Copland's "Hoe-Down," from the ballet suite Rodeo, holds an esteemed place in American symphonic literature, especially given Copland's tendency to incorporate identifiable tunes into his music. One such tune has its history in an eighteenth-century violin ballad, Bonaparte's Retreat. The title of the tune reflected American adulation of Napoleon as a war hero. A Lakeville, Kentucky fiddler, William Hamilton (Bill) Stepp, changed the tempo of the original tune from slow and stately (meant to symbolize the "retreat") to fast and romping in order to give it the effect of a rousing square dance. He enlivened the melody by adding triplet pickups and changed the function of the drone overtones from evoking bagpipes to displaying pure fiddle techniques. Alan Lomax recorded Stepp's rendition in the 1930s, and Ruth Crawford Seeger subsequently compiled it in Our Singing Country. In turn, Copland used it as part of a collage of folk tunes presented in "Hoe-Down," seeking to capture the American spirit.

Works: Copland: "Hoe-Down" from Rodeo (357-65).

Sources: Bonaparte's Retreat as performed by William Hamilton Stepp (353-57).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Coming to a universal understanding of certain terms related to the motet is essential in comprehending the genre. Discantus is a technique that combines two modal parts containing the same amount of notes. Organum combines the modal voice with only one note in the tenor, while copula is a type of discantus that actually combines features of both of the previous techniques. The motet Alleluia Posui adjutorium uses copula, as evidenced by a passage in which the borrowed material appears in the first rhythmic mode with several longae separated into two breves. In these instances, the line is manipulated in one of two ways. Sometimes a plica is used, in which a line is added to the final note of a ligature to show the division of the note into two. Other times, the line is placed after a note to denote a rest or pause. In the case of this motet, a plica is utilized.

Works: Motet: Alleluia Posui adjutorium (85-87).

Sources: Judea et Jerusalem (85).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Anonymous IV's statement that Perotin shortened the Magnus Liber and made "many better clausulae or puncta" testifies to two different types of revision. In the first case, existing discantus passages were replaced by more newly-composed ones; sometimes, this serves to actually lengthen the passage in question. In the other case, existing organum passages were replaced by discantus. This hypothesis is supported by the way in which the substitute clausulae are arranged within the fascicles by the scribe of Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, pluteus 29.1.

Works: Regnum mundi (148); Alleluya: Nativitas (152-56).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Swiss-born American composer Ernest Bloch and performers of his 1923 work Baal Shem—violinist Yehudi Menuhin in particular—collaborated in constructing Bloch’s reputation as a Jewish composer through the evocation of Hasidic song. Each of the three movements of Baal Shem: Three Pictures of Chassidic Life for violin and piano is titled after a Hasidic ritual and the work as a whole draws from the Hasidic song tradition of nigun and its embodiment of religious expression. In the second movement, titled “Nigun,” Bloch evokes the structure of nigun and employs the shteyger (modal scale) Ahavah rabbah, which is associated with Ashkenazi synagogue music and later Yiddish popular song. Bloch also borrows existing melodies in the movement, loosely adapting a preexisting freylekhs tune (a Hasidic dance genre) as well as the concluding notes to a “Sabbath introit,” Shoken Ad. The Jewish musical identity of Baal Shem and the “Nigun” movement in particular is further complicated by Jewish violinists interpreting the work through their own identities, histories, and styles, enacting the concept of the personal spiritual “voice” inherent to the nigun genre. For example, Menuhin’s interpretation incorporates violin techniques of the Jewish and Romany Diasporas, articulating a Jewish identity distinct from Bloch’s. This interplay between composers, performers, and listeners demonstrates the complex ways that Jewish identity is expressed in Western art music.

Works: Ernest Bloch: Baal Shem: Three Pictures of Chassidic Life (799-805)

Sources: Moshe Beregovsky (editor): Freylekhs (799-800, 804); Mark Warshawski: Di Mezinke Oysgegeben (800); Francis L. Cohen (editor): Introit (Sabbath) (802-5)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Liszt's transcriptions of Schubert?s songs served three purposes: promotion of Schubert, solution of technical problems of transcription, and expansion of the repertory. First, Liszt's admiration for Schubert and promotion of the master's works began in his youth, as illustrated in his transcribing of Schubert's Wanderer Fantasy for piano and orchestra, his conducting of Schubert's operas in Weimar, and his editing of Schubert?s piano works. Second, they expanded pianistic technique and sonority that solved the technical problems related to transcription in an unprecedented way. Liszt telescoped the vocal line of the songs and accompaniment into a self-contained piano piece, as demonstrated in his reduction of the first line of Schubert's Erlkönig. Third, they broadened Liszt's own repertory. His virtuosic keyboard writing, intended to dazzle the audience, helped widen his repertory, as shown in his transcription of Schubert's Ave Maria. The significance of Liszt's transcriptions lies in his attempts to preserve the master's works on the piano.

Works: Liszt: Transcription of Auf dem Wasser (54-55), Transcription of Erlkönig (55-57), Transcription of Ave Maria (58-59), Transcription of Gretchen am Spinnrade (60-61), Transcription of Ständchen (61).

Sources: Schubert: Erlkönig (55-56), Gretchen am Spinnrade (60-61).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

The manuscript discovery of Schumann's revised C Major Fantasy sheds some light on the composer's reasons for revisions. The score, which was originally conceived as a tribute to Beethoven and which thus includes quotations from An die ferne Geliebte in both the first and last movements, in its new version received a dedication to Franz Liszt. Furthermore, Schumann crossed out the titles "Ruinen," "Siegesbogen," and "Sternbild" and deleted the above-mentioned Beethoven quotation that rounded off the final movement, replacing it with an arpeggio ending. Walker suggests that the Liszt dedication was Schumann's reaction to a favorable article Liszt wrote on Schumann's keyboard music in La revue et gazette musicale but also to Liszt's dedication of his newly composed Paganini Studies to Clara. Since Liszt was the driving force behind the plan to erect a statue in the honor of Beethoven, Schumann must have felt that his Fantasy would be the appropriate piece to show his gratitude.

Works: Schumann: Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

From its inception in 1737 through the 1750s, Orazio appeared in several guises. A study of fifteen librettos and two scores shows that a number of arias and other vocal numbers from the earliest version of Orazio were often omitted from later productions. Revivals throughout the 1740s and 1750s often substituted music from other works, consistently retaining only six of the original (1737) vocal numbers. Due to its constant modification, Orazio could be viewed as a single, often misattributed work in several versions or settings of a single text by multiple composers. Pietro Auletta seems to have written the earliest version, which included thirty-four vocal numbers. A version attributed to Gaetano Latilla appears to have been conflated with Pergolesi's Il maestro di musica around 1743, creating a Venetian version that included ten of the original thirty-four vocal numbers. By the late 1740s, Orazio was again attributed to Auletta, but with a severe reduction of his original vocal numbers.

Works: Gaetano Latilla: Orazio (370-72, 374); Pergolesi: Il maestro di musica (370, 374); Latilla and Pergolesi: Orazio (370, 375-77).

Sources: Pietro Auletta: Orazio (370-83); Pergolesi: Il maestro di musica (370, 374).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1800s

Parodies of the satiric vagabond song The Dying Hobo have appeared in the United States Air Force during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War with lyric changes reflecting current aircraft nomenclature while maintaining the basic theme of the original. Beside a Belgian ’Staminet and A Poor Aviator Lay Dying are two versions dating from World War I but collected decades later. Beneath a Bridge in Sicily is a version dating from World War II with updated references to the current war. Stand to Your Glasses is a version collected during the Korean “police action” and includes several barely modified verses from A Poor Aviator Lay Dying. Another Korean War version, Busom Buddies, updates all of the references to airplane parts to refer to the new jet-powered aircraft. Under a Korean Sun is an unusual variant taken from a version in Afrikaans, apparently “composed” by a South African who had heard the American version sung in South Korea. Beside a Korean Waterfall is a variant of Beside a Belgian ’Staminet that includes a final verse delivered in mock-histrionic chanting. The variety of The Dying Hobo parodies is infinite, and the song will likely be part of Air Force culture as long as there are manned crews.

Works: Anonymous: Beside a Belgian ’Staminet (236-37), A Poor Aviator Lay Dying (237-38), Beneath a Bridge in Sicily (238-40), Stand to Your Glasses (240-41), Busom Buddies (241-42), Under a Korean Sun (242-43), Beside a Korean Waterfall (243-44).

Sources: Anonymous: The Dying Hobo (236-44), A Poor Aviator Lay Dying (240-41), Beside a Belgian ’Staminet (242-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Although heavy metal music is typically viewed as removed from the classical tradition, the most influential heavy metal guitarists of the last two decades were in their turn highly influenced by the classical tradition, particularly in expressions of virtuosity. These influences range from straightforward borrowing of classical melodies or harmonic progressions to exploring the values associated with being a classical artist and a virtuoso. The reasons for direct quotation vary. Emerson, Lake and Palmer created a 1972 remake of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition for the purpose of elevating public taste. Rainbow' s hit Difficult to Cure (1981), featuring guitarist Ritchie Blackmore, quotes Beethoven's Ode to Joy with an altered meter and a new introduction, finishing with sounds of laughter. The intent of this example is parody. Perhaps the most subtle form of appropriation lies not in quotation but in adopting values associated with classical music artistry. Yngwie Malmsteen represents not only the height of virtuosity, but also the nineteenth-century concept of the separation between artist and society. Malmsteen is a self-proclaimed "genius" whose style focuses on elitism and experimentation. The most compelling reason to examine the relationship between heavy metal and the classical tradition is heavy metal guitarists' increasing interest in classical models. Electric guitars provide the closest analogy to the virtuosic approaches to the organ, piano, and violin of past centuries.

Works: Emerson, Lake and Palmer, Pictures at an Exhibition (266); Deep Purple / Ritchie Blackmore, Highway Star (268-69); Rainbow / Ritchie Blackmore, Difficult to Cure (270); Edward Van Halen, Eruption (271-77); Ozzy Osbourne / Randy Rhoads, Goodbye to Romance (281).

