Opus 39 Liederkreis. Holloway has "re-composed" them, delving into the songs and presenting them in enriched and intensified versions. Holloway's treatment of "Mondnacht" serves as an example. Along with harmonic changes, he adds borrowings from Wagner's Ring cycle and Tristan und Isolde, Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, and Debussy's Rondes de printemps. Holloway's Fantasy-Pieces for wind quintet offer a more subtle borrowing technique, in this case drawing on the Opus 24 Liederkreis. Several other brief examples demonstrate Holloway's basically romantic style of borrowing, which creates a feeling of separation or removal from the older material.

Works: Holloway: Scenes from Schumann (21-2), Fantasy-Pieces (22-3), Evening with Angels (23), Concertino No. 3 (23).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Index Classifications: 1900s

Nine of Anthony Philip Heinrich’s sixteen symphonies use American patriotic tunes, in conjunction with descriptive titles and programs, to articulate a national American character. These symphonies draw their influences from both the “cultivated” and “vernacular” traditions of American musical life between 1820 and 1860. On the one hand, Heinrich capitalized on the vogue for European orchestral program music; on the other hand, he also drew upon the increased prominence of vernacular genres such as patriotic songs, hymns, and ballads.

The Bohemian-born Heinrich used these nine “American” symphonies to promote his own image as a distinctly American composer. These works celebrated the composer’s idealized beliefs in the United States as a perfect democracy, a growing industrial power, and a vast frontier, which he experienced while living in Kentucky. American critics picked up on the national traits of these works, with many viewing him as a champion of American art music, while European critics often viewed these same traits as peculiar musical exoticisms unique to Heinrich’s style.

In spite of their pronounced national character, these nine symphonies are still highly individualized in their formal schemes, number of movements, harmony, programmatic content, and use of borrowed tunes such as Yankee Doodle and Hail Columbia. For some written programs, Heinrich also directly quotes passages from American literature and history books, such as John Wilson’s American Ornithology and John McIntosh’s Origin of the North American Indians. Moreover, the symphonies exhibit considerable borrowings from Heinrich’s own compositions, ranging from the simple incorporation of a borrowed song melody to a substantial reworking of previous music. Three appendices contain photocopies of large portions of selected symphony movements, while a fourth appendix gives a complete list of Heinrich’s orchestral works.

Works: Anthony Philip Heinrich: The Columbiad: Grand American National Chivalrous Symphony (6, 20, 38-39, 73-74, 87, 92-97, 112-13, 136, 165-67, 186, 194-203, 213-80), The Ornithological Combat of Kings; or The Condor of the Andes and the Eagle of the Cordilleras (6, 35-38, 87-89, 96, 107-8, 110-12, 122-24, 127-35, 145-49, 157-59, 178-79, 189-203, 281-321), Gran Sinfonia Eroica (6, 35-36, 87-89, 95, 108-10, 131, 167, 189), The Hunters of Kentucky (6, 38, 87, 98, 113-14, 123, 148, 187-89), The Jubilee (6, 45, 87-89, 99-100, 114-16, 165-67, 187-89), The Mastodon (6, 47, 87-89, 102-3, 118-19, 122-23, 137, 180-83), The Columbiad; or, Migration of American Wild Passenger Pigeons (6, 51-52, 87-88, 105-6, 120-21, 130-31, 135, 176-78, 190-93), The Indian Carnival; or, The Indian’s Festival of Dreams (6, 76, 87-88, 104, 116-17, 120-21, 183-84), Manitou Mysteries; or, The Voice of the Great Spirit (6, 84-85, 87-91, 101, 117-18, 137-41, 149-56, 159-61, 184-86, 202-3, 322-54).

Sources: Philip Phile: Hail, Columbia (4, 60-61, 112, 116, 135, 165); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (4, 60-61, 112-13, 116, 135-36, 165); Anthony Philip Heinrich: All Hail to Kentucky (4, 98, 113-14), Sensibility (22, 95, 109-10), Tyler’s Grand Veto Quick Step (102, 119, 137), Gran Sinfonia Eroica (108-9), The Columbiad: Grand American National Chivalrous Symphony (115), The Tower of Babel (166); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14 (190-91).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Igor Markevitch's Variazioni e fuge su un tema di Haendel, his final composition, synthesizes his personal language with the canon of pianistic tradition and the tradition of variations. Markevitch deliberately separates the core body of his variations from both the unaltered presentation of the borrowed theme and from the coda. Throughout the variations, he suggests the use both of the piano as a heroic instrument in itself and as a miniature orchestra. Although Markevitch's Variazioni e fuge su un tema di Haendel is both the climax and the end of his compositional oeuvre, it serves as an appropriate segue to his later editorial work.

Works: Igor Markevitch: Variazioni e fuge su un tema di Haendel (61).

Sources: Handel: Keyboard Suite No. 5 in E Major (61).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

English folk songs and the modality inherent in them influenced Vaughan Williams's choral works in the areas of rhythm, tempo, meter, modality, melody, harmony, ornamentation, tonality, texture and form. Chapters IV ("Music Based on a Folk Song Idiom") and V ("Choral Works Based Directly on Folk Songs") contain information on Vaughan Williams's use of borrowed materials.

Works: Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on the "Old 104th" Psalm Tune (40), The Dark-Eyed Sailor (50), The Spring Time of the Year (51), Just as the Tide was Flowing (52), The Lover's Ghost (53), Wassail Song (54), A Sea Symphony (63).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Index Classifications: 1700s

[On Schat and Andriessen among others.]

Index Classifications: 1900s

Falla is distinguished for having brought Spanish music into the 20th century through his move away from the romantic-impressionistic tradition, in which folk elements are merely stylized, to a neo-classic musical language in which folk elements serve as the basis for composition. Falla's innovations include developments in rhythm, harmony and form. Each of these, "internal rhythm," "Harmonic resonance," and modification of classical schemes, is discussed in reference to his Harpsichord Concerto, which treats a 15th-century Castilian folksong, De los alamos vengo.

Works: Falla: Harpsichord Concerto.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Revueltas never used actual folk melodies in his music, but he evoked regional tunes such as the Tarascan son and the Michoacan corrido by modeling his melodies on their characteristic features, thus creating a Mexican nationalist music.

Works: Revueltas: Caminos (131-32), Cuauhnahuac (130), Janitzio (129-30, 133), The Wave (132-33).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Because of the relationship between borrowed music and compositional structure in Beckwith's Keyboard Practice (1979), an analysis of these components may illuminate the composer's intended meaning, as well as provide an analytical model for other referential compositions. Keyboard Practice, a set of variations which involves four performers who play on ten different keyboard instruments, employs quotations from an anonymous Alman, a movement from an Ordre by François Couperin, Liszt's Au bord d'une source, and Charles L. Johnson's Cum Bac' Rag. On the surface, these borrowings reflect Beckwith's view of the history of keyboard literature. The variety of instruments involved may also be read as an examination of a variety of keyboard timbres. Beckwith also comments on each borrowed composition through musical interruptions which disrupt the quotations. The 12-tone row upon which the piece is based may also be considered a reflection on the borrowed material, as it is derived from the first ten notes of the Alman, and sections of the row serve as cadential figures in reference to the other pre-existent music.

Works: Beckwith: Keyboard Practice (94-109).

Sources: Fitzwilliam Virginal Book: anonymous Alman (97-105); François Couperin: [Unidentified] Ordre (97-105); Liszt: Au bord d'une source (97-105); Charles L. Johnson: Cum Bac' Rag (98-105).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Although Stravinsky frequently emphasizes his familiarity with the sources of folk songs and the influence of folk music upon his works, he claims to have quoted only one folk tune (Ne veselaia da kampan'itsa) in his ballet Les Noces. What characterizes Les Noces as typically Russian is not the quotation of this song, however, but the use of melodic idioms, called popevki.Popevki playing an important role in Stravinsky's ballet are listed in the appendix of the essay. According to Stravinsky, Les Noces is also a product of the Russian church, which is shown with a passage entirely derived from the Fifth Tone (glas) of the Znamennyi Chant. The main point of the article is, however, that Stravinsky's ballet is strongly influenced by the Russian folk weddings in terms of "poly-layered texture," the function of rhythmic and melodic ostinato, the recurrences of certain melodic phrases, as well as conceptual and structural ideas.

Works: Kastalsky: Kartiny narodnykh prazdnovanii na Rusi (Scenes of Folk Festivals in Old Russia) (112-14); Stravinsky: Les Noces.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

David Lynch uses compilation scores comprising American popular songs to establish individual sound signatures in his films. He is especially attracted to pop songs released during his adolescence that make use of distinctive vocals or mixing, which create a certain peculiarity with the naiveté of a song’s message, sincerity, and compositional elements. Lynch capitalizes on the dualistic nature of these songs by deploying them as historically unproblematic and desired objects of nostalgia, in some instances using them in violent, psychologically deviant, horrifying, and self-consciously staged scenes as passageways to strangeness and the uncanny. Such a use allows audiences to reimagine the history of these songs and the culture that created and consumed them and represents a new employment of the compilation score consistent with his aesthetic of the “ridiculous sublime.” In Mulholland Drive, the pop song I’ve Told Every Little Star represents the film’s theme of duality. In Lost Highway, the use of Lou Reed’s cover of This Magic Moment rather than the well-known pop versions matches the soundscape of the film and is metacommentary on the reception of American popular song. In Twin Peaks, a newly-composed pop song disrupts the security of reality, and in Blue Velvet, pop music complicates multiple layers of diegesis, performance, and reality.

Works: David Lynch (director): soundtrack to Lost Highway (494, 502-3), soundtrack to Eraserhead (494, 499), soundtrack to Blue Velvet (507-9); David Lynch (director) and Angelo Badalamenti (composer): soundtrack to Mulholland Drive (494, 494-501), soundtrack to Twin Peaks (494, 503-6).

Sources: Bill Post and Doree Post: Sixteen Reasons (Why I Love You) (500); Oscar Hammerstein II and Jerome Kern: I’ve Told Ev’ry Little Star (500-501); Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman (songwriters) and The Drifters (performers): This Magic Moment (500-502); Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman (songwriters) and Lou Reed (performer): This Magic Moment (502-3); Bobby Vinton: Blue Velvet (507-8); Roy Orbison: In Dreams (508-9).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

R. Nathaniel Dett believed that African-American folk songs were well suited to development into high art forms, and that such development could inspire racial pride and personal dignity. He was particularly predisposed to the use of spirituals as the basis of choral compositions. His treatment of the source material included use of the entire song or only the smallest fragment; expansion, contraction, variation, and inversion of the melodic ideas; rhythmic diminution and augmentation; textual mutations and repetitions; and antiphonal and contrapuntal treatments.

Works: Dett: Listen to the Lambs (36-38), The Ordering of Moses (82-84, 143, 144), O Hear the Lambs A-Crying (134,135), Gently, Lord, O Gently Lead Us (136), Let Us Cheer The Weary Travler (137-139).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Although Haydn was an extremely prolific composer, he rarely used existing music in his works, and even when he did, the source music was usually a hymn tune, folksong, or melody by another composer. Haydn’s Symphony No. 89, on the other hand, is unique in that it extensively reworks two movements from his own set of concertos for lira organizzata, which he had composed two years earlier for King Ferdinand IV of Naples. Rather than creating a straightforward adaptation, though, Haydn greatly expands upon his older models by extending their lengths, varying the orchestration, distributing melodic material among many different instruments, and adding several new contrapuntal lines and accompaniments. It is unclear why Haydn borrowed so heavily from these concertos when composing his symphony, but it may have been due to time constraints during a particularly busy year, or because the concertos were virtually unknown outside of their performances at King Ferdinand’s original private concerts. Regardless of Haydn’s reasoning, the Symphony No. 89 is an excellent example of the composer’s ingenuity and fertile imagination when adapting his own music for a new purpose. Two tables cite other instances of Haydn’s self-borrowing.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 100 in G Major, Hob.I:100 (“Military”) (56-57), Symphony No. 89 in F Major, Hob.I:89 (57-64).

Sources: Haydn: Concerto No. 3 for 2 Lire Organizzate in G Major, Hob.VIIh:3 (56-57), Concerto No. 5 for 2 Lire Organizzate in F Major, Hob.VIIh:5 (57-64).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1900s

Kurt Weill originally conceived the third dream sequence in Lady in the Dark as a minstrel show, but lyricist Ira Gershwin preferred Gilbert and Sullivan as a model, particularly Trial by Jury. Early drafts and the final version include many parallels and echoes in the text. Weill joined in by borrowing the Mikado's entrance song from The Mikado for the entrance of the jury.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: J. Peter Burkholder

The musical context of pre-existing pieces used in film scores may help one derive meaning from a score. While film director Robert Bresson completely rejected non-diegetic film music at the end of his career, Au Hasard, Balthazar represents the culmination of his admired treatment of rhythm and form in film music. He avoids postmodern irony present in films such as 2001: A Space Odyssey, choosing instead to merge the aural and visual to the point that they are dependent on each other. Fragments of the Andantino from Schubert's Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959 are arranged in a way that adds meaning to the film. It is essential for viewers to pay attention to the meaning of these fragments both as they function within the film and according to their original function, as the images and sounds in the film transform one another.

Works: Robert Bresson (director): Sound track to Au Hasard, Balthazar.

Sources: Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Major, D. 959.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

To secure Ives’s compositional reputation against modernist criticism, revisionist scholars have adapted the untenable position that Charles Ives was a modernist composer. Such characterizations attempt to situate his music within Western European tradition and refute the categorization of Ives as an experimentalist. Two critical processes, the idea of experimentalism and the use of musical analysis, are important to understanding how Ives’ reputation was created. In post-1974 Ives scholarship, music analysis is often used as a determinant of aesthetic value. It is frequently employed to “prove” that Ives’s music is systematic and logical, and by extension is skilled and therefore valuable. This motivation also lies behind scholarship which demonstrates how Ives’s music is more “traditional” and how it relates to European art music. For example, some scholars have tried to show how Ives’s uses of musical borrowings fit into a European tradition. Such traditionalist studies seek to redefine the term “experimentalism” as it was originally conceived in the 1930s by Cowell—a type of music which deliberately sought to break with European tradition—to a term that signifies compositional uniqueness. The motivations of such analyses, which have attempted to place Ives’s musical reputation within a context of “skill and value,” should be examined. Perhaps Ives’s music, aspects of which (such as his uses of pre-existing music) intentionally undermine conventions, should not be subject to formalist analysis and scholars should instead examine the validity of evaluating Ives through a modernist lens rather than characterize his music as modernist.

Works: Ives: Tone Roads No. 1 (104), Study No. 5 (104), The Cage (104), Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord, Mass., 1840-60) (105-6).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kate Altizer, Chelsea Hamm, Amanda Jensen

Mahler and Freud were both interested in the dynamics of dreams. Mahler's Third Symphony and Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams both involve dream images. Freud had a "dream of the stately house" (not included in his book) which makes reference to a nationalist song written by August von Binzer in 1819. The beginning of this song largely corresponds to the beginning of Mahler's Third Symphony, such that the latter is viewed as an allusion to the former. The song was sung in 1878 upon the government's dissolution of an influential youth organization to which Freud belonged and of which Mahler was aware. The shared interest of Freud and Mahler in the youth culture of the 1870s is revealed in their references to this song.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mahler's Third Symphony may be interpreted in terms of the philosophy of Schopenhauer. Mahler quotes the adagio of Beethoven's String Quartet Op. 135 at the beginning of the last movement and quotes Wagner's Parsifal at the end of the same movement.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3.

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135; Wagner: Parsifal.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In the wake of the Brahms/Wagner debate of the mid-nineteenth century, Mahler alludes in his music to Brahms both thematically and structurally. Due to his quotation of other composers, Mahler has often been criticized for lack of originality. Mahler took inspiration from Brahms and transformed it in his own music. Examples of this are seen in Mahler's First and Second Symphonies and their allusions to Brahms's First and Second Symphonies.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (216, 219-21), Symphony No. 1 (218-19), Symphony No. 4 (222), Symphony No. 6 (222-23), Symphony No. 7 (222-23).

Sources: Brahms: Ein deutsches Requiem, Op. 45 (216, 220-21), Symphony No. 2 (217-19), Nänie, Op. 82 (220), Symphony No. 1 (221-22), Symphony No. 3 (222-23).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

James Ralph's (1695-1762) The Fashionable Lady (1730) should be considered the first opera by an American, not Anthony Aston's The Fool's Opera (as cited by Sonneck in his Early Opera in America). Ralph, foremost a writer, travelled with Benjamin Franklin to England beginning in 1724, and moved in circles of notable friends such as John Gay, Alexander Pope and William Hogarth. The Fashionable Lady fits into the scheme of English ballad opera of the period. Specific numbers in this opera are lifted most often from John Gay's The Beggar's Opera and Polly, but also from Charles Johnson's The Village Opera and Thomas Walker's The Quaker's Opera. Only one number in Ralph's work, "The Queen's Old Courtier" (Air no. 56), could possibly have been composed by Ralph; in this rare instance, the music suits Ralph's text.

Works: James Ralph: The Fashionable Lady.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: John Andrew Johnson

Rachmaninov's Corelli Variations illustrates his new compositional tendencies: economy of means, sparse texture, well-balanced structure, string-inspired figurations, elements of American jazz, and the avoidance of Romantic richness. Some of these elements are also present in the Paganini Rhapsody. Along with this main idea, the composer's borrowings in the two pieces are examined mainly in the discussion of string-influenced variations. For instance, in the Corelli Variations, the cadenza in the Intermezzo shares gypsy-style figurations with Kreisler?s La Gitane (m. 7). In the coda, the soaring melodic contour is inspired by that in the transcription of the coda of Corelli's La Folia (mm. 1-3) by Albert Spalding, Rachmaninov's friend. In the Paganini Rhapsody, the skips in triplet figuration in Var. 23 have a parallel with those in Paganini's La Clochette (mm. 76-92).

Works: Rachmaninov: Variations on a Theme of Corelli (32-34), Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43 (52).

Sources: Paganini: Praeludium and Allegro (32); Kreisler: La Gitane (33); Albert Spalding: transcription of Corelli?s La Folia (34); Paganini: La Clochette (52).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

The electronic collage aesthetic, which originated with musique concrète and tape works such as John Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 5 and Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman's The Flying Saucer, finds its modern incarnation in Danger Mouse's The Grey Album, a mash-up of Jay-Z's The Black Album and The Beatles' White Album. The current mash-up phenomenon is made possible by file-sharing software and readily available mixing programs. The Grey Album presents a legal quagmire because the samples were used without permission of EMI, prompting cease-and-desist letters to all those who circulated the album. Current laws only permit covers of songs, and sampling without permission is prohibited. Until copyright laws catch up with the collage aesthetic, the limited legality of fair use rights has the potential to stifle creativity and the free exchange of ideas.

Works: Danger Mouse (Brian Burton): The Grey Album (79-81); Freelance Hellraiser (Roy Kerr): A Stroke of Genie-us (82, 86-87); Soulwax: Smells Like Teen Booty (82, 84); Alan Copeland: Mission: Impossible Theme/Norwegian Wood (85); Negativland: U2 (88); Illegal Art: Sonny Bono is Dead (91), Deconstructing Beck (91).

Sources: The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Ringo Starr): The White Album [The Beatles] (79-81); Jay-Z: The Black Album (79-81); Kurt Cobain, Dave Grohl, and Krist Novoselic (songwriters), Nirvana (performers): Smells Like Teen Spirit (82, 84); Rob Fusair, Falonte Moore, and Beyoncé Knowles (songwriters), Destiny?s Child (performers): Bootylicious (82, 84); Eminem: Without Me (84-85); Kevin Rowland, Big Jim Paterson, and Billy Adams (songwriters), Dexy's Midnight Runners (performers): Come On Eileen (84-85); U2: I Still Haven?t Found What I?m Looking For (88).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

For a short time in the 1970s, disco provided a place in which various cultures could coexist on the dance floor, and such diversity is reflected in the music, such as in Walter Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven and David Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain. Murphy's A Fifth of Beethoven is primarily based on the first theme area of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 and opens with a quotation from the opening of the first movement. This opening motive is set against a 4/4 disco pattern of electric bass, acoustic drum set, and clavinet playing composed material. Recalling the French horn bridge to the second theme area, Murphy alternates C and Eb whole notes, marking the beginning of the B section, but, rather than following sonata form, Murphy keeps A Fifth of Beethoven firmly in C minor throughout. By not modulating and by using static harmonies and a persistent rhythmic drive, A Fifth of Beethoven exemplifies the "inclusive homogeneity" that was a marker of disco style. Shire's A Night on Disco Mountain, like its Mussorgsky source, employs a wide range of sources for its orchestration, including a wah-wah electric guitar. The combination of sounds serves as a reflection of the diversity on the disco dance floor. While this was a short-lived phenomenon, disco borrowings of classical music served to exemplify the pluralism of disco.

Works: Walter Murphy: A Fifth of Beethoven (349-57, 260-61); David Shire: A Night on Disco Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (351-56); Mussorgsky: Night on Bald Mountain (349-51, 357-58, 360-61).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Although opera and rock music are seemingly situated on different sides of a cultural, stylistic, and aesthetic divide, rock and pop songs of the 1970s and later have occasionally appropriated some style characteristics from opera. Although many rock works are considered "rock operas" and some classical works were written by rock musicians, none of these works owes much to the stylistic norms of the other genre. On the other hand, a work like Queen's Bohemian Rhapsody (from the 1974 album A Night at the Opera) does incorporate many operatic characteristics, such as a cappella vocals, lamenting ballads, sarcastic recitatives, distorted operatic phraseology, underworld motifs, and so forth. These characteristics are not instances of direct borrowing of any operatic source, but are rather more general features of the style, integrated and exaggerated as a parody. Punk rock artists in the 1980s like Nina Hagen, Klaus Nomi, and Malcolm McLaren incorporated opera more directly, with more reverence for the genre, and with the intention of promoting female and homosexual voices. Hagen incorporated expressionist operatic influences and coloratura technique into her music. Nomi appropriated entire operatic arias into his eclectic music, including Handel's aria "Total Eclipse" from Samson, not as a parody but rather with a camp aesthetic. McLaren created dance-rock versions of grand opera, including "Un bel dì" from Madama Butterfly and the "The Flower Duet" from Délibe's Lakmé.

Works: Freddie Mercury (songwriter), Queen (performers): Bohemian Rhapsody (192-194); Nina Hagen: New York, New York (196); Kristian Hoffman (songwriter), Klaus Nomi (performer): Total Eclipse (197-98); Purcell (composer), Klaus Nomi (arranger/performer): The Cold Song (197); Saint-Saëns (composer), Klaus Nomi (arranger/performer): Samson and Delilah (Aria) (197); Malcolm McLaren: Madame Butterfly (198-99).

Sources: David Bowie: Fashion (196); Purcell: King Arthur (197); Saint-Saëns: Samson et Dalila (197); Handel: Samson (197-98); Puccini: Madama Butterfly (198-99); Délibe: Lakmé (199).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Scholars cannot assume that Samuel Barber’s Adagio for Strings has a stable meaning in film and must examine the multiplicity of meanings and ambiguities created by its use in film. In four films the Adagio transgresses boundaries of filmic diegesis and narrative into ambiguous meanings and spaces. The audience is required to contend with the Adagio in Oliver Stone’s Platoon because it stands out not only from the brutality of the film but also from the composed score and the diegesis of the movie. André Téchiné’s Les roseaux sauvages uses the Adagio with subtlety and restraint at dramatic moments of external rupture among characters, and the piece also functions as an indication of the internal world of the characters, or metadiegesis. In George Miller’s Lorenzo’s Oil the Adagio is one piece among many borrowed classical compositions used in the film, and it is the only one that represents hopelessness and deep anguish. The soundscape established in David Lynch’s The Elephant Man, composed of both underscoring by John Morris and diegetic sound, is violent, and the single instance of the Adagio in the film occurs during the ending sequence involving the diseased protagonist’s resignation and suicide. The Adagio is a mindscreen reflecting the metadiegesis of the protagonist and its connection to forces in the universe beyond human control.

Works: Oliver Stone (director): soundtrack to Platoon (461, 464-74, 493); David Lynch (director): soundtrack to The Elephant Man (461, 464-65, 480-81, 486-93); Jean-Pierre Jeunet (director): soundtrack to Amélie (464); Liam Lynch (director): soundtrack to Tenacious D (464); Andy Ackerman (director): soundtrack to Seinfeld (464-65); André Téchiné (director): soundtrack to Les roseaux sauvages (464-66, 474-80, 493); George Miller (director): soundtrack to Lorenzo’s Oil (465, 480-86, 492-93).

Sources: Samuel Barber: Adagio for Strings, Op. 11.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Virgil Thomson's Symphony on a Hymn Tune is based upon at least two hymn tunes: How Firm a Foundation and Jesus Loves Me. Thomson highlights the similarities of the two tunes and at the finale, they coalesce into For He's a Jolly Good Fellow. Thomson juxtaposed the clear A-major tonality of the hymns with newly composed passages in E-flat major, highlighting a dissonant tritone relationship. This procedure conveys a musical clash that symbolizes "dark forces at work in the New World."

Works: Thomson: Symphony on a Hymn Tune.

Sources: Bradbury: Jesus Loves Me (467-68, 470-73); Traditional: How Firm a Foundation (467-69, 471-73), For He's a Jolly Good Fellow (467, 473-74).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

This collection of essays concerns the practice of musical borrowing within fifteenth- and sixteenth-century music. Topics explored include questions of allusion and citation in motets and masses, the cultural contexts of masses, the process for naming masses, and types of borrowing utilized by composers. See the following authors for abstracts of individual articles: M. Jennifer Bloxam, Cathy Ann Elias, Michele Fromson, Jenny Hodgson, Honey Meconi, Christopher Reynolds, Murray Steib, and Andrew H. Weaver.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

From the mid-fifteenth century until about 1520, there was a strong tradition of reworking polyphonic art songs (i.e., secular compositions not derived from popular melodies and drawn from Flemish and Italian sources in addition to chansons). A relatively small number of models were used repeatedly, generating a large repertory of derived compostions. It is possible that composers consciously decided to use these limited models as a type of "contest" to demonstrate their craft, possibly beginning with Fors seulement. Cantus-firmus settings were written early in the tradition but became predominant later. There is no pattern of "progression" in the types of reworkings employed. Italy seems to be an important center for the art-song reworking, perhaps due to the influx of northern composers, an impatience with the forme-fixe chanson, and the development of instrumental virtuosity.