Sources: Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition; Beethoven, Ode to Joy from Symphony No. 9 in D Minor; Rodolphe Kreutzer, Caprice Study #2 for Violin; Pachelbel, Canon in D.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Felicia Miyakawa

Arguments levied against the parasitic nature of rap music can be refuted by using Walter Ong's studies of originality in oral culture, as well as the idea of "signifyin(g)" as discussed by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Dick Hebdige. While musical performance skills are not necessary, rap producers demonstrate virtuosity in the selection and positioning of samples. Extensive analysis of the groove (199-203), rhetorical strategies (203-207), and the rhythmic character (208-212) of Public Enemy?s Fight the Power includes transcriptions of several sections of the track. The groove comprises a sample from Trouble Funk, a combination of drum patterns sampled from songs by Sly Stone, Funkadelic, and the Jacksons, and new rhythms created with a drum machine. The polyrhythmic and repetitive character of Fight the Power makes it comparable with West African musical traditions and values.

Works: Public Enemy: Fight the Power (198-207).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Since the 1970s, the Polka Mass, a variant of the Catholic Mass that replaces traditional anthems with Polka songs, has been performed in the United States by Polish, German, Slovenian, and Czech congregations. The words and music draw upon familiar melodies and secular traditions to enhance the sacred occasion. This style of mass was created to respond to tensions from immigrant communities who felt like they were losing their ethnic Catholic identities in America. Oftentimes, the composers and arrangers of Polka Masses either replaced the lyrics of well-known polkas, waltzes, or country songs with standard liturgical texts, or parodied secular texts to adapt them for a sacred setting. Some of the parodies involved simple changes, such as changing the word “sun” to “Son” in Let the Son Shine In. Other parodies, however, could reinterpret an original song into one of sacred devotion, as seen in Gene Retka’s Gathered Together. Some Polka Mass writers even drew upon genres and styles such as tango, country, and bebop, which caused controversy in some churches. For example, the use of the tune from the country song, Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain, by Willie Nelson was justified only when Frank Perkovich claimed that the melody was from the Czech tune Place Oci.

Works: Fr. Frank Perkovich: At This Sacrifice (188-90, 193), Let the Son Shine In (186-87, 191), The Church in the Valley (187); Fr. George Balasko: We Offer Bread and Wine (187); Gene Retka: Song for Meditation (187), Gathered Together (192), Lord, Have Mercy; Christ, Have Mercy; Lord, Have Mercy (189-90), Each and Every Day (191, 198-99).

Sources: Hair: Let the Sunshine In (186); Walter Ostanek: The Barking Dog Polka (187); Walt Solek: Julida Polka (187, 192); Hank Thunander: The Tavern in the Valley (187); Willie Nelson: Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain (188-89, 193); Lil’ Wally Jagiello: Johnny’s Knocking (191, 198-99).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Cynthia Dretel, Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Romantic piano works based on operatic paraphrase have largely been ignored by scholars and performers because of a current emphasis on composer originality. Because composers chose to paraphrase only a few themes of an opera rather attempt a summary of all themes in an opera, comparison of different settings and analysis of the themes chosen reveal narratives unique to each composer’s setting. Comparison of seven different paraphrased settings of Mozart’s Don Giovanni demonstrates that different narratives and meanings result from selecting different themes and from arranging them in particular orders. William Vincent Wallace’s Souvenir de Mozart: Fantasie de Salon sur l’opera Il Don Giovanni, is little more than a piano reduction of selected themes, which are presented in the same order as they appear in the opera, with the exception of “Il mio Tesoro intanto” and “Finch’ han dal vino,” which are reversed. This reversal is likely due to Wallace’s desire to end his work with a more exhilarating number. Sydney Smith’s Grand Fantasy uses five distinct themes from Don Giovanni, but only one of these themes involves a female character, a decision that may reflect the Victorian atmosphere in which Smith performed and composed. Although Smith’s setting retains the original narrative by using the themes mostly in their original order, the setting of themes, manners of modulation between sections, elimination of female (Zerlina’s) vocal lines, and arrangement of arias all reinforce Victorian ideals. Joachim Raff divides his Reminiscenzen aus “Don Juan” into three sections in an act of deliberate re-organization of thematic material that highlights literary themes and interactions between pairs of characters. Raff’s choice of themes highlights social struggles in society and wanton desires, while offering commentary on the social themes of Don Giovanni. Ignace Leybach’s Fantasie Brillante is less clear in its organization, as a lengthy introduction features its own potpourri of themes and motives drawn from throughout the opera in addition to original material by Leybach that is similar in style to nocturnes by Field and Chopin. Most notable of Leybach’s piece is his decision to transpose many of the selections, his inclusion of “Batti Batti, o bel Masetto,” and the omission of both “Finch’ han dal vino” and the Commendatore’s “Di rider finirai”; these details suggest that Leybach eschewed virtuosity in favor of a more restrained aesthetic and romantic narrative. The versions by Thalberg and Ignacy Feliks Dobrzynski, both of which are constructed as sets of variations, are notable for their virtuosity but offer little insight into Mozart’s narrative. Unlike the two variation-based paraphrases, the most famous of the Don Giovanni paraphrases, Liszt’s Réminiscences de Don Juan, offers great insight into Mozart’s opera. Through both his selection and setting of arias, Liszt depicts the progression of lust over love and Don Giovanni’s defiance, ultimately presenting him as a misguided hero rather than a chauvinistic fool.

Works: William Vincent Wallace: Souvenir de Mozart: Fantasie de Salon sur l’opera Il Don Giovanni (22-25); Sydney Smith: Grand Fantasy (25-37); Joachim Raff: Reminiscenzen aus “Don Juan” (37-49); Ignace Leybach: Fantasie Brillante (49-65); Thalberg: Fantaisie sur la Sérénade et le Menuet de l’Opera: Don Juan de Mozart (65-76); Ignacy Feliks Dobrzynski: Hommage à Mozart (76-78); Liszt: Réminiscences de Don Juan, S. 418 (78-131).

Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Jazz styles and trends tend to radiate outwards from a set of innovative musicians. The emergence of bebop and its distinctions from swing can be demonstrated by a set of Comet recordings created in 1945 by Red Norvo, Teddy Wilson, Slam Stewart, J. C. Heard, Flip Phillips, and, most importantly, Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie. Quotation in jazz is a long-standing tradition with no stigma attached to it as is the case in Western art music. The relationship between the quoting and quoted musicians is important: quotation often acts as a form of tribute or a sign of respect. Sometimes this tribute moves in surprising directions. In the case of these albums, older, more established musicians such as Norvo and Wilson offer such gestures of respect to the creativity of the relatively young Gillespie and Parker. Furthermore, the improvised nature of jazz allows quotation to operate not just between songs or works, but within them: Norvo and Wilson quote motives from solos by Gillespie and Parker within the same set.

Works: Red Norvo: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42); Teddy Wilson: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42).

Sources: Dizzy Gillespie: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42); Charlie Parker: Solo on Slam Slam Blues (541-42).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

The Dies Irae, a rhymed sequence, was probably written by Thomas of Celano in the thirteenth century. Accepted as part of the Requiem Mass early in the fourteenth century, it was significant in early polyphonic settings of the Requiem. The words continued to be important in later Requiem settings, but the melody found its way into secular music from the beginning of the nineteenth century and with universal appeal, attained a character far removed from its original place in the church service. Background information on each composer and discussions of his usage of the Dies Irae are provided for the following works:

Works: Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique; Liszt: Totentanz; Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre; Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death; Rachmaninoff: [??]; Honegger: La Danse des Morts, Chausson: Printemps triste; Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel; Respighi: Impressioni brasiliane; Vaughan Williams: Tudor Portraits, Schelling: A Victory Ball; Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6; Tchaikovsky: Orchestral Suite No. 3; Mahler: Symphony No. 2.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Parody in sixteenth-century instrumental music is a variation device making use of a pre-existing, fully realized composition. Two types exist: one in which quotation and paraphrase are mixed but are presented in the same sequence as the model, and another in which thematic material is freely elaborated without regard to the structure of the model.

Works: Giuolio Severino: Fantasia . . . sopre Susane un jour (209-12); Vincenzo Galilei: Fantasia sopra Anchor che col partire (212-14); Melchior Neusidler: Fantasia super Anchor che col partire (212-14); Nicolas de la Grotte: Fantasia sopra Anchor che col partire (212-14); Antonio de Cabezón: Tiento sobre Malheur me bat (215-16); Enriquez de Valderróbano: Fantasía remediando en algunos pasos al Aspice de Gombert (216-17); Giovanni Paolo Paladino: Fantasie sur la ditte chanson (216, 218); Francesco Spinacino: Recercare a Juli amours (219-21); Luys de Narváez: Fantasía del primer tono por ge sol re ut (222, 224-25); Albert de Rippe: Fantasie (222, 224-25).

Sources: Orlando di Lasso: Susanne un jour (209-12); Cipriano de Rore: Anchor che col partire (212-14); Johannes Ockeghem: Malor me bat (215-16); Nicolas Gombert: Aspice Domine (216-17), Tu pers ton temps (222, 224-25); Jacob Arcadelt: Quand' io pens' al martire (216, 218); Hayne van Ghizeghem: Joli amours (219-21).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

For the sixteenth-century composer, intabulation of motets, madrigals, and chansons was the key to the mastery of composition. Ward distinguishes three different procedures: (1) the strict intabulation, which may nonetheless include some ornamentation, especially at the beginning where the texture is still thin; (2) the glosa, a transformation "by means of continuous diminution"; and (3) the parody or "parody by means of paraphrase." While parody implies a mixture of faithfully borrowed and original sections (Mudarra), "parody by means of paraphrase" indicates paraphrase of the themes while preserving the voice structure (Cabezón).