Sources: Hayne van Ghizeghem: Allez regretz (4, 5, 24, 26), De tous biens plaine (4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 17, 27-28); Gilles Binchois (?): Comme femme (4, 7, 11-12, 26); Johannes Ockeghem: D'ung aultre amer (4, 7, 11, 28-29), Fors seulement (4, 5, 14-15, 17, 20-21, 23-24, 30-31), Ma bouche rit (4, 35); Jacques Barbireau: Een vrolic wesen (4, 5, 15, 18, 29-30); Anonymous: Fors seulement, two subsidiary settings (4, 5, 10, 31), O waerde mont (4, 15, 36); Antoine Busnois (?): Fortuna desperata (4, 5, 7-8, 11-12, 13, 15, 17, 31-33); Caron (?): J'ay pris amours (4, 7, 9-10, 15, 18-19, 20, 24, 33-34); Guillaume Dufay (?): Le serviteur (4, 8-9, 19-20, 34); John Bedyngham or John Dunstable: O rosa bella (4, 12-14, 15, 24, 35-36).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Until the later sixteenth century there is insufficient evidence to support the notion put forth by scholars such as Howard Brown, Leeman Perkins, and J. Peter Burkolder that compositional procedures involving polyphonic borrowing derive from composers' conscious adoption of rhetorical ideas of imitatio. Moreover, many of the respective techniques and principles were fundamentally different. Literary imitatio had as its goal the restoration of classical rhetoric through emulation, whereas musical borrowing had no such aim. As an alternative to imitatio, one should consider the following reasons for musical borrowing in the early renaissance: (1) it was a natural outgrowth of Medieval practice; (2) it was a means of unifying a multi-sectional work; (3) as composers began to think in terms of vertical sonorities, it was natural to borrow such sonorities; (4) compositional curiosity resulted in the reuse of one's own material; (5) it was a time-saving device; (6) it was often the result of specific commissions; or (7) it intrigued the composer.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert, Reginald Sanders

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there was no uniform practice for titling masses in manuscript sources. Though modern scholarship has traditionally listed masses under the name of the borrowed material, works within manuscript sources were often identified by number of voices, by a title indicating the devotional function, or by no title at all. This is typical of Pierre de La Rue's output—contained in large quantities within the Habsburg-Burgundian court manuscripts—and provides a basis for investigating the justification of our modern practice and understanding the nature of naming in the Renaissance. The Habsburg-Burgundian manuscripts contain an extensive amount of rubrification, often citing the presence of preexisting material. Scribes wrote the model under one voice or provided multiple under-texting within the opening of the mass. La Rue's works show that even in the case of citations, masses were not titled according to the borrowed model. If the under-texting by scribes did not influence the name of the mass, then its primary purpose could have been to create more visual appeal and, more importantly, to call attention to the presence of the borrowed material. In addition, the popularity of the parody mass at court made musicians and scribes more attuned to the presence of polyphonic borrowing. A mass with preexisting material was more likely to be copied than sine nomine masses or those with modal identities. Modern scholars identify the mass by its model because of the analytical value attached to the borrowed model and because early music historiography emphasized naming masses in this way. Closer attention to the naming of compositions within their sources will highlight the complexities of identity and construction within this music.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The study of borrowing has been a powerful tool for analysis of music in the Renaissance period and has provoked arguments and fierce debates over defining borrowing types, providing a terminology for them, and understanding why and how composers did what they did. Controversies have arisen over "imitation" or "parody" as terms for polyphonic borrowing, differences between paraphrase and cantus firmus technique, issues of overt and covert borrowing, and whether borrowing is taking place at all. Compiling a history of borrowing in the Renaissance—in light of these challenges and when considering that much more basic research needs to be completed for many composers—seems an impossible task at this stage, but the essays within this book provide a guide to further investigation and show how borrowing remains a compelling approach to analysis and criticism of early music.

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The manuscript Florence, Biblioteca del Conservatorio di Musica Luigi Cherubini, Basevi 2439 contains three sacred tricinia pieces, one by Ghiselin and two by Pierre de la Rue. They share multiple stylistic traits: considerable length, textless dissemination, foundation on a plainchant cantus firmus, and active superius and tenor voices that are often closely imitative and share short melodic motives. La Rue’s pieces are most interesting because of their interrelationship with other contemporary pieces. His Sancta Maria virgo uses a pre-existent melody and text that have not been identified. What is traceable is Nicolas Craen’s borrowing from La Rue’s Sancta Maria virgo, using the beginning, middle, and end of the secunda pars for the beginning, middle, and end of his Ecce video. Craen’s work is a straightforward parody but is an early example of this type of reworking, and the relationship is completely disguised through use of a different title. La Rue’s Si dormiero is part of a possible subset of the sacred tricinia genre: pieces of sacred origin with incipits that begin with the Latin conjunction “si” followed by the first person singular future perfect tense of a Latin verb. This interconnectedness is underscored in the final piece in Basevi, Ninot’s Si bibero, a secular Latin work that invokes multiple such “si” pieces through text and music fragments. By borrowing music from sacred pieces in his secular work, Ninot perverts their texts and adopts their musical style, fitting and flaunting the very genre of sacred tricinia.

Works: Johannes Ghiselin: O florens rosa (168-69); Pierre de la Rue: Sancta Maria virgo (169-73, 180-81), Si dormiero (173-93); Nicolas Craen: Ecce video (171-73); Ninot: Si bibero (176-96).

Sources: Anonymous: O florens rosa (168-69); Pierre de la Rue: Sancta Maria virgo (171-73), Si dormiero (173-92).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

Index Classifications: 1900s

This essay lists and briefly discusses a number of sixteenth-century works, which incorporate borrowed material. Meier sometimes only indicates the origins of the borrowed material and sometimes also refers to its meaning. The examples are loosely grouped into two categories, those quoting Gregorian chant and those quoting other composers and Cypriano de Rore in particular. Composers do not borrow only from closely-related works or works in the same genre; a common word may be reason enough for quotation. The quoted passage can also be transposed to another mode, which changes the arrangement of the half and whole steps, but leaves the passage still recognizable. Quotation in the sixteenth century reflects the "learned" character of the music and shows in the case of the Gregorian melodies how familiar they still were.

Works: Josquin: Miserere mei Deus (1), Vultum tuum deprecabuntur (2); Senfl: Miserere mei Deus (1); Lassus: Psalmus Poenitentialis, No. 4 (1), Pater Abraham (2), Venite ad me (2), five-part Lamentations, No. 1 (2), Nunc gaudere licet (3), Fertur in conviviis/Vinus, vina, vinum (3), Donec malos angelos/Venientes cernant, /Cantantes his non fore/Requiem aeternam (3), Il estoit une religieuse (3), Octo beatitudines (8); Clemens non Papa: Nunc dimittis servum tuum Domine (1), Discite a me (2); Susato: Salve Antverpia, gemma, flos, venustas Europea (3); Rore: Concordes adhibete animos (3); Barbigant or Ockeghem: Au travail suis (3); Striggio: Anchor ch'io possa dire (4); Vespa: Anchor che la partita (4, 6); Caracciolo: Anchor che gran dolore (4); Ingegneri: Lasso che nel partire (4), Come la notte (7); Andrea Gabrieli: A caso un giorno (4); Portinaro: Vergine bella (4), Il dì s'appressa (4); Rossetto: Hor che'l ciel e la terra (5), Lasso che mal accorto (6); Chamaterï: Hor che'l ciel e la terra (5), Deh hor foss'io (7); de Monte: Fu forse un tempo (6); Animuccia: Alla dolc'ombra (6); Wert: Lasso che mal accorto (6); Merulo: Come la notte (7); Palestrina: Deh hor foss'io (7); Pordenon: Deh hor foss'io (7), Gravi pene (8); Paien: Gravi pene (8); Guami: Gravi pene (8), A la dolce ombra de la nobil pianta (10); Lechner: O Tod du bist ein bittre Gallen (8); Lupacchino: Onde tolse amor (8); Asola: Vergine bella (10), Vergine in cui (10).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Paul Simon's Graceland is an excellent example of both artistic and stylistic collaboration. Simon and Ladysmith Black Mambazo navigate through traditional South African and American popular styles in a constantly changing compositional process. Three songs from this album, "Gumboots," "The Boy in the Bubble," and "That Was Your Mother," are particularly interesting because they are cover versions of African popular songs. Simon credits the authors of the first two songs, but neglects to do so for the third. The differences in crediting represent the complex issues of collaboration on an international scale.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Those who today perform and listen to the passions by J. S. Bach engage with these pieces in a context that is very different from their original setting. The compositions known as the St. John Passion and the St. Mark Passion, for instance, are not definitive works as we sometimes suppose. Rather, they are pastiches formed by Bach’s use of various types of musical borrowing and reworking. He adapted existing pieces by other composers, created updated versions of his own compositions, added or subtracted arias, and parodied his own works. Tables summarize Bach’s versions of these two passions and the parody models for the corresponding movements within them.

Works: J. S. Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (68-77), St. Mark Passion, BWV 247 (84-94).

Sources: J. S. Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (68-77); Anonymous: St. Mark Passion (80-91); Handel: Brockes Passion (91-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Index Classifications: 1600s

Pachelbel combined traits of the Catholic and Protestant schools of organ playing, assimilating polyphonic and homophonic elements in the development of the prelude form. His chorale preludes can be grouped into two types: chorale fugue and setting of the complete chorale as a cantus firmus. A third type uses a combination of these two, with the fugue leading into the full cantus firmus statement. In setting the chorale as a cantus firmus, Pachelbel is innovative, treating the cantus firmus imitatively while also presenting it in two-, three-, or fourfold augmentation. The cantus firmus is often paired with either a figurative accompaniment or with a purely harmonic accompaniment in which the voices move independently. In Pachelbel's chorale preludes he reveals a desire to achieve harmonic clarity and to showcase the melody.

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

A structural study of the tenor of a previously unidentified polyphonic intabulation, included in the Faenza Biblioteca Comunale Fa117, provides important clues in regard to its origin. An initial investigation of the tenor shows similarities with the four isorhythmic motets of Johannes Ciconia, especially his Doctorum principem. Close parallels between specific sections of the unidentified work and Doctorum principem support this hypothesis, but other factors need to be considered. The hoquetus which occurs at the end of the first two statements of the talea in the intabulation is not repeated after the third repetition. Comparing this phenomenon to the works in the manuscript, it seems possible that the intabulation is actually transcribed from a Mass movement and the missing hoquetus falls right where an Amen would have been sung. The original three-voiced polyphonic work may be partially reconstructed from the two-voiced intabulation by interpolating the autoimitations in the cantus.

Works: Faenza Biblioteca Comunale Fa117, fols. 93r-94r (46-67).

Sources: Johannes Ciconia: Doctorum principem (50-53).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Many free instrumental compositions from the Renaissance, including fantasias, ricercares, and tientos, were modeled on the contemporary vocal repertory. Two fantasias by Francesco da Milano show a significant relationship between intabulations and free compositions. Francesco's intabulation of Richafort's chanson De mon triste desplaisir leaves harmonic and thematic materials largely unchanged, while his Fantasia de mon triste parodies the vocal model up to a certain point, after which it departs from the original by introducing new subjects and motives. The fantasia, though intentionally based on a vocal model, can still be loosely related to the original; when a fantasia is well composed, it evokes the model without directly quoting from it. Francesco's Fantasia 22 contains melodic musical material that appears to be derived from Jacob Arcadelt's madrigal Quanta beltà. Francesco had previously intabulated the Arcadelt madrigal, and the model for Fantasia 22 may be Francesco's own arrangement of the madrigal, rather than the madrigal itself. Melodic materials developed in the fantasia are drawn from modified versions of the melody in the intabulation. There are, however, still correspondences between the fantasia and the madrigal. Motives borrowed from the madrigal are reworked in the fantasia in the same order in which they occur in the vocal model. The two fantasias show how free instrumental works, with the mediation of intabulations, were still closely modeled on contemporary vocal repertory.

Works: Francesco da Milano: Intabulation of De mon triste desplaisir (10), Fantasia de mon triste (10-11), Intabulation of Quanta beltà (13-15), Fantasia 22 (13-16).

Sources: Richafort: De mon triste desplaisir (10); Arcadelt: Quanta beltà (13-15).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey, Scott Grieb

During the time of the Bach revival he led, Mendelssohn modeled many of his compositions upon the style of J. S. Bach. Mendelssohn used J. S. Bach's setting of Ein feste Burg in the fourth movement of his "Reformation" Symphony and incorporated the chorale into a programmatic setting. Meyerbeer subjected Ein feste Burg to variation treatment interspersed with the typical structural elements of a sonata-form movement. With the bridge to the recapitulation, Meyerbeer blurred the formal distinctions between the chorale and the symphonic sonata movement in order to suggest a choral movement. This alludes to the choral movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, even though Meyerbeer does not actually use a chorus. The other movements also include quotations, including a Catholic "Dresden Amen" in the first movement and allusion to Mozart's Cosi fan Tutte in the second movement.

Works: Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D minor, Reformation (111-37).