Works: Mudarra: Glosa of Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" from the Missa Beata Virgine (93-94); Palero: Tiento on Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" (94); Cabezón: Glosa of Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" from the Missa Beata Virgine (91); Tiento sobre cum sancto spiritu (Josquin) (94); parody of Willaert's Qui la dira (95); parody of Malheur me bat (95); Cavazzoni: canzona on Josquin's Faulte d'argent (95); canzona on Passereau's Il est bel et bon (95); Severino: Parody on Susanna un jour (96); Bull: Two parodies of Palestrina's Vestiva i colli (96).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The Missa Je ne seray is clearly based on Philipet des Pres's Je ne seray plus vert vestus, using the superius of the chanson as the basis for the cantus firmus of the mass. During portions of the mass in which the cantus firmus is not present, other voices of the model are borrowed as melodic material. Comparisons to Obrecht's Missa Fors seulement reveal striking similarities in cantus firmus treatment, quotation of voices other than the cantus firmus, use of ostinato figures, and use of unusual cadential figures. These parallels in compositional approach, especially in the use of the borrowed material, provide strong evidence for the addition of Missa Je ne seray to a list of Obrecht's works.

Works: Obrecht: Missa Je ne seray (102-8), Missa Fors seulement (104-6).

Sources: Philipet des Pres: Je ne seray plus vert vestus (102).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Sid Vicious’s cover of Frank Sinatra’s My Way from the film The Great Rock’n’Roll Swindle (Julien Temple, 1980) is a hyper-aggressive take on the original that reveals gaps in how cover songs are categorized and understood. Vicious’s cover makes changes to Sinatra’s original in several domains. The lyrics are changed to be about acts of violence and disparaging references to homosexuality, subverting the triumphalism of the original. Vicious’s performance is split into two sections, a “crooner” section in which Vicious mocks the physical and vocal mannerisms of Sinatra and a “punk” section in which Vicious adopts his usual persona. Instead of Sinatra’s musical climax, Vicious enacts a performative climax, gradually adopting a more extreme vocal style until he screams the last chorus, draws a gun, and fires into the crowd. The extent to which Vicious aggressively contradicts Sinatra’s songs is best understood as a process of cannibalizing rather than parody. The transgression and otherness associated with cannibalization captures the way Vicious “eats up” Sinatra’s song and transforms it into an act of violence.

Works: Sid Vicious: My Way (4-16).

Sources: Frank Sinatra: My Way (4-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Timber is a pop video made up of audio samples and video clips from a soundtrack to a Greenpeace film on the destruction of the rainforest. Four affective elements are involved in this type of music: sounds/timbres, music (the manipulation and organization of timbres), images showing the source of the timbres, and the rhythm of image editing. Audio samples include a chainsaw, a chattering monkey, and a singing human voice. The images of nature and sounds of industry that are used in the video are treated as musical elements. For example, musically, the sample of the chainsaw functions like an electric guitar riff. The dichotomy involved in Timber commenting on destructive machines yet being made possible by samplers (machines) makes the piece intriguing.

Works: Coldcut and Hexstatic: Timber.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Scholarship consistently claims African rhythms as the origin of rhythm in early jazz. However, many of the rhythmic cells found in jazz bear more resemblance to Caribbean styles, specifically the son clave,tresillo, and cinquillo found in Cuban music. The Cuban and Haitian immigrants brought their music with them to New Orleans. Many Creole musicians and marching bands borrowed these Caribbean dance rhythms and sounds as a rhythmic foundation for their own music because of their connection with dance. These rhythms then moved into the music of the early jazz pioneers in the rhythmic breaks that occurred in many pieces. The use of these Afro-Cuban rhythms slowly declined as jazz moved away from its dance beginnings. However, these rhythms are continually borrowed in jazz as an homage to past jazz styles and composers.

Works: Da Costa/Edwards/La Rocca/Ragas/Shields/Sbarbaro: Tiger Rag as performed by Louis Armstrong (69-71); Gillespie/Lewis: Two Bass Hit as performed by Miles Davis (71); Barefield/Moten: Toby (71-72); Ellington/Mills/Nemo: Skrontch (71-72); Monk: Rhythm-a-ning (72-73); Clarke/Gillespie: Salt Peanuts (73); Simons/Marks: All of Me (73); Richard M. Jones: Jazzin' Babies Blues as performed by King Oliver (74-75); Caesar/Kahn/Meyer: Crazy Rhythm as performed by Miff Mole (74-75); Barbarin/Russell: Come Back Sweet Papa as performed by Louis Armstrong (75-76).

Sources: Traditional: Son clave,Tresillo, and Cinquillo (57-80).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

The imprint of J. S. Bach has long been widely recognized in Chopin's music, especially in his etudes and preludes. A close structural study and comparison of Chopin's Etudes Op. 10, No. 1 in C Major and Op. 25, No. 12 in C minor with Bach's preludes in the same keys from Book I of The Well-Tempered Clavier demonstrate a profound level of resemblances in their long-range harmonic structure. Such a structure has its foundation in "the rule of the octave," an eighteenth-century method for harmonizing each note in a descending octave bass progression. The two etudes discussed not only reveal Chopin's deep knowledge of and interest in Bach's music, but also illuminate an underlying continuous compositional practice from the eighteenth century to early nineteenth century.

Works: Chopin: Etude, Op. 10, No. 1 (103-4, 108-14, 117-19), Etude, Op. 25, No. 12 (113-19).

Sources: J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in C Major, BWV 846 (103-6, 113, 117-19), Prelude in C Minor, BWV 847 (106-8, 113-19).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

The 11th century manuscript Montpellier H 159 and the mid-13th century copy, Brussels II 3824, are often identified as being functionally and musically identical to each other. However, there are several notational differences between the two manuscripts’ versions of Sacerdotes eius, as well as differences in the organization of the manuscripts themselves. Notational variations between the manuscripts’ versions of the chant consist of omitted pitches and small differences in melody, but the melodies are similar enough to suggest and interdependent relationship between the two versions. Another curious feature of the chant is its distribution in the Brussels manuscript. The chant Sacerdotes eius appears twice in the Brussels manuscript, within several folios of each other. This close positioning is unusual in the common practice of reincorporating specific melodies in the same gradual. Moreover, these two versions exhibit differences in pitches and cadential formulas which are striking, given that they appear near each other in the same manuscript and are written in the same handwriting. The differences in these two instances of the same chant suggests that the scribe copied exactly from his now unknown exemplar or exemplars.

Works: Montpellier H 159: Sacerdotes eius; Brussels II 3824: Sacerdotes eius.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: General

“Outside” playing in the 1960s was defined as the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic influence of newer movements in jazz on more traditional jazz performance. Two groups in the mid-1960s, the Charles Lloyd Quartet and the Miles Davis Quintet, incorporated avant-garde techniques into their improvisations of standard tunes. The pianists for each group, Keith Jarrett and Herbie Hancock, implemented significant harmonic and metrical disruption during their improvisations. Transcriptions of the final chorus-and-a-half for their respective improvisations on Autumn Leaves illustrate a wide variety of such disruptions. Jarrett combines polymeter, accent shift, and chords in conflict with the original harmonic structure at the end of his third chorus; he uses polyrhythms such as triplets in the beginning of the fourth chorus; and he negates the harmonic scheme of the second half of the chorus by transposing chords down by whole step, where the original tune cycled through the descending circle of fifths. At the end of his fifth chorus, Hancock also uses polymeter and accent shift; however, the chorus ends with dissonant chromatic planing instead of highlighting a consonant chord distant from the original harmonic scheme. At the beginning of his sixth chorus, Hancock eliminates any sense of metric identity by playing chords at seemingly arbitrary attack points. Overall, both Jarrett and Hancock use avant-garde techniques to heighten the intensity of the juncture between the second-to-last and last choruses of their improvisations.

Works: Joseph Kosma: Autumn Leaves as performed by Keith Jarrett (285-90) and Herbie Hancock (290-98).

Sources: Joseph Kosma: Autumn Leaves (281-85).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Imitazione in the Renaissance can describe three distinct types of borrowing: (1) following, exemplified in the cantus-firmus technique; (2) imitation proper; and (3) emulation, implying a critical reflection on the model itself. Gesualdo and Monteverdi, despite being regarded as two of the most "original" composers of the 1590s, continued this tradition in their madrigal compositions. In choosing texts that had been previously been set, Gesualdo and Monteverdi seem to both emulate and challenge their predecessors. The techniques of emulatio of both composers range from direct quotation to borrowings of texture and rhythm, and the number of borrowings decline as their respective madrigal careers progress. By the time of Gesualdo's Book VI of 1596 and Monteverdi's Book V of 1605, both composers become fully aware of their own originality, and emulatio ceases to play a significant role in their compositions. This abatement suggests not that the form had been exhausted, but rather that composers had grown tired of imitazione. This new emphasis on the concept of originality marks a significant move away from the past. In his later madrigals, Monteverdi's borrowings thus appear to be simply acts of homage to figures whom he held in particuarly high regard.

Works: Gesualdo: From Il Primo Libro de Madrigali--Baci soavi, e cari (457); Madonna io ben vorrei (457); Non mirar (458); Son si belle le rose (460); From Il Secondo Libro de Madrigali--Caro amoroso neo (462); Dalle odorate (463); Non mi toglia il ben mio (463); From Il Terzo Libro de Madrigali--Ahi, disperata vita (466); Ancidetemi pur, grievi martiri (466). Monteverdi: From Canzonette--Canzonette d'amore (472); Son questi i crespi crini (472); Corse a la morte il povero Narcisso (472); Chi vuol veder un bosco folto (472); Io son fenice (473); Raggi, dov'è'l mio bene (473); From Libro I à 5--A che tormi il ben mio (474); Poi che del mio dolore (475); Ardo sì, ma non t'amo (476); From Libro II--Tutte le bocche belle (479); Crudel, perchè mi fuggi (480); From Libro V--Ahi, come a un vago sol (483); From Libro VIII--Hor che'l ciel e la terra (483).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Composers of recent years have had mixed feelings about the use of music of the past, and they have borrowed in a variety of ways. Surges of interest in borrowing arose around certain occasions. For example, the 400th anniversary of Gesualdo's birth inspired a number of new works in 1960, and this helped create interest in using the works of Monteverdi and Cavalli in the 1960s and 70s. Others have turned to Bach, including Lukas Foss with his innovative use of Bach's Von Himmel Hoch in his Baroque Variations. Beethoven's bicentennial in 1970 inspired composers including Stockhausen and Ginastera to borrow in various ways. Kagel's "meta-collage" of small quotations from Beethoven's most popular works offers an interesting example. The twentieth century has also seen a movement called New Romanticism, consisting of a return to 19th-century tonality. Rochberg's quotation technique led him to a more general stylistic modeling, whereas Berio's use of Mahler was intended to honor him specifically. Eventually, New Romanticism focused more on stylistic modeling than exact references, and with the addition of jazz and ragtime devices, composers achieved a "polystylistic juxtaposition." Many pieces are mentioned, and the article includes an extensive list of modern works and the works from which they borrow. Those listed below are discussed in more detail.

Works: Stravinsky: Monumentum pro Gesualdo ad CD annum (640); Davies: Tenebrae super Gesualdo (642); Foss: Baroque Variations (643); Kagel: Ludwig van (645); Rochberg: Third String Quartet (647-8); Berio: Sinfonia (648-9); Cage: Cheap Imitation (651).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Collage can be seen as a central force in the various arts of the twentieth century, including music. Collage in music should be considered as more than just a collection of other people's music used in another composer's piece. By expanding the idea of collage to include cultural explosions and reconstitutions, unilateral use of European and American ideas by each other, access to art and ideas of the non-Western world, and the mixture of culture and music theory, a strong transition between Modernism and Postmodernism can be followed. The modernist music of Stravinsky and Debussy at the fin-de-siècle introduced orientalist musical theories and sounds into their own music. This use of orientalism led the way for Primitivism and its various guises throughout the rest of the twentieth century. Collage took a front seat in the music and culture of the twentieth century after World War II. The techniques used in early film played an important role for the emergence of collage in post-war music by giving composers the chance to suggest many past musical styles in quick succession without using long transitions. Composers also continued the tradition of using cultural, literary, and architectural collages in their compositions instead of only creating collage by cutting and pasting from earlier composers.

Works: Debussy: Images (23-26); Stravinsky: Le Rossignol (38-49), Le Sacre du printemps (84-100); Milhaud: La Creation du monde (116-21); Krenek: Jonny spielt auf (150-53); Thomson: Four Saints in Three Acts (153-55); Ellington: Black and Tan Fantasy (187-88); Gershwin: Porgy and Bess (195-202); Stravinsky: David, projected collaboration with Cocteau (238-43, 256-64), Three Pieces for String Quartet (260-64); Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire (282-84); Stravinsky: Renard (285-87); Debussy: The Children's Corner (297-98); Antheil: Ballet mecanique (327-29); Stravinsky: Agon (360-74); Varese: Ameriques (389-90); Satie: Le feu d'artifice (399); Ives: Flanders Field (400); Britten: War Requiem (405); Rouse: Symphony No. 1 (407-8); Schnittke: Symphony No. 1 (410); Gubaidulina: Offertorium (411-12); Riley: Salome Dances for Peace (414-15); Berio: Sinfonia (416-17), Rendering (417); Berg: Violin Concerto (430-32); Britten: The Prince of the Pagodas (445-46).

Sources: Traditional: America (400), Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean (400); Bruckner: Symphony No. 7 (407-8); Lasso: Stabat Mater (411); Beethoven: Grosse Fugue (410); Bach: The Musical Offering (410); Mahler: Symphony No. 2, Resurrection (416).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

In a biography of Bruckner, Watson considers borrowing in the section on his music, particulary in his symphonies, from page 84. This section deals with the quotations and their sources along with a discussion of each symphony, but does not deal with the "why" to any extent. Watson has found quotations that other biographers have not, but does not draw any significance from the findings.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Beethoven paid tribute to Mozart through imitation and borrowing, yet demonstrated his own genius in accepting the influence while assessing his own personality. The article focuses primarily on chamber works, and treats probable influences, direct influences, and "deliberate imitations or unconscious reminiscences" of Mozart's muse.

Works: Beethoven: Leonore Overture No. 3 (249), String Trio, Op. 3 (250), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1 (251, 253), String Quintet, Op. 29 (251, 255), Duo for Clarinet and Bassoon (1792) (253), Duet for Augengläser (253-54), String Trio, Op. 9 (253), Serenade for Flute, Violin, and Viola, Op. 25 (253), Quintet for Piano, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon, and French Horn, Op. 16 (253), Oboe Trio (254-55), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 4 (254-55), String Trio in C Minor (256), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 6 (256), String Quartet, Op. 56, No. 1 (256-57), String Quartet, Op. 131 (256-57); Mozart: Quartet in E-flat Major, String Quintet, K. 515 (254).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz, J. Peter Burkholder

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

The history of tropes can be compared to the history of the sequence, using evidence drawn from the manuscript Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, 1609. The notation of this manuscript places it among the group of existing tenth-century St. Gall tropers. A comparative list of tropes found in V. 1609 and St. Gall MS 484 is provided. Three distinct groups of tropes can be identified. Group I consists of purely musical inserts found after each phrase of the liturgical composition. This type was already in decline and disappeared by the eleventh century. Group II includes a metrical introduction to the liturgical composition, while troping within the piece remains melismatic. Group III is similar to this type, but both both textual and purely melodic troping are found. The melodic inserts are sung twice, first with text and next without it. The interpolated texts were added to existing melismas. Later, the text and music for the interpolations were composed together.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Placing ferial masses within their cultural contexts illuminate particular instances of musical borrowing and appropriation. Two distinct "families" of ferial masses arose in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries—one in the courts of northern Europe and another at the papal chapel in Rome. In the northern courts, Pierre de la Rue's and Antoine de Févin's five-voice masses contain a canon in each movement. La Rue carefully structures the canon within the tenor voices, while Févin treats the motive freely, suggesting that he borrowed La Rue's original concept. La Rue and Févin may also have borrowed from Matthaeus Pipelare's Missa de feria, which contains canon-like writing in several sections. A separate family of four masses originated in Italy. The earliest mass is Johannes Martini's Missa ferialis, followed by three masses written for the papal chapel by Andreas Michot, Johannes Beauserron, and Palestrina. In the Kyrie movement, all four masses open with a point of imitation based on a decorated version of the Kyrie chant Melnicki 7. Palestrina also borrowed Beauserron's opening motive and took material from Michot in the remaining sections of the mass. VatS 35, the source that contains Martini's mass, is the earliest known choirbook compiled by the singers for their use. Because these pieces were sung repeatedly within the repertory, it is probable that Michot, Beauserron, and Palestrina drew ideas from the papal choir's performances. The different circumstances of the two Missa de feria "families," reflecting different historical, social, and liturgical contexts for masses, provide a tool for understanding the various instances of musical borrowing.

Works: Pierre de la Rue: Missa de feria (130-37); Antoine de Févin: Missa de feria (130-37); Andreas Michot: Missa de feria (137-40); Johannes Beauserron: Missa de feria (137-40); Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa de feria (137-140).

Sources: Pierre de la Rue: Missa de feria (130-37); Matthaeus Pipelare: Missa de feria (136-37); Johannes Martini: Missa ferialis (137-40).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Ein feste Burg has had many adaptations. The tune came to symbolize the fighting march of the Protestants in the manner of a national anthem, such as La Marseillaise, in its popularity and rousing characteristics. Indeed, Ein feste Burg is associated with the beginning of the Reformation. The repetitive structure of the tune, its simplicity, and its declamation attracted several composers. Though questions arise about the exact date of the piece, as well as Luther's organization of the text, the historical significance of the piece emerges over the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as several composers adapt it in cantus firmus settings. Johann Walter collaborated with Luther to create a two-voice setting of the tune. Johann Kugelmann set the tune with three voices and, like Walter, placed the cantus firmus in the tenor. Martin Agricola also kept the melody in the tenor but added a fourth voice, increasing the imitative possibilities. Other settings in the sixteenth century adapt the four-voice setting and the imitative characteristics, although Lukas Osiander, Rogier Michael, and Sethus Calvisius all place the cantus firmus in the superius. Seventeenth-century settings exhibit more ornamentation, particularly by means of chromaticism, in the treatment of the cantus firmus, evinced by composers such as Bartholomaeus Gesius, David Scheidemann, and Hans Leo Hassler, who sought to increase the expression of the tune. Subsequent adaptations, such as Meyerbeer's spiritual associations in Les Huguenots and Debussy's appropriation of the chorale to represent German aggression in En blanc et noir, resemble emblematic quotations, showing the distance the tune traveled from its original Lutheran functions.

Works: Johann Walter: Ein feste Burg (127-28); Johann Kugelmann: Ein feste Burg (128-29); Martin Agricola ou Sore: Ein feste Burg (129-30); Sigmund Hemmel: Der ganze Psalter Davids (130); Lukas Osiander: Ein feste Burg (131); Rogier Michael: Ein feste Burg (131); Sethus Calvisius: Ein feste Burg (131-32); Bartholomaeus Gesius ou Gese: Ein feste Burg (132); David Scheidemann: Ein feste Burg (132); Melchior Vulpius: Ein feste Burg (133); Hassler: Kirchengesänge, Psalmen und Geistliche Lider (133); Praetorius: Musae Sioniae (134); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (135); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (135); Debussy: Suite pour deux pianos: En blanc et noir (135); Langlais: Suite oecuménique (135).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (117-26).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 2000s

Brahms's "first maturity" consists of the period up to 1865. Influence of Schubert is evident in Brahms's sonata form, particularly in the juxtaposition of major and minor tonalities, closed forms with lyrical melodies, double second themes, structural use of remote keys, and the transformation of these elements in the recapitulation. Webster is able to relate at least one or two works by Schubert to each early work of Brahms mentioned in this article. Some of the comparisons are general and can be interpreted as stylistic tendencies of the time, rather than specific characteristics of Schubert, but some direct quotations are used and discussed as well.