Sources: J. S. Bach: "Ein feste Burg" from In festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (112, 114-20, 122-24); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (113); Mozart: Cosi fan Tutte (131-32).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

The mid-nineteenth century American phenomenon of arranging European art music as hymn tunes—as represented by a case study of adaptations of Felix Mendelssohn’s music—reveals a conceptual shift in how Americans engaged with European classical music. As a broad classical music culture in America became more viable around the 1850s, arrangers of Mendelssohn’s tunes (among others) stuck more closely to the original sources, participating in the consolidation of a musical canon. The practice of adapting music by classical composers as hymn tunes began in London in the early nineteenth century and soon spread to America through Lowell Mason. Despite drawing criticism for their faithless adaptation, many publications intent on reforming American hymnody with arrangements of European tunes soon appeared, including Thomas Hastings and William Bradbury’s The Mendelssohn Collection in 1849. Many earlier hymn arrangements of Mendelssohn tunes modify them significantly in order to conform to hymn styles or to simplify the music for American performers. However, many arrangements depart from their source material much more than just “simplification,” demonstrating a greater degree of creative collaboration between composer and arranger. Some arrangements, such as Lowell Mason’s Howell, bear little resemblance to their source material at all, and others add significant amounts of newly composed material to the source tunes. The sources for these hymn adaptations come from sacred and secular vocal music as well as instrumental music. There is also a mix of well-known works (Elijah for example) and lesser-known works in earlier adaptations, suggesting an unfamiliarity with the classical repertoire. However, hymn adaptations appearing after 1855 only draw from Lobgesang, Elijah, and St. Paul, representing an emerging awareness of and faithfulness to the European canon. These Mendelssohn hymn adaptations ultimately show the extent of cross-pollination between Western high art music and vernacular music in nineteenth-century American culture.

Works: Thomas Tastings and William Bradbury (editors): Sweetzer (236-38), Suabia (253-55), Alleppo (256-57), Spinola (258-60); Charles Wesley (text): Hark! The Herald Angels Sing (247-48); Lowell Mason (editor): Baltic (256), Howell (257-59); Benjamin F. Baker and I. B. Woodbury (editors): Kimball (256); Charles Hackett (editor) Bonn (256); John Bodine Thompson and William Hinchman Platt (editors): Thomas (257); Isaac B. Woodbury: Barons (258-59); Charles S. Robinson: Mansfield (258-60)

Sources: Felix Mendelssohn: Volkslied (236-38), Defend Us Lord From Shame (253-55), Festgesang (247-48), Christus (256), Elijah (256), Frühlingslied (256), Athalie (256-57), Lobgesang (257) Three Motets (257-59), Lied ohne Worte, Op. 19b, No. 4 (258-60), Psalm 42 (258-60)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Grand paraphrase de concert of Franz Schubert’s Marche militaire, attributed to Franz Liszt and published by the Kunkel Brothers of St. Louis, Missouri in 1907, is actually the work of Charles Kunkel, who attached Liszt’s name to his own arrangement to bolster his company’s reputation. An early potential explanation of the piece posits that Liszt composed the Grand paraphrase before Carl Tausig’s well-known 1869 arrangement of Marche militaire and subsequently withdrew the work in favor of his student’s arrangement, but this hypothesis does not hold up chronologically. Kunkel, who arrived in St. Louis from Germany in 1868, was a relatively successful musician, composer, and businessman, but was known to play fast and loose with authorship and attribution at his publishing house. A close comparison between the Kunkel edition and Tausig’s arrangement of Marche militaire reveals that the former is a derivative of the latter. The structural similarities suggest that Kunkel copied Tausig’s arrangement, making changes and alterations along the way but keeping the basic structure. When Kundel’s edition appeared in 1907, it did not dislodge the popular Tausig arrangement, and the only extant copy comes from the US Copyright Office, suggesting a limited circulation. The same year, Kundel erroneously attached Liszt’s name to a transcription of Wagner’s Feuerzauber, a piece that Liszt never transcribed. Over a decade earlier, Kundel had also erroneously credited the same transcription to Franz Bendel. Given this history of unscrupulous publishing practices, it is likely that Kunkel created a musical counterfeit with the deceased Liszt and Tausig unable to contest.

Works: Charles Kunkel (arranger), Franz Liszt (attributed): Marche militaire. (Franz Schubert). Grand paraphrase de concert (10-15)

Sources: Carl Tausig (arranger): Marche militaire, Op. 51, No. 1 by Franz Schubert (10-15); Franz Schubert: March militaire No. 1 in D major, Op. 51, No. 1, D. 733 (10-15)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

In the 3rd movement (Ostinato) of Hindemith's Pittsburgh Symphony, an abrupt tempo/character change occurs, which eventually arrives at a più tranquillo. At this point, there is a quotation from Webern's Symphony, Op. 21. Hindemith makes several alterations: a nearly doubled metronome marking, an octave (higher) displacement, dynamics, and instrumentation. The intervals themselves are also often reversed or omitted.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

The desire to return to one's childhood or the adult's recollection of a lost youth figure prominently as themes in the music and texts of Charles Ives. The composer's view of an innocent childhood fit into a larger American cultural trend in the first decades of the twentieth century as realized through nostalgic or sentimental ballads and regression fantasies acted out in literature and film of that time. By distorting borrowed melodies, Ives heightens distance between past and present, increasing the sense of nostalgia. The tune The Old Oaken Bucket is deeply embedded in Tom Sails Away, and its original lyrics also depict memories of childhood. The fragmented and sometimes cloudy quotations of The Beautiful River during the third movement of Ives's Fourth Violin Sonata suggest an impossible union between the boys and men of the hymn's lyrics. The melody of The Beautiful River materializes throughout the movement, but Ives prevents the melody from emerging in its entirety, thus suggesting the vagueness of memory and the distance between generations.

Works: Charles Ives: Tom Sails Away (81-87), Violin Sonata No. 4 (87-91).

Sources: George M. Cohan: Over There (84, 87); David T. Shaw, Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (84, 87); Samuel Woodworth and George Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (Araby's Daughter) (84-87); Anonymous: Taps; George Ives: Fugue in B-flat Major (87); Robert Lowry: The Beautiful River (88-89).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson, Amanda Sewell, Alexis Witt

In Luciano Berio's Rendering and John Cage's Europera 5, creation of new music through the "restoration" and "reproduction" of old materials offers more than just a way of holding onto the past. Both compositions examine the decay and loss intrinsic to past materials which makes that past less accessible. In Rendering, based on Schubert's sketches toward a tenth symphony, Berio incorporates his own music with sections of Schubert's unfinished symphony, sometimes filling in the gaps in Schubert's sketches, while at other times dismantling and reconfiguring the material to make it sound incomplete. Berio restores Schubert's symphony not in the traditional sense, but rather to a fragmented state which suggests the deterioration of the past. Europera 5 similarly pieces together fragments of past operas to suggest that the concept of opera has deteriorated. Cage's nostalgia mediates a sense of loss through presentation of these fragments as disjointed, antique, and irrecoverable.

Works: Berio: Rendering (95-103, 108-113), Chemins (96), Sinfonia (96, 113); Cage: Europera 5 (95, 103-113), Europera 1 &2 (103-104).

Sources: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (96, 113) Schubert: Symphony No. 10 (96-103, 108-113); Cage: Truckera (104).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Brent C. Reidy

Sampling constitutes a form of creative theft that should be seen within the history of musical borrowing. Sampling is mainly associated with digital technology beginning around 1980, and it is used in two main ways: to sample performance sounds, such as a cymbal crash, or to sample more extended sounds. One group that exemplifies creative theft is Negativland. who sampled the lead singer of U2 singing I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For and turned the singer into a whining voice. The artist Scanner travels the airwaves sampling personal phone calls. John Oswald sampled Michael Jackson's voice in BAD to create Oswald's own DAB. Oswald removed all markers of Jackson's voice until it no longer sounded like the artist, and, in so doing, used Jackson's own medium against him. This new form of musical borrowing, creative theft, is appropriate for our media-saturated environment.

Works: Puff Daddy and Faith Evans: I'll Be Missing You (160); Wyclef Jean: We Trying to Stay Alive (160); Janet Jackson: Got 'til it's Gone (160); Negativland: U2 (162, 166-67, 169-70); John Oswald: Plexure (171), Plunderphonic (177), DAB (178-81); Scanner: Sulphur (175); Tape-Beatles: Music with Sound (181-83).

Sources: Sting (songwriter), The Police (performers): Every Breath You Take (160); Bee Gees (Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb, and Maurice Gibb): Stayin' Alive (160); Joni Mitchell: Big Yellow Taxi (160, 163-64); U2: I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For (167); Buck Ram (songwriter), Dolly Parton (performer): The Great Pretender (177); Michael Jackson: BAD (178-81).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

The inclusion of an African-American spiritual in Ellington's Black and Tan Fantasy follows the ideas set forth by many writers during the Harlem Renaissance. Ellington takes the Renaissance ideals a step further by integrating the spiritual with blues, urban jazz, call-and-response, and even a quotation of Chopin's funeral march. Bubber Miley, cornetist and co-composer in the Ellington band, bases the opening motive of the fantasy on a spiritual he heard his mother singing while he was a child. However, the spiritual is not truly African-American in its origins. A friend of Miley pointed out that the spiritual is derived from "The Holy City," a sacred song in the style of a spiritual but by the white composer Stephen Adams. This white sacred tune is transformed through Miley's performance practice of bending the pitches, growling, and vocal ya-yas. These issues moved the spiritual away from Du Bois's ideas of the "sorrow song" with lush, pleasant, and Europeanized harmonies and toward Hurston's ideas of the spiritual, which strives for the unrefined sounds of the "real Negro singer." Black and Tan Fantasy was not the only jazz composition to draw upon "The Holy City." King Oliver and His Creole Jazz Band incorporated the sacred work into a twelve-bar blues, and Johnny Dodds responds to the text and music of "The Holy City" in his composition "Weary City."

Works: Ellington/Miley: Black and Tan Fantasy (137-58); Oliver: Chimes Blues (151); Dodds: Weary City (151-53).

Sources: Adams: The Holy City (137-58); Chopin: Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat Minor (140).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Composers who rejected serialism used quotation in their collage works as a source of promise and new possibilities. Rochberg seeks to use the music of the past in the form of ars combinatoria in Music for the Magic Theater, thus renewing both the past and present. Berio tries to create a bond between the past, present and a utopian future in the third movement of Sinfonia. In Hymnen, Stockhausen uses the medium of electroacoustic music in order to encompass global dimensions and develop a "sonic purity." By creating links between elements where none had previously existed, each composer responds differently to the use of quotation in the quest for utopia.

Works: Berio: Sinfonia (109-13, 128-39); Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (110-28), Third Symphony (125-28); Stockhausen: Hymnen (110-13, 139-59).

Sources: Mozart: Adagio from Divertimento No. 15, K. 287 (121-25); Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D Major (123-25), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (Titan) (126), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (Resurrection) (126, 129-39); Varèse: Déserts (123); Beethoven: String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (124-25), Missa Solemnis (126), Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (126-28), Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 (126), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (126); Schütz: Saul, was verfolgst du mich (126); J. S. Bach: Chorale Prelude on Durch Adams Fall, BWV 637 (126); Ives: The Unanswered Question (126-27); Richard Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier (136); Boulez: Don (136-38); Webern: Cantata, Op. 31 (137).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Duke Ellington and Bubber Miley’s 1927 composition Black and Tan Fantasy exhibits a variety of contrasting idioms, adopting stylistic elements from blues and jazz, as well as quotations from a well-known spiritual and one from Chopin’s second piano sonata. The concept of “signifying,” put forth by Henry Louis Gates Jr., illuminates a fundamental strategy for quotation in jazz: repetition and revision. The intersection of these strategies in Black and Tan Fantasy is expressed both on the level of quotation and on deeper levels within the borrowed material of the piece. For example, the spiritual Hosanna, quoted in the opening phrases, is in turn a revision of Stephen Adams’s The Holy City. The tensions between old and new, black and white, and secular and sacred that result from Ellington and Miley’s juxtaposition of styles and sentiments generate sophisticated instances of ironic play. This ironic play can subsequently be seen as participating in the ongoing tradition of troping in African American art-culture, as described by Gates.

Works: Duke Ellington and Bubber Miley: Black and Tan Fantasy; King Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band: Chimes Blues (62-63); Johnny Dodd: Weary City (62-63); Felix Arndt: Desecration Rag (63-64).

Sources: Anonymous (Spiritual): Hosanna (51-52); Chopin: Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Minor, Op. 35 (51-53, 63-68); Stephen Adams: The Holy City (51-53, 58-67).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Repeated borrowing, or the use of one piece of music in several other pieces that often are in dialogue with one another, is a practice that is best understood by drawing from several approaches to analyzing the use of music from one work in another. Burkholder’s field of musical borrowing, theories of allusion, conceptions of intertextuality, and topic theory all contribute different meanings to repeated borrowing, as demonstrated by the case of borrowings of the chorale Es ist genug in several nontonal works. Borrowing tends to proliferate; the more prolific it becomes, the more referential it becomes; and the more a piece of music is referenced by other works, the broader the meanings attached to it become. For instance, the chorale Es ist genug, written by Johann Rudolph Ahle, first appeared in a 1662 collection of sacred music. Bach’s setting of the chorale in his 1723 cantata O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort adds the religious meaning of overcoming the fear of death. Berg quotes Bach’s setting of Ahle’s melody in his Violin Concerto, both in the row (part of the work’s internal structure) and as a quotation of the chorale itself. Berg develops a tension between the row-derived Klagegesang and the tonal chorale and, like Bach’s cantata, depicts anxiety and consolation relating to death. Adorno reads the chorale quotation as appealing to an extramusical force: the historical weight of a Bach chorale. In only looking at extramusical meaning, he misses the chorale’s presence in the internal structure of the concerto. Zimmermann’s Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht, das geschah unter der Sonne: Ekklesiastiche Aktion is a much more explicitly intertextual work than Berg’s concerto, and the quotation of Es ist genug acts as a quotation of Berg’s quotation, keeping the “death” meaning but dropping the consolation of the chorale setting. Even though Del Tredici’s quotation of Es ist genug in Pop-Pourri most directly calls to mind Bach, it continues Berg and Zimmermann’s tradition of using the chorale to contemplate death—in Del Tredici’s case, the Lewis Carrollian absurdity of death. Rouse’s Iscariot is more enigmatic in its musical borrowing, but the history of Es ist genug quotations suggests a reading centered on death. When viewed as a case of repeated borrowing, the musical tension between Bach’s tonal chorale setting and Berg’s (or Zimmermann’s, Del Tredici’s, or Rouse’s) nontonal system is not a feature of each work on its own, but a running theme in Es ist genug borrowing. By tracing repeated borrowing through these pieces, we can uncover larger stylistic and historical developments that may otherwise be hidden.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 60 (714-15); Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (715-25); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht, das geschah unter der Sonne: Ekklesiastiche Aktion (725-30); David Del Tredici: Pop-Pourri (730-36); Christopher Rouse: Iscariot (736-39)

Sources: Johann Rudolph Ahle: Es ist genug (713); Johann Sebastian Bach: O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 60 (715-25, 730-36, 736-39); Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (725-30)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

See annotations for individual chapters.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Bartók owed and admitted a direct allegiance to Beethoven, especially in the area of progressive form as a technique of composition. The second movement of Beethoven's G Major Piano Concerto is a model for the second movements of Bartók's Second and Third Piano Concertos in two main ways: (1) the principle of opposition between two rivals rather than integration of two partners is seen in sections of dialogue alternating between solo instrument and orchestra accentuated by differences in texture, thematic material, and the treatment of thematic material; and (2) piano and orchestra seem to follow completely logical development independent of each other, but the separate thematic complexes have the same basic roots. Mention is made of the relation between the third movement of Beethoven's Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132, and Bartók's Third Piano Concerto, suggested to be a last tribute to his three great masters: Beethoven in forms and methods of construction, Debussy in the impressionism of the night music, and Bach in the polyphonic episodes of the finale.

Works: Bartók: Piano Concerto No. 2, Piano Concerto No. 3; Franck: Symphonic Variations (320), Quintet in F Minor for Piano and Strings (320).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

J. C. Bach was one of the very few composers Mozart greatly admired. His keyboard concertos opp. 1, 7, and 13 influenced Mozart's piano concertos in the following areas: structural principles of the first movement including the use and expansion of ritornellos and solo sections; the use of wind instruments; the cantabile melodic style of the slow movement; and the use of Minuet or dance, Rondo, or Variation forms in the last movement. Op. 7 particularly sets a model for the newly developed concerto form.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No.6 in B-flat Major, K. 238 (62, 64), Piano Concerto No. 8 in C Major, K. 246 (62-63), Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat Major, K. 271 (61-65, 71-72), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (64), Piano Concerto No. 17 in G Major, K. 453 (66), Piano Concerto No. 24 in C Minor, K. 491 (66).

Sources: J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in G Major, Op. 1, No. 4 (60-61), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 1, No. 6 (60-61, 64, 73), Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 5 (62-66, 70-72), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 13, No. 2 (67, 70-71, 73), Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 13, No. 4 (67, 72-73), Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, Op. 13, No. 6 (66, 73).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Increasing globalization in the popular music industry, especially with the ease of distributing music recordings, sometimes creates a demand for particular performers in parts of the world they do not directly interact with. In Latin America—Mexico and Argentina in particular—this demand for American and English rock music has led to a thriving culture of tribute bands. These bands serve an important role in Latin American consumption of Anglophone popular music as substitutes or surrogates for the original artist, satisfying the demand for live performances from groups that rarely or never perform in that region. This occurs both with bands that no longer exist, like The Beatles, and with contemporary bands that rarely, if ever, tour Latin American, such as Muse. Attending a tribute band concert provides a way for fans of a particular band to participate in a recreation of an “authentic” live concert, a significant aspect of band–fan interaction.

Tribute bands differ from cover bands in that they perform the music and extra-musical affect of a single band, rather than just performing existing music. This means that tribute bands for Anglophone bands sing in English, even to a Spanish speaking audience. Another difference is that tribute bands often rework recorded music into live performance, which distinguishes them from live performances by the original band. Beatles tribute bands are especially relevant to this point by performing studio albums like Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, and recorded performances like The Beatles’s Ed Sullivan appearance live. This transformation of a music recording to a live performance is distinct from a band performing its own music in concert. Tribute bands create a live performance proxy for a recorded sound object.

Works: Horus: The Resistance (as recorded by Muse) (334); The Shouts: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (as recorded by The Beatles) (341), All My Loving (as performed by The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show) (341); Dios Salve a La Reina: Somebody to Love, I Want to Break Free, and Crazy Little Thing Called Love (as recorded by Queen) (341-43).

Sources: Muse: The Resistance (334); The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (341), All My Loving (on The Ed Sullivan Show) (341); Queen: Somebody to Love (341-43), I Want to Break Free (341-43), Crazy Little Thing Called Love (341-43).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Parody occurs if at least two voices from a polyphonic composition are borrowed simultaneously. Monte avoids exact quotation except at the beginning of a movement, treating the material with increasing freedom as the Mass unfolds. He reworks not only individual strands but the whole polyphonic complex, thus making it unrecognizable. The adjustments include a great variety of techniques. (1) A discrepancy in the number of syllables between model and Mass and the observation of correct accentuation may require rhythmic changes. (2) Monte simplifies a melody by omitting non-essential notes, or he elaborates it by introducing passing and auxiliary notes. (3) The composer often alters the polyphonic organization of his models, changing the number of imitative entries and rearranging them horizontally and vertically. (4) Encompassed under the label "development" are techniques such as the vertical combination of two subjects from the model, the borrowing of a polyphonic complex while adding a free part, and the construction of a longer imitative section based on an insignificant motive of the model. The fact that Monte borrows from composers such as Palestrina, Striggio, Wert, and Lassus shows a predominant interest in works of his contemporaries.

Works: Monte: Missa Cara la vita mia (49, 67, 78, 88, 141, 143), Missa Ancor che col partire (50, 63, 83, 101, 135, 154, 172), Missa Inclina cor meum (54, 89, 92, 103, 128, 154), Missa Quando lieta sperai (56, 66, 69, 75, 78, 96, 99, 115, 145, 154, 171), Missa Nasce la pena mia (58, 66, 69, 137, 151, 154), Missa Quam pulchra es (61), Missa Ultima miei sospiri (69), Missa La dolce vista (71, 85, 107, 147, 152), Missa Aspice domine (90, 109, 123, 139, 153), Missa Benedicta es coelorum regina (95), Missa Reviens vers moy (97, 107, 113, 153), Missa Cum sit omnipotens rector Olympi (107, 117, 146, 154), Missa O altitudo divitiarum (138, 140, 153, 155), Missa Ma cueur se recommande a vous (149), Missa Vestiva i colli (152, 155), Missa Confitebor tibi Domine (154).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Hector Berlioz’s Roméo et Juliette reveals his beliefs on how instrumental and vocal/texted music can convey meaning. Roméo et Juliette fuses elements of instrumental and texted music together: the orchestral movements convey emotional content and mood through recognizable musical topics, while programmatic titles focus that emotional content towards specific characters and scenes from the original drama. Notably, the “Love Scene” and “Tomb Scene” from Roméo et Juliette are intertextually related to the Adagio movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1, which at an early stage also had programmatic associations with the tomb scene from Shakespeare’s play. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Berlioz may have been aware of this initial programmatic connection. Even if Berlioz was unaware of Beethoven’s original program, Roméo et Juliette and Beethoven’s quartet movement are intertextually related because they both utilize similar musical topics and formal strategies to depict episodes of love and parting.

Works: Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette (41-61).

Sources: Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (46-58).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Producers of popular music at the turn of the twenty-first century developed hybrid music forms which combine rock music with styles and sounds of its competitors, particularly hip-hop. For example, groups such as Limp Bizkit graft the sound of record scratching and rapping into a rock band context, although record scratching is used as a sound in and of itself rather than in the service of sampling or other hip-hop musical devices. Additionally, music videos of these hybrid groups integrate visual components of both rock and rap videos. These groups assert their authenticity through textual, aural, and visual signifiers of a low socioeconomic status, which supposedly signals an allegiance with blacks.

Works: Limp Bizkit: Nookie (163, 167); Eminem: Guilty Conscience (163-64); Kid Rock: Cowboy (164-65); Dexter Holland (songwriter), The Offspring (performers): Pretty Fly (For a White Guy) (165-66).

Sources: N.W.A.: Straight Outta Compton (164-65).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Popular music, as practice, differs from classical music, as a repertoire of iconic objects, in that the former places less emphasis on authorial attribution, involves greater collaboration between musicians, has blurred the distinction between "performance" and "composition," and overall features widespread use of borrowing procedures. "Intertextuality" is the best term that encompasses the borrowing practices of popular music. "Remixes" are one type of borrowing procedure, in which old songs are digitally re-worked in a new context. Bill Laswell creates remixes of the music of Miles Davis and Bob Marley. In the Davis remix, Laswell streamlines 38 minutes of music into fifteen, clarifies the instrumentation and textures through digital technology, reorders seamlessly connected sections, and highlights the similarities between all included source materials. Through his creative process, Laswell emerges more as a composer of something new, rather than a "remixer" of something old. In addition, the artist presents a remix of Marley's songs, but removes all of his prominent vocals. The result is not reggae, but rather a new "ambient gospel" genre. In part, these modern borrowing procedures in popular music have precedent in Western music history and are part of a long-established vernacular tradition. Other influences in popular music practice include multi-voiced repetition, best characterized as African-American "Signifyin(g)," which opposes the traditional Western concept of the singular "composer's voice." A semiotic dialogical theory can address these issues in popular music intertextuality. A final issue to consider is the opposition that emerges between intertextual musical performance and popular music recording, which preserves a specific version of a given song at its moment in time and highlights solo individualism. Remixes and cover songs highlight this tension; to accommodate this, one's analytical model must account for an "originating moment," the version of a song that is to be the measure for all others that re-create it.

Works: Bill Laswell: Panthalassa: The Remixes (62-67), Dreams of Freedom: Ambient Translations of Bob Marley in Dub (62, 67-71); Bob Marley: One Love (People Get Ready) (71); Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (79-80); Richard Ashcroft [Verve]: Bittersweet Symphony (82); Paul Anka: My Way as performed by Elvis Presley (82-83), Sid Vicious (83).

Sources: Joe Zawinul: In a Silent Way as performed by Miles Davis (63-67), Miles Davis: Shhh/Peaceful (63-67), It's About That Time (63-67); Bob Marley: One Love (People Get Ready) (67-69), Exodus (69-71); Curtis Mayfield: People Get Ready (71); Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers [Chic]: Good Times (79); John Deacon [Queen]: Another One Bites the Dust (79-80); Debbie Harry and Chris Stein [Blondie]: Rapture (79-80); Grandmaster Flash: Birthday Party (79); Sugarhill Gang: 8th Wonder (79); Spoonie Gee (Gabriel Jackson): Monster Jam (79); Mick Jagger and Keith Richards [Rolling Stones]: The Last Time (82); Paul Anka: My Way as performed by Frank Sinatra (82-83).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Often compared to Pulcinella, Stravinsky’s The Fairy’s Kiss adapts Tchaikovsky’s music to create a unique artistic vision. Stravinsky’s approach to the Tchaikovsky homage in this ballet could be grouped into three categories: overt quotation, hidden quotation, and imitation of Tchaikovsky’s overall mood. There are eighteen citations from Tchaikovsky. Some works like the Lullaby or the Feuillet d’album are adapted without much change from their original, while other pieces like Dumka are quoted in a less obvious manner, fragmented and hidden in the texture. Stravinsky is therefore trying to give an impression of Tchaikovsky’s style, rather than to signal a specific allusion. To enhance his homage, Stravinsky borrows Tchaikovsky’s subtle stylistic gestures, which form an intricate network of associations. As a result, Stravinsky is able to create three distinct layers in his ballet: his own music, his treatment of adapted material, and the synthesis of Tchaikovsky imitation and his own compositional language.

Works: Stravinsky: The Fairy’s Kiss (95–102).

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Feuillet d’album No. 3, Op. 19 (97), Au Village, Op. 40 (97), “The Harmonica Player” from Album pour enfants, Op. 39 (97), I bol’no i sladko, Op. 6, No. 3 (97), None but the Lonely Heart, Op. 6, No. 6 (98), Lullaby, Op. 54, No. 10 (97–100), Dumka, Op. 59 (98), Symphony No. 5, Op. 64 (98), Overture to Cherevichki (98–100), Serenade, Op. 63 (97–100).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Index Classifications: 1700s

The supposedly authentic folk music traits of Chopin’s mazurkas, as well as the myth that Chopin avidly listened to folksongs played by Polish peasants, have convinced many scholars that Chopin’s mazurkas contained authentic Polish folk melodies. While the Mazurka, Op. 24, No. 2, and Mazurka Op. 68, No. 3 do contain Polish musical elements, Chopin was actually borrowing musical conventions from an urban tradition, not a rural or peasant one. The mazurka models that Chopin drew upon had originated as a genre of piano works that were popular in the salons in Warsaw. Polish parlors and theaters in the early nineteenth-century became places where composers could experiment with creating a national art music that often featured the supposedly folk characteristics found in Chopin’s mazurkas. This style of music, with distinctive Polish markers, was created by cultural elites as a part of an effort to forge a national tradition. Furthermore, many of the songs Chopin heard in the country had actually derived from urban songs, vaudeville, and operas that were written in a simple and folk-like fashion.

Works: Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 24, No. 2 (114-20), Mazurka, Op. 68, No. 3 (115-21); Karol Kurpiński: Wesele w Ojcowie (133-34).