Works: Beethoven: Sonata Appasionata (58, 68), Symphony No. 2; Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 3, Op. 5 (68), Piano Quintet in F Minor, Op. 34 (52, 53, 65-69), String Sextet in B-flat Major, Op. 18 (52), Piano Quartet in G Minor, Op. 25 (52, 62-65), Piano Concerto in D Minor, Op. 15 (53), Piano Sonata, Op. 1 (58), Trio in B Major, Op. 8 (58, 59), Serenade in D Major, Op. 11 (54, 59-60), Serenade in A Major, Op. 16 (54, 59-60), Sextet in B-flat Major, Op. 18 (61), Piano Quartet in A Major, Op. 26 (62), Sextet in G Major (68-70), Cello Sonata in E Minor (68-69), Horn Trio (68), Symphony No. 3 (70), Tragic Overture (70), Symphony No. 2 (70), Academic Festival Overture (70), Cello Sonata in F Major, Op. 99 (70), Clarinet Trio (70), Clarinet Sonata in F Major, Op. 120, No. 1 (70); Schubert: Wanderer Fantasy (58), Am Meer (58), Die Stadt.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Antoine Busnoys's Missa L'Homme armé served as a model not only for Obrecht's Missa L'Homme armé but also for an anonymous Missa de Sancto Johanne Baptista (ca. 1480s or 1490s), which is also closely related to Obrecht's Mass. The anonymous Mass cycle raises many questions surrounding its creation. Musical imitatio would at first seem most relevant to this case. The concept of imitatio, as defined by Renaissance rhetorical theory, is scarcely applicable to Renaissance music, however, and should therefore be used only with circumspection. In considering the musical practices of borrowing, quotation, and imitation as counterparts of rhetorical imitatio, problems of semantic ambiguity and historiographical distortion are certain. Willem Elders's approach of considering these compositional practices as creating a symbolic connection to pre-existent material eliminates these problems, but it is concerned only with symbolism. The term "intertextuality," borrowed from literary criticism, is most appropriate here.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Despite its claims of existing in and focusing on the present, rock music has always engaged deep connections with its past. The rock cover song offers us a useful means by which to explore that history, particularly in the way that covers refer not just to "the song itself" (i.e., melody, chords, and lyrics), but to a particular recorded performance of that song. At various stages in rock's history, cover songs have referenced a past which existed at a varying chronological distance. In the early years of the genre in 1950s, it was a very recent past. That past grew increasingly distant over the following decades, with constantly changing meanings for artists and listeners. The motivation behind cover songs in different rock eras included claims to authenticity and displays of virtuosity, as well as the desire to offer parody of or tribute to one's rock forebears.

Works: Georgia Gibbs: Dance with Me Henry (The Wallflower) (139).

Sources: Etta James: The Wallflower (139).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Oswald von Wolkenstein, a fifteenth century German poet and composer, is unique in that his works have been handed down in manuscripts devoted to him alone. By comparing these two manuscripts (Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, Cod. 2777, known as Wolkenstein manuscript A, and Wolkenstein manuscript B) with other Germanic and non-Germanic manuscripts, it has become clear that Oswald used pre-existent melodies as a vehicle and starting point for his newly-created texts. Twelve polyphonic songs in these manuscripts have been identified as contrafacta of pieces that were widely disseminated throughout Germany. Furthermore, he did not make contrafacta of only older Ars Nova pieces, as had previously been assumed by scholars. He also used contemporary Burgundian polyphonic pieces, as is evident from the newly discovered models A son plaisir by Pierre Fontaine and La plus jolie by Nicolas Grenon.

Works: Oswald von Wolkenstein: Vierhundert jar auff erd (192-99, 203-7), Wer die ougen will verschüren (200-207), Ave mater o Maria (207-14).

Sources: Pierre Fontaine: A son plaisir (192-99); Nicolas Grenon: La plus jolie et la plus belle (200-207).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General

Palestrina’s Missa O regem coeli, Missa Sicut lilium inter spinas, Missa Benedicta es caelorum Regina, and Missa Quem dicunt homines, four of his over fifty imitation masses, constitute a collection of different modeling techniques. Missa O regem coeli utilizes movements from itself in a process of internal borrowing. Self-quotations from his own motet in Missa Sicut lilium inter spinas raise questions of memory and visuality. Finally, Missa Benedicta es caelorum Regina and Missa Quem dicunt homines integrate multiple sources that transmit Palestrina’s interactions with the Vatican repertory.

Works: Palestrina: Missa O regem coeli (16-56), Missa Sicut lilium inter spinas (57-111), Missa Benedicta es caelorum Regina (112-52), Missa Quem dicunt homines (153-78).

Sources: De Silva: O regem coeli (16-56); Palestrina: Missa O regem coeli (24-56), Sicut lilium inter spinas (59-111), Quam pulchri sunt (59-111); Josquin, Benedicta es caelorum Regina (113-18, 120-26, 135-45, 150-52); Piéton: Benedicta es caelorum Regina (113-20, 138-45, 150-52); Morales: Missa Benedicta es caelorum Regina (113-18, 126-45, 150-52), Missa Quem dicunt homines (153-72, 177-78); Richafort: Quem dicunt homines (153-77); Divitis: Missa Quem dicunt homines (153-72, 177-78); Mouton: Missa Quem dicunt homines (153-72, 177-78).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Several allusions to pre-existent works which appear in Mahler's music are noted: a tune by Thomas Koschat in the Fifth Symphony, Beethoven's Violin Sonata Op. 96 in "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" from the Second Symphony, Schubert's Piano Trio in E-flat Major, D. 929 in Mahler's Third Symphony, the Piano Sonata in G Major, D. 894 in "Lob des hohen Verstanden" from the Wunderhorn Lieder, the D Major Piano Sonata, D. 850 in the finale of the Fourth, and the E-flat Major Piano Sonata, D. 568 in the first movement of the same symphony. A whole group of quotations is drawn from Schubert's Piano Sonata in A Minor, D.784. The allusions to this work are most prevalent in the First and Seventh symphonies. Mahler was well acquainted with this sonata as a performer so that the allusions to it are of biographical (read autobiographical) significance. Mahler's involvement with the Schubert sonata, both as performer and composer, spans some thirty years; the references to it in his own music are identified as largely unconscious. Various other allusions by Mahler both to others and to himself are noted.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (256), "Lob des hohen Verstanden," from Wünderhorn Lieder (256), Symphony No. 4 (256), Symphony No. 7 (259), Symphony No. 1 (260), "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt," from Symphony No. 2 (262), Symphony No. 5 (263).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

In the late 1780s, four collections of vocal arrangements that borrowed from a number of Haydn's instrumental works were published in London. Each collection contained twelve songs, and nearly every movement had been previously published as a keyboard setting. Preston's Second Sett of Twelve Ballads (1786) borrows from several of Haydn's most recent compositions, but his Third Sett of Twelve Ballads (1786-87) uses a more diverse sampling of works. Longman and Broderip's Twelve English Ballads (1787) primarily draws upon keyboard sonatas and chamber works of the late 1770s and early 1780s. Thompson's Twelve Elegant and Familiar Canzonetts (1788) uses material from string quartets and overtures, but may also be influenced by Blundell's A Select Collection of Six Favorite Pieces . . . adapted for Harpsichord or Piano Forte (1778-80), which draws from Haydn's String Quartets Opp. 1, 2, 9, and 17. Because amateur vocal music needed to be metrically regular and symmetrical, as well as within a suitable range, these vocal arrangements often alter Haydn's original instrumental parts. In the four collections, nearly half of the arrangements are transposed and many melodies are stripped to their most diatonic, homophonic, and metrically regular elements. Several tempos are also manipulated in order to accommodate the more modest abilities of the average consumer. Integrity and fidelity to the source are clearly secondary to the promise of accessibility and marketability. Although the sources for vocal arrangements are quite diverse, there is one source, the Andante of Haydn's Symphony in D Major, No. 53, that already seemed particularly suited to the voice in its original form. In fact, due to its limited range, diatonic line, and regular phrasing, the melody of the Andante may be more remembered as a vocal arrangement than a symphonic movement.

Works: Samuel Arnold (arranger): Twelve English Ballads, No. 1, "Life, an Ode" (377), No. 3, "Hymn to Solitude" (377), No. 6 "Prayer for Indifference," (379-80), No. 4, "Colin and Lucy," (379, 381), No. 2, "Love Elegies VIII" (382, 384-85), No. 10, "Morning, A Pastoral" (389); John Preston (publisher): A Third Sett of Twelve Ballads, No. 10, "An Ode" (377-78), No. 11, "From the Sorrows of Werter" (385, 387); Thompson (publisher), Twelve Elegant and Familiar Canzonetts, No. 7, "The Nightingale" (385-86, 389), No. 12, "To Sleep" (388, 390).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (377), Keyboard Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: 39 (377), Keyboard Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI: 37 (378), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (379), Violin and Viola Duo in B-flat Major, Hob. VI: 3 (379), String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2 (382, 386), Symphony No. 69 in C Major (385, 388), Symphony No. 47 in G Major (385-86, 389), Overture to L'isola disabitata (387, 390), Symphony No. 53 in D Major (389-95).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

The middle period works of Roberto Gerhard utilize the Spanish musical past through borrowing pre-existent material. His attitude toward Spanish music, both art and popular, was instilled in Gerhard by his teacher Felipe Pedrell. Gerhard then transformed this musical material to represent a universal significance. Some works simply demonstrate the influence of folk material in melodic shape and intervallic content, while others employ borrowed folk songs. Gerhard utilized folk material in a substantial number of compositions in folksong settings and other works. Through his study with Arnold Schoenberg, Gerhard was able to incorporate this preexistent material into his newly acquired technique, for example in the Sardanas where he modifies the form and harmonic content of the dance. In works such as Don Quixote and Pandora, his borrowing reveals a symbolic feature that he retains in many other compositions. His opera The Duenna, a Spanish national opera in many respects, utilizes popular and art music traditions. Gerhard also subjected the borrowed material to twelve-tone procedures, for example in the Harpsichord Concerto and Cello Sonata. In his later, more abstract works, this Spanish identity becomes subtler, as in the Concerto for Orchestra and Symphony No. 4.

Works: Gerhard: Seven Haiku (3), Dos Apunts (3), Cantata: L'Alta Naixença del Rei en Jaume (4, 6), Albada, Interludi I Danza (4, 7), Pedrelliana (4), Sardanas (6), Don Quixote (7), Pandora (8), Violin Concerto (8-9), The Duenna (9), Three Impromptus (10), Harpsichord Concerto (11), Cello Sonata (11), Nonet (12), Symphony No. 4 (12-13).