Sources: Anonymous: Oj Magdalino (118-21).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Inmates in concentration camps often provided new lyrics to well-known melodies, and in several cases the new lyrics parodied the subject matter of the original piece. Aleksander Kulisiewicz’s lyrics to Heil, Sachsenhausen offer a satiric narrative of the Sachsenhausen camp experience, mocking the Nazi racial purity laws with lyrics in both Polish and German. Through his parody of Mieczyslaw Miksne’s Madagaskar, Kulisiewicz also compares the Germany’s treatment of Poles to Poland’s treatment of the Jews. It is apparent that Kulisiewicz, who only heard Madagaskar for the first time in the camp, was unaware that Miksne, through his satirical song, expressed a desire to go to Madagascar because he believed that the natives would be more civilized that the Poles who planned to send the Jews there. The psychological effects of the parody can still be noted, however, as Kulisiewicz’s lyrics also mock an oppressor.

Works: Aleksander Kulisiewicz: Heil, Sachsenhausen (270), Jüdischer Todessang (278).

Sources: Mieczysław Miksne: Madagaskar (270).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

The compilation soundtrack of David Lynch’s 1997 film Lost Highway, particularly its use of cover songs, works together with the film’s narrative and imagery to destabilize the viewer’s experience in support of the film’s depiction of toxic masculinity. Three cover songs appear at crucial points in Lost Highway: Lou Reed’s cover of This Magic Moment, made popular by The Drifters; Marilyn Manson’s cover of I Put a Spell on You by Screamin’ Jay Hawkins; and This Mortal Coil’s cover of Song to the Siren by Tim Buckley and Larry Beckett. Each cover is a generic reset, transforming a familiar song into an aggressive alt-rock genre. The generic resets mirror the narrative transformation of the main characters into film-noir, masculine-wish-fulfillment doppelgängers as well as the visual indulgence in macho rock iconography. The disruptive effect of the audience misidentifying the cover songs highlights the menace and violence in this masculine fantasy. The scene featuring I Put a Spell on You exemplifies this effect; Marilyn Manson’s industrial rock cover scores a scene of a noir-fantasy striptease at gunpoint, with the discomforting music emphasizing the scene’s coercive violence. Lou Reed’s distortion-heavy cover of This Magic Moment accompanies another fantasy sequence, subverting its borderline-cliché love-at-first-sight imagery. This Mortal Coil’s goth version of Song to the Siren appears three times during the film: it first plays faintly during an awkward, failed sex scene in reality; next it appears as the film’s perspective turns to the noir fantasy; and finally, it plays loudly during the triumphant fantasy sex scene, which ends in an abrupt transformation back into reality. The three appearances of the song mark the psychosexual narrative throughline of a sexually frustrated man driven to a fantasy of being a young, virile stud, only to have the fantasy come crashing down in the end. The fact that it is a cover song literalizes the idea of destabilized masculine identity. Thus, the film’s abrasive alternative soundtrack is not merely a nod to the youth market, but integral to the film’s deconstruction of toxic masculinity.

Works: David Lynch (director): Compilation score to Lost Highway (37-45); Lou Reed (performer): This Magic Moment (37-39); Marilyn Manson (performer): I Put a Spell on You (38-39); This Mortal Coil (performer): Song to the Siren (38-39)

Sources: Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman: This Magic Moment (37-39); Screamin’ Jay Hawkins: I Put a Spell on You (38-39); Tim Buckley and Larry Beckett: Song to the Siren (38-39); Lou Reed (performer): This Magic Moment (42-44); Marilyn Manson (performer): I Put a Spell on You (41-42); This Mortal Coil (performer): Song to the Siren (44-45)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Nocturnal after John Dowland, Op. 70, for solo guitar can be described as a set of variations on Come Heavy Sleep, a song for voice and lute from John Dowland's First Book of Songs (London, 1597). The "theme" appears at the end, rather than the beginning of the composition. The composition is in nine sections, the final section of which is a transcription of the Dowland song. The eight preceding variations consist of "bits and pieces" of the song, subjected to various techniques such as abbreviation, transposition, inversion, and other forms of manipulation. All of the variations are somber in character; the overall effect of the composition is macabre, sparse and anxious, with the exception of the final section, which is calm and peaceful.

Works: Britten: Nocturnal after John Dowland (15-16).

Sources: Dowland: Come Heavy Sleep (15-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Brumel's Mass is a parody Mass based on his own chanson Tous les regretz, of which two versions exist: (1) Florence, Conservatorio L. Cherubini, MS Basevi 2442, and (2) Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale, MS 11239. One rhythmic feature of the superius (a dotted semibreve followed by two fusa) only appears in the Florence MS and the Mass and it seems thus likely that the version in the Italian source was the actual model. Not only melodic but also harmonic elements are preserved. The first six harmonies of the homophonic chanson can be found either expanded or contracted in the predominantly homophonic Mass. Occasional imitative duo sections draw on motives from the chanson as well.

Works: Brumel: Missa Dringhs

Sources: Brumel: Tous les regretz

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

British Museum, Additional MS 29996 folios 158-178b contains a set of twenty anonymous pieces labeled with a heading indicating that they are compositions "on the faburden" of a piece of plainchant. "On the faburden" means that faburden, the improvisational technique of singing above a given melody (in this case plainchant) more or less at the interval of a third, was the genesis of the pieces. In these examples, the chant was then dropped, and the new composition was written using the faburden line as the middle voice. The notes of the plainchant and its text incipit are given at the beginning of each piece. The chants used are all hymns found in the Sarum Breviary, in services from Advent through the third sunday of Lent.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Lou Harrison's later style is defined in part by his propensity to revise, rework, and borrow from his own compositions. In Harrison's Suite for Symphonic Strings (1960), the first piece in which borrowed from himself, he incorporated works that were written both before and after his most significant stylistic shift, resulting in the juxtaposition of strikingly contrasting styles. Such polystylism even carried over to works that did not borrow any pre-existing music, such as in his Symphony on G. Self-borrowing allowed the composer to restrict his compositional options and focus on novel reworkings and new combinations. The resulting polystylism was a direct result of Harrison's revisions and self-borrowings and became a hallmark of the composer's style.

Works: Lou Harrison: Suite for Symphonic Strings (86-91), Third Symphony (94-100).

Sources: Lou Harrison: Double Fugue (87-88, 90), Triphony (87-88, 91), Fugue for David Tudor (87), Almanac of the Seasons (87), Nocturne (87, 91, 93), Chorale for Spring (88-89), Largo ostinato (94, 96-98, 100-102), Reel to Henry Cowell (96), Waltz for Hinrichsen (96), Estampie for Summerfield (96), Political Primer (96).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Chinese American composer Chen Yi incorporates elements of traditional Chinese music on the surface level and in the underlying structure of her work to create a unique fusion of styles as exemplified by her use of the Chinese mother-tune Baban. In traditional Chinese music, Baban is classified as a type of qupai, a particular group of named melodies used as the basis for numerous variations. Chen’s 1992 Piano Concerto incorporates Baban in several ways. The melody is quoted in the opening phrase, the rhythmic pattern is frequently articulated by several instruments, and the structural proportions of the piece correspond to the underlying structure of Baban. Since the Piano Concerto, Chen has used Baban in various forms in at least twenty-one pieces. Some of these pieces borrow all or part of the Baban melody. In others Chen creates rhythmic figures based on the Baban rhythmic form. During her brief experimentation with serialism, Chen combined elements of Baban with twelve-tone techniques. While Chen uses many other signifiers of Chinese traditional music in her compositions, Baban holds a special position as a spiritual connection to Chinese history. By utilizing Baban in multiple ways—as a tune, as a rhythmic plan, and as a structure—Chen creates a cross-cultural identity embracing traditional Chinese and Western art music.

Works: Chen Yi: Piano Concerto (336-40), The Golden Flute (340-43), From the Path of Beauty (343-44), Qi (345-46), Chinese Myths Cantata (345-47), Song in Winter (345-48), Si Ji (345-48), Sparkle (349), The Soulful and the Perpetual (349-51), Three Dances from China South (349-52)

Sources: Traditional: Baban (333-52)

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

The Prince of the Pagodas is based both on transcriptions that Britten made during his trip to Bali in 1956 and on "Kapi Radja," which he came to know from a recording. Unbeknownst to Britten, "Kapi Radja" was itself based on Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

The influences of Schoenberg, Mahler, Shostakovich, and far Eastern music are among those influences on which perspectives have changed since 1952. Schoenberg provided the influence, much more apparent after 1952, of serial principles, although not of serial techniques, on Britten, evident in such works as The Turn of the Screw, Cantata Academica, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Song and Proverbs of William Blake, Death in Venice, and Owen Wingrave. Mahler's influence, particularly of Das Lied von der Erde, is emphasized in the orchestral song-cycle Our Hunting Fathers. Shostakovich is acknowledged as an influence on Russian Funeral, the Piano Concerto, Op. 13, and Our Hunting Fathers. These three composers, however, are viewed mainly as influences on Britten's compositional principles (Schoenberg, as "a way of thinking"; Mahler, through "shared technical principles"; and Shostakovich, by satire and parody) rather than on his style, although stylistic similarities are present as well. The influence of the music of the Far East first appeared in the ballet The Prince of the Pagodas and the first church parable, Curlew River. The ballet evokes the sound of a Balinese gamelan, while Curlew River is based on the Japanese Noh play Sumidagawa. Britten's earliest opera Paul Bunyan enhibits similarities to Balinese music as well, which may have been suggested while Britten was in New York through his familiarity with the ethnomusicologist Colin McPhee and McPhee's two-piano transcriptions of Balinese music, Balinese Ceremonial Music.

Works: Britten: Sinfonietta, Op. 1 (25), The Turn of the Screw (26), Cantata Academica (26), A Midsummer Night's Dream (26), Songs and Proverbs of William Blake (26), Death in Venice (26, 30, 36, 43, 35), Owen Wingrave (26), Paul Bunyan (28-30, 41-44), Sinfonia da Requiem (31), Our Hunting Fathers (31, 35-36), Russian Funeral (34), Piano Concerto, Op. 13 (34), Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge (38), The Prince of the Pagodas (39, 42), Curlew River (39).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The concept of “New Music” in China during the 1980s demands to be reinterpreted, as it is not the musical style itself, but the act of introducing Western classical tradition to China that is new. Chinese composers in the 1980s adopted an eclectic stance in their use of musical borrowing. They often treated Western art music as a supermarket, choosing whatever musical elements suited their taste to combine with Chinese musical idioms, resulting in works that sound like Rachmaninoff, Mozart, or Ligeti. Before the 1980s, such compositional attempts are characterized by pentatonic romanticism, which does not reflect true synthesis of both musico-cultural idioms. The most eclectic Chinese composer is Tan Dun, whose works represent a diverse web of sounds from all over the world. None of the compositions in the 1980s applies the same borrowing approach. This eclectic form of musical borrowing prevents one from identifying the specific sources of borrowing, since the music reflects an integrative approach to influences from both Western and Chinese musical traditions and repertoires. These composers and their works fall under the category of “New Wave Music,” a term coined by Wang Anguo in 1986 in Musicology in China for Chinese composers who had just adopted modern Western compositional techniques into their own musical styles while departing from the romantic pentatonicism dominant until the mid-1970s. Alexander Goehr’s invitation to teach modern compositional techniques in the Central Conservatory in Beijing in 1980 influenced many Chinese composers to adopt a more modern stance in their compositions.

Works: Xiang Min: Piano Quartet (84); Tan Dun: Snow in June (88).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Hip-hop DJs take previously recorded material in the form of vinyl LPs and reorganize and alter the recorded sounds to create new music. As DJ techniques and routines have grown increasingly complex, DJs such as DJ A-Trak and DJ Radar and others such as filmmaker John Carluccio have created methods of notating DJs’ musical and technical choices. By examining three forms of scratch notation developed by hip-hop DJs (including the widely-used Turntablist Transcription Methodology, or TTM), various uses for notation can be shown, ranging from idiosyncratic memory-aid to symbolic justification for “art” and “work” status. These uses are linked to those practiced throughout the history of Western art music.

Works: Grandmaster Flash: The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (90-91); DJ Radar: Antimatter (94), Concerto for Turntable (96-97).

Sources: DJ Babu: Super Duck Breaks (88); DJ Q-Bert: Toasted Marshmallow Feet Breaks (88); Chic: Good Times (91); Queen: Another One Bites the Dust (91).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Since the late nineteenth century, Stephen Foster’s songs have been widely known in Japan and hold a familiar place in Japanese musical education. Foster’s music was first introduced to Japanese Shogunate officials in 1853 by American sailors aboard U.S. commodore Matthew C. Perry’s fleet, which demanded the opening of Japanese ports. During the modernization of Japanese education beginning in the 1870s, many Western tunes were incorporated into the music curriculum as uncredited Shoka (formally Mombusho Shoka, or official songs for the school curriculum) with new Japanese texts. Shuji Izawa, director of the Institute of Music, based this new music curriculum on Luther Whiting Mason’s “Music Charts,” which Izawa studied during an 1875 trip to the United States. Several Foster songs, including Old Folks at Home, Massa’s in de Cold Ground, and My Old Kentucky Home, were adapted into educational Shoka as early as 1888. Some Foster songs were also adapted as hymns in early-twentieth-century Japanese hymnals. Before Foster’s music was banned during World War II (along with other Western composers), it was also very popular on children’s radio programs. Because Foster’s music was adopted into Japanese musical culture largely disconnected from Foster himself, there is little understanding of Foster’s biography or his place in American history. Recent Japanese music textbooks have emphasized Foster’s biography in service of a cross-cultural music curriculum.