Sources: La Tornada del Pelegri (3); El Mal Rico (3); El Cotiló (4, 6, 13); La Cinta Dauvada (6); El Carbonerot (6); L'Escolta (6); El Bon Caçador (7); Assassi per Amor (7); Chacona de Palació (7); Rosa del Folló (8); El Mestre (8); La Germana Rescatada (8); Ad Mortem Festinamus (8, 10); La Marseillaise (9); Sevillanas del 18 siglo (9); Cançó de Batre (10); Las Tres Hojas (10); Copla de Columpio (10); El Contrabandista (10); Los Pelegrinitos (10, 11); Copla de Corro (11); El Paño (12); Retraídaestá la Infanta (12); Salinas: Cantilena Vulgar (7), Canción Muy Popularizada (7); Alicante: Antón Pirulero (8); Grimau: Tirana del Zarandillo (9).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Roberto Gerhard’s ballet Soirées de Barcelone incorporates a number of Catalan folk songs and folk-like melodies to create a nationalistic ballet that was particularly Catalan (Republican) in sentiment. Many of the folk songs that are paraphrased in the ballet are drawn from Berga, a region of Catalonia. Often the functions of these songs in their original context (many are from the festivities of Saint John’s Eve) or their original texts relate to the dramatic events on stage. Although the referenced songs were likely found in published song books such as the Obra del Cançoner Popular de Catalunya and Cancons Populars Catalanes, many of them would have been known to contemporary audiences and are still recognized in Catalonia. In addition to referencing specific Catalan folk songs, Gerhard also adopted Bartók’s techniques of abstracting folk songs to create accompaniments that contained key elements of Catalan folk song such as modal chromaticism. In adapting the folk songs for orchestra, Gerhard sometimes kept similar instrumentation, as in his paraphrasing of Els Segadors, a rousing patriotic song originally performed by Catalan wind bands, which Gerhard scored for winds and double bass only.

Works: Roberto Gerhard: Soirées de Barcelone.

Sources: Anonymous: Tocata de Gralla (12); Anonymous: De les Nines de Surroca (12-14); Anonymous: Aquestes Muntanyes (12-14); Anonymous: L’hereu Riera (14-15); Anonymous: La filla del marxant (14-16, 18, 20); Anonymous: Sant Ramon (17); Anonymous: La Mare de Déu quan era xiqueta (17-18); Anonymous: Muntanyes del Canigó (18); Anonymous: Els Segadors (18-21); Anonymous: La Fi d’en Toca-son (19); Morera: Nit de Sant Joan (20); Garreta: Juny (20); Anonymous: Balledeta de l’àliga (20); Anonymous: El Romeu I la Romea (21, 72).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christine Wisch

Harold Bloom's theory of "anxiety of influence" sees an Oedipal struggle between the poet and his forebears, in which the poet is forced to misread his predecessors, assert priority over them, and clear creative space for himself. Some musicians, including Benjamin Britten and Robert Schumann, have cited the past as a supportive rather than threatening presence. Rather than a metaphor of male aggression, these composers and others like them see artistic creation as a form of "gift," using a metaphor suggested by Lewis Hyde. In this view the individual becomes "vulnerable" and thus feminized under Bloom's model. In Bloom's mythology, the artist is confronted with two obstacles, sexual anxiety (the Sphinx) and creative anxiety (the Cherub). Because Bloom's model has eliminated the female element of the classical Freudian interpretation of the Oedipal triangle, the model that emerges is one in which homosexual desire becomes a strong element. Social homophobia represents a reaction against traditional structures of gender and power; thus, the homoerotic impulse must be channeled into more acceptable avenues of rivalry and violence. At the end of the nineteenth century, changes in the Victorian definition of "femininity" forced men to "remythologize their claims to authority." It is not a coincidence that Bloom formulated his theory in the 1970s, when feminist, gay, and lesbian voices were challenging the cultural definition of masculinity. Bloom's model remains in "mythical space" by failing to take into account other arenas of cultural conflict, such as nationalism, artistic attitude, and personal psychology. In the final analysis, Bloom's theory perpetuates old ideologies and prevents a thorough consideration of the work of art.

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Analyses that attempt to uncover formal unity in Ives misinterpret Ives's own formal aesthetic and devalue the heterogeneity in his music. In "The Things Our Fathers Loved" (1917), quotations from "Dixie," "My Old Kentucky Home," "On the Banks of the Wabash," and other tunes project the sense of a casual design--as in a collage, crazy-quilt, or scrapbook. The tune-fragments complicate the role of the listener, who is asked to follow discontinuities and enjoy the broken surface. Ives referred to Emerson in discussing unity and concluded that formal unity is less important than unity of vision. Alternative modes of listening which do not privilege unity enhance the appreciation of Ives's creative freedom.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

During 1899-1900, Satie served as both accompanist and arranger for the popular Montmartre chansonnier Vincent Hyspa. Most of Satie’s cabaret chanson arrangements are found in two music notebooks; one currently in Harvard University library, the other in the Bibliothèque nationale in France. On the surface, Satie’s musical arrangements differ greatly from his original cabaret chansons. While both the Rêverie du Pauvre and Petite musique de clown triste were identified and published as Satie’s original compositions, they were in fact chanson arrangements. The Rêverie du Pauvre features a piano accompaniment to a mélodie by Jules Massenet, Les Enfants. The Petite musique de clown triste is an arrangement of “C’est la fille de ma tante” from Louis Varney’s operetta La Femme de Narcisse. Hyspa also did textual parodies of both melodies for cabaret performances. Satie’s arrangements should thus be studied as examples of compositional techniques that he later applied to his own works, most notably his humorous piano suites. In some later compositions, most notably in Celle qui parle trop, Satie employed techniques derived from Hyspa’s ironic art, but extended it significantly. While Hyspa gave a sarcastic twist to a familiar operetta refrain, Satie created an original refrain and treated it like a musical object that is isolated from its original function and context. By subjecting Hyspa’s parodistic technique to his own subjective means, Satie places an increased demand on his listeners. The success of Satie’s parodies relies on listeners’ familiarity with the sources of his quotations.

Works: Satie: La Marseillaise des épiciers (217), Président aux Concours des animaux gras (217), La Triste fin du Taureau Romito aux courses de deuil (217), Rêverie du Pauvre (225), Petite musique de clown triste (226), Chapitres tournés en tous sens (232).

Sources: Alphonse Varney: Chœur des Girondins (217); Offenbach: La Vie parisienne (217); Bizet: Carmen Suite No. 2 (217); Massenet: Les Enfants (225); Louis Varney: La Femme de Narcisse (226); Louis Maillart: Les dragons de Villars (232).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

The score of Satie’s Vexations prompts speculative associations to Beethoven’s “Prometheus” Variations and to the verbal stunts of cabaret poets like Charles Cros. Satie’s instructions for the performer at the segno “to take up the thème de la Basse, to wit [and the bass theme is notated]” are confusing, leading to the question of how one should perform the work with texts that may not be read to the audience. Satie’s art lies in its suggestion of multiple significances of which one was to parody Beethoven through musical borrowing, bringing to mind his Embryons desséchés and its parody of the ending of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 8. Satie’s experience in the cabaret sphere influenced his artistic tendencies and compositional technique. One such influence pertains to the multiple parodic associations in Satie’s music, and his Vexations shares affinities with some verbal games cultivated at the Chat Noir, the successor to a group of bohemian poets and musicians. Satie also shares the same aesthetic aims of economy and minimalism with Santiago Rusiñol and Cros. The 840-fold repetition of the “ce motif” in Vexations demonstrates an attempt to imitate the holorhymic verses of the French poetry. While it sounds almost identical, Satie subjects the musical material to various transpositions and voicings, resulting in a work where every musical phrase completely rhymes with every other. Therefore, he is essentially composing a monumental parody of Beethoven’s “Prometheus” Variations by reducing the musical idea to the eternal sameness of a musical holorhyme.

Works: Satie: Vexations (313), Embryons desséchés(313).

Sources: Beethoven: “Prometheus” Variations, Op. 35 (313), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (313).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jingyi Zhang

Hugo Riesenfeld’s compiled score for The Covered Wagon (directed by James Cruze, 1923) influenced the music design of silent and sound era westerns to come, drawing inspiration from the vast landscapes and historic context of the frontier. The Covered Wagon was instrumental in shifting the focus of westerns from individual characters to epic tales of American progress and Manifest Destiny. Riesenfeld’s score adds to the grandeur of the film, particularly in how it presents the landscape. To underscore the film’s representation of Native Americans as a constant threat to the settlers, Riesenfeld uses several stereotypical music cues. He does not distinguish between hostile and friendly Native Americans and uses the same cues in both circumstances, a practice upheld by subsequent silent westerns. To represent the settlers, Riesenfeld uses Stephen Foster’s Oh! Susanna, a song historically linked with westward expansion. In an early example of direct cueing, the settlers themselves frequently sing and play Oh! Susanna on screen. To accompany the film’s love narrative, Riesenfeld adapts another popular song from the frontier era: George Linley’s I’ve Left the Snow-Clad Hills. In selecting classical and classical-sounding cues for other scenes, Riesenfeld’s approach was to help advance the plot and interpret character motivations while not overpowering the visuals with the music. For a shorter cut of The Covered Wagon, James C. Bradford produced a cue sheet based on Riesenfeld’s compiled score but comparatively less nuanced in setting the love narrative. The lasting impact of The Covered Wagon on the prestige western genre is due in part to Riesenfeld’s compiled score, which complements the epic presentation of the film with an important step toward modern thematically integrated soundtracks.

Works: Hugo Riesenfeld: score to The Covered Wagon (78-90); James C. Bradford: cue sheet for The Covered Wagon (90-98)

Sources: Erno Rapée and William Axt: Indian Orgy (78-79), Misterioso (87-88); Charles Sanford Skilton: War Dance (79); Charles K. Herbert: Indian War Dance (79-80), Indian Lament (79-80); Francis Smith (lyrics): America (My Country ’Tis of Thee) (80); Traditional: The Girl I Left Behind Me (80); Stephen Foster: Oh! Susanna (80-81); George Linley: I’ve Left the Snow-Clad Hills (82-86); Sergei Rachmaninoff: Prelude in G Minor, Op. 23, No. 5 (87)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Many popular music groups, especially rap groups, have been sued by other artists and their publishers for using copyrighted music without permission, even though the groups generally took a small section of the piece in question and thus the quotation falls under the fair use clause. However, by looking at quotations more closely, one can find an extramusical meaning to the quoted material. Because of this, many of the quotations should not be seen as plagiarism as long as the composer does not borrow too much from a previous source.

Works: Puccini: Madame Butterfly; Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini; Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15.

Sources: Dees/Orbison: Oh Pretty Woman;The Star-Spangled Banner;Dies Irae; Rossini: William Tell.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Sampling and quotation in popular music resembles borrowing in Western art music. DJ sampling not only "recycles" music, it also uses specific performances from recordings. This commonly brings in characteristics of timbre and the performer's interpretation from the sampled music that is not found in other forms of musical borrowing. Because of these added factors in sampling, one finds a kind of iconography that the DJs bring into their music that is noticed by the listeners. The idea of extra-musical meaning, albeit through iconography in DJ sampling, is not new. Composers of Western art music have commonly inserted previously composed music into their own compositions for extramusical meanings. These meanings within the borrowing do not hinder the composer's, nor the DJ's, originality in any way.

Works: Berg: Violin Concerto; Wuorinen: Machaut mon chou; Respighi: The Birds; Schubert: String Quartet No. 14 in D Minor; Mahler: Symphony No. 1; Ives: Three Places in New England; Ravel: Bolero; Copland: Symphony No. 3; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Sources: Brown: Funky Drummer; J.S. Bach: O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort BWV 60; Schubert: Death and the Maiden; Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer; Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man; Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Despite many claims in the literature that George Gershwin’s Second Rhapsody (premiered 1932) is an expansion of material composed for the 1931 film Delicious, the reverse is in fact true. The orchestral music in Delicious is a truncated version of the existing Second Rhapsody most probably made by studio employee Hugo Friedhofer. This misconception began with early newspaper reviews of the Rhapsody and with early Gershwin biographer Isaac Goldberg, whose chronological error was repeated and warped by later scholars. Given evidence from Gershwin’s sketches and production papers from Delicious, it is apparent that Gershwin’s Second Rhapsody was essentially complete before the Delicious shooting script called for the “Manhattan Rhapsody” sequence, later changed to the “New York Rhapsody” sequence, that featured it. In the film, the main Rhapsody themes are presented diegetically before the nondiegetic orchestral score begins. Additionally, the “New York Rhapsody” sequence imposes a narrative program on the Second Rhapsody in which each theme is tied to an aspect of the film’s story. The main cuts to the Rhapsody involve what Gershwin called the “Brahms theme” and transition material, reducing the approximately fifteen-minute concert piece to six minutes and fifty-six seconds of screen time. Despite being comparable to his famous Rhapsody in Blue and An American in Paris, Gershwin’s Second Rhapsody faced a less-sympathetic reception, in part due to the false notion that it was recycled from a Hollywood film score.

Works: George Gershwin (composer), Hugo Friedhofer (arranger): score to Delicious (155-73)

Sources: George Gershwin: Second Rhapsody (155-73)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Satie does not borrow actual Gregorian tunes although there may be some direct quotations in the form of certain melodic steps and turns. He imitated ("paraphrased"), however, the style of the Gregorian tunes as they were arranged by Louis Niedermeyer, i.e., providing each note with a new harmony and preserving the (modal) cadential turns. What he heard from the Benedictines of Solesmes did not influence him at all.

Works: Satie: Ogives (232-35), Four Preludes (233-35), Sonneries de la Rose + Croix (233-35), Messe des pauvres (234-36), Danses gothiques (235).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Throughout its history, the Church of Latter-Day Saints has continuously borrowed, modified, and discarded existing melodies from a wide variety of sources and traditions for its ever-growing and ever-changing body of hymnody. Although the complete provenance of many borrowed hymn melodies cannot be fully traced, a close examination of available evidence provides important insights into the musical tastes, aesthetics, and reworking practices of the Mormon church.

For the first several decades of the Church’s existence, Mormons predominantly fit existing melodies and popular songs to traditional or newly-written hymn texts, rather than composing new hymn tunes. Since this was an orally transmitted practice rather than a written tradition, it is impossible to tell which tunes (and how many) could have been applied to every single text, but some texts and melodies were more closely bonded than others. As the Church developed in England, the American Midwest, and later Utah throughout the nineteenth century, Mormon hymnody expanded vastly. The first published hymnbooks from the 1870s through the early 1900s featured a mix of newly-composed artful hymn tunes for choirs, adaptations of classical melodies, and contemporary gospel melodies supplementing several hymn melodies from the previous generation. Even so, an examination of the standard Mormon hymnals from these decades reveals a constant expansion, contraction, and transformation of the hymn repertory, with existing melodies regularly being adopted, modified, and sometimes discarded after a period of time. Many hymnals ultimately strove for a balance of artfulness, traditional favorites, a variety of difficulty levels, and catering to contemporary tastes, but the makeup of the final publications—including the number of borrowed tunes, the musical traditions they came from, and the extent of their modification—often depended on the editors’ priorities, geographic region, musical resources, and musical skill levels of different Mormon communities. Even the more recent hymn books, such as the 1927 Latter-Day Saint Hymns and the 1948 Hymnal, showcase an ongoing process of growth and change in Mormon hymnody.

Borrowed melodies in Mormon hymnals (both historical and contemporary) came from a diverse range of musical traditions, styles, and eras, but these tunes were also adapted in a multitude of ways. Some hymns were simple contrafacts; for instance, Henry Rowley Bishop’s Home Sweet Home was paired to the text “Mid scenes of confusion” by David Denham, while Emily H. Woodmansee’s text “O blest was this day” was sung to The Star-Spangled Banner. Some borrowed hymn tunes, like George Coles’s Duane Street, were embellished with more complex melodic and rhythmic changes. Similarly, the texture, harmonization, or phrase repetition of borrowed melodies diverge from their sources to varying degrees. Two appendices provide a thorough catalogue and overview of the Mormon hymns known to use borrowed melodies, the hymnals in which they appear, and the sources of the melodies themselves, when traceable.

Works: William Clayton: Come, Come Ye Saints (33, 100-1); Anonymous: Who Cares To Go with the Wagons (34); Anonymous: Ye Saints Who Dwell on Europe’s Shore (34); David H. Smith: Let Us Shake Off the Coals from Our Garments (63); Emily H. Woodmansee: O Blest Was This Day (93); David Denham: Mid Scenes of Confusion (93); Eliza Roxey Snow: Comfort (“Cease, ye fond parents, cease to weep”) (134-35).