Works: Tateki Owada: Aware no Shojo (313-14); Anonymous: Zouka no Waza (313), Kitaguni no Yuki (313), Yasashiki Kokoro (313); Yoshikiyo Katou: Haru Kaze (313-14); Kazuma Yoshimaru: Yube no Kane (313); Kokei Hayashi: Shakura Chiru (313); Takashi Iba: Wakare (313)

Sources: Stephen Foster: Old Folks at Home (313-14), Massa’s in de Cold Ground (313-14), Old Black Joe (313), My Old Kentucky Home (313)

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

The purveyors of Anglican Church music in the late sixteenth century followed a close student-teacher relationship over several generations. In the case of Thomas Tallis, his student William Byrd, and the third generation, Thomas Morley, there is a tradition of emulation and borrowing which manifests itself in their Short Services and Triple-Time Services. Byrd's setting of the Te Deum, in his Short Service, contains harmonic patterns and melodic figures that were clearly derived from the Tallis version. In the Nunc Dimittis, Byrd imitates the manner in which Tallis introduces increasing amounts of imitation throughout a movement, and the interplay Tallis employs between the soprano and the lower voices. Morley is indebted to his mentor William Byrd, in terms of tonal outlines, and also to Thomas Tallis, with borrowings at specific harmonic points.

Works: William Byrd: Short Service (83-100), Triple-Time Service (100-111); Thomas Morley: Short Service (83-100), Triple-Time Service (100-111).

Sources: Thomas Tallis: Short Service (83-100).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

While some of Byrd's anthems are contrafacta of his Latin motets, two others are known to borrow from works by other composers. The opening of How long shall mine enemies shares melodic and organizational features with Tallis's I call and cry and Byrd models the conclusion ("But my trust is in thy mercy") on the corresponding section ("Forget my wickedness") of his predecessor, quoting the last three measures quite literally. Although the soprano and alto parts of William Hunnis's verse anthem Alack when I looke back are lost, it can still clearly be recognized as the model of Byrd's setting of the same text. Both compositions correspond in terms of form, melodic material, and techniques, such as quotation of the preexistent tune in an inner part at parallel places. Byrd, however, expands the choruses at the end of each verse and enhances the contrapuntal workmanship.

Works: Byrd: How long shall mine enemies (282-87), Alack, when I look back (295-99), All ye people clap your hands (302), Arise, O Lord, why sleepest thou (302), Behold I bring you glad tidings (302), Behold now praise the Lord (302), Be not wroth very sore (302), Blessed art thou, O Lord (302), Let not our prayers (303), Let not thy wrath (303), Let us arise (302), Lift up your heads (303), O Lord, give ear (303), O Lord turn thy wrath (303).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Jazz musicians--particularly African-American musicians--draw upon many sources of knowledge from multiple traditions, and their borrowings are characterized by a sophisticated familiarity with practices from traditions to which they may not traditionally have been thought to belong, as well as a virtuosic and playful tendency to transform the materials they borrow to ironic effect. John Coltrane's position within the world of improvised African-American music did not prevent him from appreciating certain elements of European-American musical theater song in My Favorite Things as sung by Mary Martin. Furthermore, his transformed version of Martin's simple delivery of the Rodgers and Hammerstein tune demonstrates a confidence that African-American musical aesthetics could improve European-American music. Roland Kirk's Rip, Rig, and Panic countered assumptions that he would be unfamiliar with Western art music by citing multiple influences from Edgard Varèse, but did so in an irreverent way that implies multiple meanings and motivations. Not all borrowings must be intercultural or even inter-generic: Jaki Byard's Bass-ment Blues makes ironic references to other styles within the jazz tradition. Intermusical relationships can be ambiguous and still communicate: intention does not necessarily need to line up perfectly with perception. A listener has some liberty to interpret a communicative gesture, although each side should be working with a certain amount of shared knowledge and experience.

Works: Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II (songwriters), John Coltrane (performer): My Favorite Things (292-99); Roland Kirk: Rip, Rig, and Panic (300-302); Jaki Byard: Bass-ment Blues (302-5); Ralph Peterson, Jr.: Princess (306-8).

Sources: Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II (songwriters), Mary Martin (performer): My Favorite Things (292-99); Edgard Varèse: Poème électronique (300), Ionisation (300).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

In Jazz, quotations of, transformations of, or allusions to existing music are part of a tradition of irony and signifying in African-American music. Most of these quotations, transformations, and allusions are found within improvisations. Allusions to other pieces can function as homage, irony, criticism, or artistic improvement on the original. The success of quotations and allusions depends on the listener's familiarity with the repertoire in question.

Works: Roland Kirk, Rip, Rig, and Panic (121-23).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Even after Neo-Gallican reforms revised and suppressed traditional liturgical melodies, plainchant was still sung in almost all parishes as well as the Chapelle Royale of Louis XIV and Louis XV in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France. At this time, plainchants were still employed to enhance the solemnity of the service and provide a way in which composers of secular music could create sacred-sounding music. Plainchants were incorporated into polyphonic music in several ways, including the use of psalm tone intonations, Gregorian intonations, short quotations from chant to emphasize key words, and cantus firmus. Often, plainchants could be anticipated in orchestral introductions. These practices may have been influenced by the chant sur le livre, a French convention of improvising around a plainchant. Aside from emphasizing the sacred aspect of a composition, quotations from popular chants could convey the meaning of the text to those who did not speak Latin, or certain chants could be utilized for political allegory in order to reflect the grandeur of the King.

Works: Jean-Baptiste Lully: Dies Irae (116-18); Henri Madin: Dixit Dominus (130-31); Antoine Blanchard: Jubilate Deo (130-35).

Sources: Dies Irae (116-18); Graduale romanum (Sanctus) (121-35).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

The Sydney electronic dance music (EDM) scene has become increasingly international with increased sampling of overseas content. Sampling as a musical technique has been around for some time, leaving some to argue that it has lost its relevance to the production of new music, instead becoming just a way to repackage old music. However, sampling is still alive and actively engaged in the creation and development of musical scenes, if not the production of individual tracks. With the creation of the internet, transnational sampling between EDM scenes—which refer both to the physical grouping of producers and consumers (Sydney, for instance) and to the collection of shared aesthetics these groups develop—has exploded in scope and ease. This allows scenes that are distant physically to become closer aesthetically. Online EDM sharing sites, such as beatport.com, are faster and cheaper, and they eliminate the need for the mediation of record stores stocking only select music. The Sydney scene in particular relies heavily on internationally sampled music, primarily from British and American producers, to supply the large EDM consumer base. This leads to a unique Sydney scene, created through sampling and remixing other scenes. The Sydney EDM scene is a case study in the application of sampling theories to larger musical entities than just a single work.

Index Classifications: General, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Jacopo Peri's music has been consistently underappreciated by recent scholarship in favor of the operatic and musical mastery of his contemporary Claudio Monteverdi. But a comparison of similar stylistic elements between Peri's Euridice and Monteverdi's Orfeo demonstrates the flaws in this musicological hierarchy. The importance of text expression in Peri's opera manifests itself in a number of ways that are mirrored in Monteverdi's Orfeo. A limited but selective use of instruments in the orchestral accompaniment can be found in both operas. There is also a very similar use of melodic expression in points of recitative and soliloquy. This relationship can be found in a comparison of sections from Peri's Euridice with Monteverdi's Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda and Orfeo. Thus, in a more careful study of Peri's opera, one finds a number of elements that constitute an important precursor to Monteverdian theater.

Works: Monteverdi: Orfeo (117-27), Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (121).

Sources: Jacopo Peri: Euridice (117-27).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Elmi

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Case studies drawn from interviews with contemporary UK-based sampling composers working in several genres of electronic dance music demonstrate the collaborative processes and self-imposed constraints in their creative studio practices. Through incorporating samples, sampling composers effectively co-opt the original songwriters as co-authors, a process with both creative and economic consequences. By convention, songwriters are understood to be those responsible for the creation of the melody, chord progression, and lyrics, but sampling composers often gravitate toward rhythmic or sonic elements that are the domain of (uncredited) performers. Many of the composer interviewed also emphasize listening as a key aspect of their compositional process. Three self-imposed constraints were also regularly discussed. First, many sampling composers preferred to chop samples “by hand,” that is, without the aid of digital quantization and time correction tools. Second, composers created tracks by starting with a sample as the base, building up the other layers, then removing the initial sample, thereby enjoying the creative aspect of sample composition without the hassle of copyright clearance. Third, composers often treated their own recordings as samples. This is especially evident in the songwriting process for the 1982 Talking Heads album Remain in Light, produced by Brian Eno. Increasingly, the compositional approaches of these sampling composers do not differ significantly from songwriters in other popular genres, and advancements in digital sampling technology have not necessarily altered their compositional techniques.

Works: Plan B: Ill Manors (43); Peter Fox: Alles Neu (43)

Sources: Peter Fox: Alles Neu (43); Dmitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 7 (43)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Ives's music reflects the musical situation of its time as well as the music of his contemporaries. He was the earliest composer to engage the musical legacy of previous centuries, tonality and form, as an issue unto itself. His closest predecessor was Mahler, with whom he shared an interest in combining the very simple or even banal with the extremely complex, and an interest in using popular materials that are transformed, deformed, and fragmented in their application. Among his contemporaries, Ives most resembles Schoenberg in his willingness to conclude works in an atmosphere of tonal uncertainty, but he rejects Schoenberg's evolutionary vision, which sees atonality as an historical necessity, representing an impermeable barrier between the old and the new. Ives explores the issue of tonality as a dead language, not by excluding tonality from his music, but by including tonal fragments, or "ruins," in an atonal context. Detailed analysis of the song "The Things Our Fathers Loved" demonstrates how Ives used tonal melodies recollected from his youth explicitly in order to associate tonality itself with a lost past.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David Lieberman

Despite the apparent differences in their styles, there are general similarities between Ives's music and Mahler's, such as tonal and diatonic conservatism, use of physical space in musical conception, handling of permeable form, and manipulation of borrowed material. Ives tends toward direct quotation, whereas Mahler usually recreates standard types, but their similarity lies in maintaining the recognizability of borrowed material while placing it in completely new contexts.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1 (75, 78), Symphony No. 3 (75); Ives: Symphony No. 4, "Hawthorne" from Concord Sonata,The Celestial Railroad, Violin Sonata No. 4 (78-79).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Index Classifications: 1700s

The anonymous popular ballad As I Went to Walsingham frequently appeared as thematic material in sixteenth-century instrumental compositions. Examples for lute solo include theme and variation sets such as Francis Cutting's Walsingham, John Dowland's Walsingham, Edward Collard's Walsingham, and John Marchant's Walsingham. Examples for keyboard (harpsichord or virginal) include William Byrd's Have With You to Walsinghame. In addition to sharing the same thematic material (the As I Went to Walsingham melody) these compositions often shared similar or identical melodic fragments, called "figures," that were perhaps specific to compositions based on the Walsingham melody. This shared use of musical figures is perhaps analogous to the way in which poets such as Sir Walter Raleigh would adopt literary phrases from other poets when writing about similar subjects.

Works: Cutting: Walsingham (20-21); Collard: As I Went to Walsingham (22, 27); John Dowland: Walsingham (22-24); John Marchant: Walsingham (23-24); Byrd: Have With You to Walsinghame (26-28).

Sources: Anonymous: As I Went to Walsingham (19-36).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Index Classifications: 1900s

In his Memories and Commentaries (with Robert Craft), Stravinsky asserted having borrowed only one folk tune from a Lithuanian anthology for his opening bassoon melody of The Rite of Spring. An investigation of this Lithuanian source (Anton Juszkiewicz, Litauische Volks-Weisen, Cracow, 1900) reveals that Stravinsky, consciously or unconsciously, used many more folksongs (or significant sections thereof). The pitches usually correspond exactly, whereas rhythms are changed and grace-notes added. In all the examples cited, Stravinsky transposed the original and sometimes only raised or lowered a single note.

Works: Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring.

Sources: Anton Juszkiewicz, Litauische Volks-Weisen: Nos. 34, 113, 142, 157, 249, 271, 314, 359, 539, 641, 787, and 1785.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Stravinsky's ballet Le Baiser de la Fée is based upon thematic material borrowed from Tchaikovsky and upon music written in the manner of Tchaikovsky. Fourteen works by Tchaikovsky served as major sources of material while several others were possible sources referred to in passing in the music. The search for sources is often difficult because of the nature of the piece; even Stravinsky cannot always tell what music was by Tchaikovsky and what music was by him but written in the manner of Tchaikovsky. In the end, the ballet is more Stravinsky's than it is Tchaikovsky's.

Works: Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée.

Sources: Tchaikovsky: Berceuse de la tempête, Op. 54, No. 10 (315-16), Soir d'hiver, Op. 54, No. 7 (316-17), Humoresque, Op. 10, No. 2 (317-18), Rêverie du soir, Op. 19, No. 1 (318-19), Le Paysan joue à l'accordéon, Op. 39, No. 12 (319), Au village, Op. 40 (319-20), Natha-Valse, Op. 51, No. 4 (319), Tant triste, tant douce, Op. 6, No. 1 (320), Symphony No. 5 (320-22), Scherzo humoristique, Op. 19, No. 2 (322), Feuillet d'album, Op. 19, No. 3 (322), Sleeping Beauty (323), Serenada, Op. 63, No. 6 (323), Polka peu dansante, Op. 51, No. 2 (323-24), Ah! qui brûla d'amour, Op. 6, No. 6 (324).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The phrases (Mottetenköpfe) opening each of the two sections of Palestrina's madrigal Vestiva i colli are both easily memorable melodies that also appear in old German and Dutch folksongs such as Es fur ein maidlein übern see (corresponding to part one of the madrigal) or Maudit soit and Ach herziges K. (both by Isaac, corresponding to part two). Thus they are very apt to structure Palestrina's Missa Vestiva i colli and appear at the beginning of significant sections of the Mass movements. Palestrina, however, does not restrict himself to the two opening phrases, but occasionally also draws upon inner sections. Several changes adjust the borrowings to the sacred character (Devotio christiana) of the Mass: slower tempo (mensuration), avoidance of leap, and simplification of the declamation. If Palestrina maintains leaps, they can be interpreted as expressions of joyful passages, as they occur in the "Gloria." Moser discusses six more Masses built on Palestrina's Vestiva i colli. While Giovanni Maria Nanino drew on both the Mass and the madrigal, Ruggiero Giovanelli used only the former. The madrigal furnishes the material for the remaining Masses (see list below). Moser believed that Felice Anerio also based his work on Vestiva i colli, an assumption the author had to correct two issues later (p. 376). Anerio's Mass borrows from Palestrina's eight-part motet Laudate dominum omnes gentes. Palestrina's madrigal influenced even completely different genres. Nikolaus Bleyer's Vestiva [i] colli del Palestrina: Modo di Passeggiar con diverse inventionj non regolati al Canto for violin (from around 1620, according to Moser) paraphrases especially the beginning of its model in a virtuosic way.

Works: Palestrina: Missa Vestiva i colli (132-37); Nanino: Missa Vestiva i colli (137-41); Giovanelli: Missa Vestiva i colli (137-41); Belli: Missa Vestiva i colli (141-42); Nucius: Missa super Vestiva i colli (143-44); Biondi (Cesena): Missa Vestiva i colli (144-47); Rudolph de Lasso: Missa Vestiva i colli (148-49); Anerio: Missa Laudate Dominum omnes gentes (149-52, 376); Bleyer: Vestiva [i] colli del Palestrina (152-54); Banchieri: La pazzia senile (376).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

African-American spirituals are one important textual source for contemporary gospel music. Gospel music addresses similar themes of hardship, struggle, and perseverance, all of which are prevalent in spiritual texts. At least three different twentieth-century gospel versions of the spiritual The Old Ship of Zion have been recorded by performers such as Wings Over Jordan and Modern Gospel. Although gospel performers sometimes change or omit words of a spiritual in gospel arrangements, the importance of the text and its ability to express the oral tradition of African American music remain in the foreground. An appendix lists examples of the various ways in which spiritual texts are borrowed for gospel songs, including chorus only, borrowed incipit, substitution of words, and chorus and stanza borrowed.

Works: Anonymous: Oh, Get Away, Jordan (51-52); Wings Over Jordan (performer): Old Ship of Zion (54-55); Thomas A. Dorsey: Old Ship of Zion (54-55); Modern Gospel (performers): Old Ship of Zion (54-55).

Sources: Anonymous: Oh, Give Way, Jordan (50-51); Anybody Here (52); Jacob?s Ladder (52-53); Keep Your Lamps Trimmed and Burning (52-53); Rise and Shine (52-53); Old Ship of Zion (54-55).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Mimetic songs are a trend in popular music, and the lyrics of these songs follow in the tradition of classical poetry. These songs have meanings, expressed "by simple implication, ambiguity, irony, symbolism, surrealistic devices, or by dramatic means." Paul Simon's songs provide rich examples of meaning, and they draw upon multiple voices, often one newly-composed and one borrowed from pre-existing material. A dramatic opposition and multiple meanings are created between two voices in both Seven O'Clock News/Silent Night and Scarborough Fair/Canticle. Humor and satire is found in At the Zoo.Mrs. Robinson offers a satirical or ironic view of the suburban housewife and includes a mocking reference to Jesus Loves Me This I Know.

Works: Paul Simon: America (146-47), Seven O'Clock News/Silent Night (147), Scarborough Fair/Canticle (147-48), At the Zoo (148), Mrs. Robinson (148-49), A Hazy Shade of Winter (149).

Sources: Franz Gruber: Silent Night (147); Traditional: Scarborough Fair (147); William B. Bradbury: Jesus Loves Me This I Know (149).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Victoria Malawey

Adult animation series The Simpsons, South Park, and Family Guy share several common categories of musical usage. Since the earliest animated short films in the 1920s, music has been integral to dramaturgy and storytelling in animation. Later, animated sitcoms like The Flintstones and The Jetsons used music in more limited, but no less important ways. While The Simpsons, South Park, and Family Guy have developed in different directions, they all use music to spoof American culture and society. The Simpsons tends to use current music references and recomposed soundalikes while Family Guy tends to use older music in its original form. South Park uses music less often, but musical pop culture of Generations X and Y is still a core component of the show. The use of songs in adult animation can be categorized as recitativo, songs that underscore or forward the plot, and aria, action stopping musical numbers. An example of recitativo in Family Guy can be seen in a scene where Lois prepares for a boxing match and the camera cuts to Peter singing Eye of the Tiger ringside, parodying the Rocky film franchise. The aria category of song use is exemplified by another Family Guy scene that cuts away to the entire music video for David Bowie and Mick Jagger’s Dancing in the Street, diverting entirely from the plot of the episode. The opening sequences of each show also demonstrate the importance of music in their respective narrative and comedic identities. Each show occasionally parodies other television opening themes, as South Park does in its multi-episode parody of Game of Thrones, transforming Ramin Djawadi’s opening title music into A Chorus of Wieners. Each show has also done music-centric episodes where characters join a band, for instance, or the episode itself is structured like a mini musical. With these three series becoming major influences in their medium, music has once again become the backbone of animation.

Works: Carl W. Stalling: soundtrack to The Skeleton Dance (71-72); Alf Clausen: soundtrack to The Simpsons (80, 83); Ron Jones and Walter Murphy: soundtrack to Family Guy (89-91); Adam Berry, Scott Nickoley, and Jamie Dunlap: soundtrack to South Park (84-85, 98-100).

Sources: Edvard Grieg: Trolltog, Op. 54, No. 3 (71-72); Bernard Herrmann: soundtrack to Cape Fear (80); Hans Zimmer: soundtrack to Inception (83); Erick Wolfgang Korngold: soundtrack to The Sea Hawk (84); Zach Hemsey: Mind Heist (84-85); Mozart: Eine kleine Nachtmusik (85-6); Survivor: Eye of the Tiger (89-90); William Stevenson (songwriter), David Bowie and Mick Jagger (performers): Dancing In The Street (91); Ramin Djawadi: soundtrack to Game of Thrones (98-100).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In composing Tabuh-Tabuhan, Colin McPhee aimed to integrate Balinese music into the Western symphonic idiom such that it would appeal to Western audiences without losing its distinctiveness. By using authentic Balinese series of notes such as the pèlog and the jejogan incorporated with other motives (ganderangan and rindik), McPhee created a structure unique to both Balinese and Western traditions. McPhee also wanted to "re-create" Balinese music for a Western audience who could not hear this music performed on its original instruments. To this end, he incorporated the overtones of the different-sized gongs of the gamelan instruments into the orchestral texture, achieving the sounds he heard without their original creators.

Works: Colin McPhee: Tabuh-Tabuhan (127-75, 67-92).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

The author only considers those songs as contrafacta for which the original text is still clearly recogizable or indicated by a marginal note. Sacred contrafacta were intended to supplant their secular models: replacing their offensive texts while saving the melodies. The latter often deviate considerably from the originals, of which there may be several versions. These deviations include melodic variants, modulations to other keys in the second half of the song, and the elimination of phrases. Laufenberg: Ich weiss eine stolze maget vin, ein edle künegin (355f.); Es taget minnencliche die sünn der gnaden vol (356); Ich wölt daz ich do heime wer (356f.); Ein lerer ruoft vil lut us hohen sinnen (357); from the Hohenfurter Liederbuch: Wolauf, wir wollens wecken (358); Hätt ich die Gnad, so wollt ich mich aufschwingen (358); Ich sich den Morgensterne (358); Philippsen der Jüngere zu Winnenberg und Beilstein: Frisch auf in Gottes Namen, Du werde Teutsche Nation (360); Mir ist ein liebes Meidelein Gefalln in meinen Sinn (360); Wiewohl ich schwach und elend bin, So hab' ich doch ein' steten Sinn (360); So wünsch ich euch ein gute Nacht (360); from the collection of Louis Pinck (Verklingende Weisen): Der himmlische Jäger (361); Ich weiss ein schönes Himmelreich (363); from the collection of Bäumker (Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied in seinen Singweisen): Der geistlichen Meyen, Alt (363); Waris: Es scheint die Sonn am Himmel (365); Ich verlang ein Braut zu werden (366); Gute Meinung (367).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

The article's first section discusses a quotation found in Die Meistersinger (when the master is so named), which is taken from Die Walküre. The second part lists a number of pieces that use quotations, including Wolf's Grenzen der Menschheit and Corregidor, Bruckner's 2nd Symphony, and Brahms's Intermezzo No. 2, Op. 119.

Works: Wolf: Grenzen der Menschheit (431), Corregidor (431); Bruckner: Symphony No. 2 (431); Brahms: Intermezzo No. 2, Op. 119 (432), Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 5 (432).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

One of the central questions in jazz research is the relationship of a specific jazz musician to his or her jazz predecessors. Harold Bloom’s anxiety-based model of influence, despite its current popularity across the humanities, is not an effective starting point in the ethnomusicological discourse surrounding quotation or allusion in jazz. Alternatively, Henry Louise Gates Jr.’s model of “Signifyin(g)” offers a better tool for understanding jazz musicians’ relationship to their precursors, as well as the ways they can generate meaning from this tension. Gates’s model is better for two reasons. First, it directly addresses jazz music and folk improvisation in addition to literary traditions whereas Bloom’s model focuses on literature. Second, it reflects the vernacular, communal nature of African American art versus the refinement and monolithic originality idealized by nineteenth-century authors. In other words, the influence of predecessors is felt joyfully rather than anxiously in jazz improvisation, and musical quotations tend to reflect homage. In the context of “Signifyin(g),” Joe Henderson’s quotation of a motive from Charlie Parker’s Buzzy in a chorus of his 1965 recording If, or in his 1981 recording of Freddie Hubbard’s Bird Like, generates a joyful dialogue between the performer and an audience or ensemble who would recognize the reference, rather than an anxious dialogue between the performer and his predecessor. Repetition, interpretation, and transformation rest on the assumption of a communal language which accurately reflects the nature of mainstream jazz improvisation more broadly.

Works: Joe Henderson: If (10-11, 13); Joe Henderson (performer) and Freddie Hubbard (composer and performer): Bird Like (10-17).

Sources: Charlie Parker: Buzzy (10-17).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa, Molly Covington, Matthew G. Leone

The story of the Frei aber froh motive and its significance in Brahms's music is not valid but is instead the invention of Max Kalbeck. The examples of the F-A-F motive which Kalbeck points to are not persuasive. The Frei aber einsam motive (associated with Joachim) is of course valid and appears in the scherzo movement of the F-A-E sonata as well as in correspondence between Brahms and Joachim and in Des Jungen Kreislers Schatzkästlein (the notebook in which the young Brahms noted down his favorite literary quotations).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Carl Czerny’s Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School: From the First Rudiments of Playing to the Highest and Most Refined State of Cultivation (Op. 500, 1839) and the accompanying Letters to a Young Lady, on the Art of Playing the Pianoforte (ca. 1840) reveal a pedagogical philosophy of progressive accumulation that is encoded in the musical text of the exercises themselves. Czerny’s mechanical approach to piano pedagogy is in part designed to prepare young pianists to perform his own transcriptions, demonstrated by a case study of Czerny’s four-hand piano transcription of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. In the early nineteenth century, several important piano pedagogues introduced a mechanical approach to the instrument, teaching finger movements over musical hearing. Czerny adopts these principles in his pedagogy and designs lessons that teach music theory through the mechanical sensation of the keyboard. He ties these lessons to a larger philosophy of musical embodiment wherein mechanical skill is a prerequisite to the “intellectual” and Romantic skill of musical expression. Czerny takes the same approach to his piano transcriptions such that they can be construed as a continuation of his mechanical teaching philosophy. Although critics disparage Czerny’s approach to piano and the practice of piano transcription in general as unimaginative and overly commercial, Czerny’s four hand transcription of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony provides a case study in how musical expression manifests in his mechanical approach. The primary concern with creating a piano transcription of Beethoven’s symphony is transforming the public symphony for the private chamber. Czerny accomplishes this not by literally transcribing the orchestral parts, but instead by evoking the same emotional effect with techniques specific to piano. For instance, Czerny transposes the Turkish March section of the finale up an octave to take advantage of the brilliance of the upper piano register. In other sections, Czerny utilizes “noise” effects such as holding the pedal over rapid sixteenth-note passages to recreate the fullness of an orchestra. The performative aspects of the transcription—the precise coordination, hand-crossing, and general closeness of the two pianists—add to the expressive effect, particularly in the difficult double fugue passage. Throughout the transcription, Czerny utilizes mechanical passages introduced to his students in Op. 500 and other exercises. Through abiding by Czerny’s pedagogy and transcriptions, his piano students are not mere mechanical reproducers of a musical text but instead are active participants in the mediation of expressive music.

Works: Carl Czerny: Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony for Piano, Four-Hands (392-419)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 (392-419)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s