Sources: Anonymous: Hosanna (“Assembly”/“Paraclete”) (26, 67, 106, 115); Anonymous: Sterling (26, 78-79); Rev. R. Harrison, attr.: Weymouth (26); Anonymous (American Folksong): Adam-Ondi-Ahman (26, 78-79, 101-3, 142); Aaron Williams: Dalston (26, 78-79, 103); Sigismund Neukomm: The Sea (31-32); Anonymous: Away, Away to the Mountain’s Brow (31-32); Anonymous: The Rose that All are Praising (31-32, 79, 92); Anonymous (Traditional American): The Sioux Indians (33); Dan Emmett, attr.: Old Dan Tucker (33); Anonymous (American Folksong): Tittery-Irie-Aye (33); J. T. White, attr.: All is Well (33, 71, 100, 142, 144); Anonymous (Traditional English): The King of the Cannibal Islands (34); Anonymous (Dutch Folksong): Kremser (59, 98, 141); Anonymous (Traditional German-Latin): In Dulci Jubilo (59, 98, 142); Henry Thomas Smart: Regent Square; Anonymous (Canadian/American Folksong): Red River Valley (63); Caroline Sherican Norton: The Officer’s Funeral March (“Fowler”/“Prophet”): (67, 93, 104); Anonymous: Martyr (“Pean”/“Israel is Free”) (67, 98, 106, 142, 144); Louis Bourgeois: The Old Hundredth (67, 80-83, 98, 122); Krambambuli (“Come Away”/“Glendale”) (67-68, 101, 142); George Coles: Duane Street (67-68, 106); William Croft: St. Anne (“Leeds”) (67-68, 84); Anonymous: Judah (71-72); Anonymous: Dimick (71-72, 101); Freeman Lewis: Beloved (“My Beloved”/“Meditation”/“Dulcimer”) (78-79, 101, 106, 115); Anonymous (Scottish Folksong): Land of Promise (“Lone Pilgrim”/“The Braes O’ Balquhidder”/“Patten”/“Ettivini”) (78-79, 106-7); Anonymous (American Folksong): Star in the East (79, 92); Henry H. Russell: I’m Afloat, I’m Afloat (“Goddard”) (79, 93); George F. Root: Just Before the Battle, Mother (79), Vacant Chair (93, 140), Tramp Tramp Tramp (93, 139-40); Martin Luther: Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott (80, 83, 98, 120-22); Anonymous: Mit freuden Zart (“Bohemian Brethren”) (80, 83, 98); John Hughes: Cwm Rhondda (80, 116-17); Anonymous: Greenville (81, 87, 135); Felix Mendelssohn: Elijah, Op. 70 (83, 133-34, 137), Abschied vom Walde, Op. 59, No. 3 (135-36); Johann Schop: Schop (83, 120-21); Anonymous: Lasst uns erfreuen (83, 119); Johann Cruger: Nun danket alle Gott (83, 120-21); Joachim Neander: Neander (“Munich, Ephesus”) (83, 119, 122); Anonymous: Lobe den Herren (83, 120, 122); William Boyce: Appleton (84, 123); William Wheall (Weale): Bedford (84, 123); Aaron Williams: St. Thomas (“Williams”) (84, 123-24); Anonymous: Easter Hymn (84, 123-25); John Francis Wade: Adeste fideles (“Portuguese Hymn”) (84, 125); Joseph Martin Kraus/Michael Haydn, attr.: Lyons (84); Anonymous: Brentford (84); James Lucas, attr.: Lucas (84, 106, 125); Handel, attr.: Antioch (“Comfort”/“Holy Triumph”/“Messiah”) (84); Simeon Buckley Marsh: Martyn (84, 125); Lowell Mason: Bethany (84); Isaac Baker Woodbury: Selena (84, 125); John Baptiste Calkin: Waltham (“Doane”/“Camden”) (85, 127); Joseph Barnby: Merrial (85, 128); John Bacchus Dykes: St. Agnes (“St. Agnes Durham”) (85); Anonymous: God Save the Queen (America/“National Anthem”) (91, 92, 105); James Sanderson, attr.: Hail to the Chief (91); John Stafford Smith: The Star-Spangled Banner (“National Anthem”/“Anacreon”) (91-93); Henry Rowley Bishop: Home Sweet Home (“Sweet Home”) (91, 140); Anonymous: There is a Place in Childhood that I Remember Well (“Willes”) (91, 140); Anonymous: Cheer, Boys, Cheer (“Bell”) (92, 139-40); John Rogers Thomas: Beautiful Isle of the Sea (92, 139-40); Anonymous (American Folksong): The Dismal Swamp (“Restitution”) (92, 106-7, 139); Anonymous (Traditional English): Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes (92, 98, 143); Anonymous (American Folksong): Sweet Afton (92, 98); George [E.] Kiallmark: The Old Oaken Bucket (92); Joseph Parry: Mynyddog (92); Thomas A’Becket or David Shaw: Columbia, Gem of the Ocean (The Red, White and Blue) (92, 140); Anonymous (American Folksong): The Field of Monterey (93, 98, 139, 142); Henry H. Russell: A Life on the Ocean Wave (93, 140); Anonymous: Babylon (93, 140); Anonymous (Gospel): Juanita (93, 140); Benjamin Carr: Spanish Chant (“Spanish Hymn”) (67-68, 93, 140); Anonymous: Norway (93); Thomas Moore (lyricist), Anonymous (Irish Folksong): The Last Rose of Summer (94); Lady John Scott, attr.: Annie Laurie (94, 98); J. P. Knight: Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep (94); Stephen Foster: Hard Times (94), The Old Folks at Home (104); Anonymous: Nay Speak No Ill (94); John Hugh McNaughton: Home (“There is Beauty All Around”) (94); Thomas Clark: Ramsgate (95-96); Anonymous (Traditional American Spiritual): Kirtland (98); Anonymous (Traditional American Spiritual): Vigilance (98); Anonymous (Traditional Carol): The First Nowell (98, 141); Anonymous (Traditional British Carol): God Rest Ye Merry (98, 118, 142-43); Anonymous (German Folksong): Du, du liegst mir im Herzen (98); Traditional (German Carol): Tannenbaum (98, 109, 142); Anonymous: Blow Gently, Ye Wild Winds (98); Lewis Edson: Lennox (103); Anonymous: Caldwell (103, 106, 142); I. B. Woodbury: The Lute of Zion (103), The Saints’ Harp (103); Anonymous (American Folksong): Far West (104); Annie Fortescue Harrison: In the Gloaming (116-17); William Shrubsole: Miles’ Lane (118); Philipp Nicolai: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme (121); Felice de Giardini: Italian Hymn (“Italia”/“Moscow”/“Trinity”/“Bentinck”/“Fairford”/“Florence”/“Hermon”) (125); Anonymous: Yates (125); Oliver Holden: Coronation (126); John Rippon, attr.: Advent (126), Incarnation (126); William H. Monk: Eventide (127); Sir George Job Elvey: St. George’s Windsor (127); Horatio Richmond Palmer: Memories of Galilee (129-31); William James Kirkpatrick: Dear to the Heart of the Shepherd (129-31); James McGranahan: My Redeemer (129); Harrison Millard: ‘Tis Eventide (“Abide with me”) (127, 130); Charles H. Gabriel: Oh, It Is Wonderful (132); Adam Geibel: The Joyful Song (132); Edwin Othello Excell: Count Your Blessings (132); Will Lamartine Thompson: Put Your Shoulder to the Wheel (133); Anonymous (Gospel): Waiting for the Reapers (133); Julia Ward Howe (lyricist), Anonymous (music): The Battle Hymn of the Republic (133); O. F. Presbrey: I Have Read of a Beautiful City (133); Charles D. Tillman: Life’s Railway to Heaven (133); Robert Lowry: I Need Thee Every Hour (133); Handel: Messiah, HWV 56 (133), Saul, HWV 53 (135), Samson, HWV 57 (136), Judas Maccabaeus, HWV 63 (136-37); Carl Maria von Weber: Oberon (134); Verdi: I Lombardi alla prima crociata (134, 137); Louis Moreau Gottschalk: The Last Hope, Op. 16 (134, 136); Mozart: Piano Sonata in A Major, K.331 (134), Die Zauberflöte, K.620 (134, 137-38); Haydn: Symphony No. 88 in G Major, Hob.I:88 (134-35); Rossini: Soirées musicales (134, 136); J. C. Friedrich Schneider/Lowell Mason: Lischer (135); Anonymous: Verdant Spring and Rosy Summer (140); Anonymous: Erastus (142).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Beginning in the mid-1970s, György Kurtág began to reflect a musical past through quotation, many of which refer to his own personal experiences rather than an attempt to convey universal relevance. Kurtág's music can be discussed in relation to Theodor Adorno's idea of "sedimentation" and the concept of subjective memory described by Georg Lukács. The string quartet Officium breve in memoriam Andreae Szervánsky borrows music of Anton Webern, specifically the canonic structure of the sixth movement of Cantata No. 2, and Endre Szervánsky's Serenade for String Orchestra. Kurtág utilizes pre-existent material to evoke an historical awareness of musical material similar to Adorno's concept of sedimentation; that music has an historic relationship to society and may or may not have relevance to that society. For Kurtág, Webern's music recalls the memory of his student years in Paris where he extensively studied this music. Furthermore, Kurtág's Op. 1 string quartet is inextricably connected to the works of Webern. Quotation thus creates a complex web of memory in Kurtág's compositions.

Works: Kurtág: Officium breve in memorium Andreae Szervánsky, Op. 26 (52, 56, 60, 62-66), Játékok (51, 56-57, 62-66).

Sources: Webern: Cantata No. 2 (52, 60, 63); Szervánsky: Serenade for String Orchestra (52, 60, 64-65); Kurtág: Játékok (51, 56-57, 62-66), String Quartet, Op. 1 (63-64).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

André Hodeir was perhaps the first writer to apply the term paraphrase to jazz. He used the term in 1956 to describe a type of improvised melody that lies between two extremes: the unaltered, original melody (called the “head” by jazz musicians) and the ostensibly new melody (called the “chorus phrase”) created by the jazz improviser over the harmonic framework of the original melody. In jazz pianist Oscar Peterson’s 1965 recording of Victor Young’s 1946 song Stella by Starlight, Peterson begins with a version of Young’s melody that stays close to the original, but departs from it sufficiently so as to warrant being designated as paraphrase. In the 1960s Peterson continued to begin performances of Stella by Starlight with this same paraphrased version of the song. It thus represents Peterson's “composed” version of the original melody.

Works: Peterson: Stella by Starlight (25-43).

Sources: Young: Stella by Starlight (25-43).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Scott Grieb

Sloanism, the commercial philosophy of producing and selling an “updated” consumer good before the end of the original product’s life cycle, can be applied to certain practices in the popular music industry whereby existing songs are consciously updated with a new production, new artist, or new genre. Sloanism is named after Alfred P. Sloan, president of General Motors from 1923 to 1956, who pioneered annual models, trade-ins, and planned obsolescence in the automotive industry to drive production and consumption. In the music industry, Sloanism is particularly evident in the 1980s and 1990s due to a confluence between new technologies, genres, and copyright-based commercial strategies. The mid-1980s production team of Mike Stock, Matt Aitken, and Pate Waterman (SAW), whose many hits collectively sold over 40 million records, exemplify musical Sloanism in their repurposing of existing songs. For example, Kylie Minogue’s The Locomotion (1988), produced by SAW, is a Eurobeat cover of Little Eva’s The Loco-Motion (1962). While not strictly a cover song, Janet Jackson’s Rhythm Nation (1989), produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, is structurally based on Sly and the Family Stone’s Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) (1969). Jam and Lewis similarly update Sly’s funk sound into their synth-heavy style of “new jack swing.” In the 1990s, examples of Sloanism can be found in the trend of “rap cover versions” of older pop songs, wherein the original hook is retained in the chorus, but the verses are replaced with rap vocals. Will Smith is the rapper most strongly associated with this practice; most of his late-1990s hits, including the film tie-ins Men in Black and Wild Wild West, are Sloanist updates. Sloanism as an intertextual category overlaps with—but still crucially differs from—retroism as described by Simon Reynolds. Both deal with cultural fixation on material from the past, but retroism does not differentiate between recreating musical styles and repackaging “upgraded” musical products. While a Sloanist theory of music production only accounts for a specific kind of musical reworking, it demonstrates the relationship between musical material and modes of production.

Sources: Mariah Carey and Walter Afanasieff (songwriters), Mariah Carey (performer): All I Want For Christmas Is You (320-21, 327); Michael McDonald, Ed Sanford, Jerry Leiber, and Mike Stoller (songwriters), Michael McDonald (performer): I Keep Forgettin (328-29); Hank Ballard (songwriter), Chubby Checker (performer): The Twist (330); Gerry Goffin and Carole King (songwriters), Little Eva (performer): The Loco-Motion (331-32); Sly and the Family Stone: Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) (332-34); James Mtune: Juicy Fruit (335); Sting (songwriter), The Police: Every Breath You Take (335); Led Zeppelin: Kashmir (335-36); Patrice Rushen, Freddie Washington, and Terri McFaddin (songwriters), Patrice Rushen (performer): Forget Me Nots (336); Stevie Wonder: I Wish (336); Leon Sylvers, Stephen Shockley, William Skelby (songwriters), The Whispers (performers): And the Beat Goes On (336); Bernard Edwards, Nile Rodgers (songwriters), Sister Sledge (performer): He's the Greatest Dancer (336); Bill Withers and Grover Washington Jr.: Just the Two of Us (336); Charles Fox, Norman Gimbel (songwriters), Roberta Flack (performer): Killing Me Softly with His Song (337).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The Hamilton Mixtape and its central track, “Immigrants (We Get the Job Done),” engages with issues of “offstage politics” by operating as a space to perform diversity, navigate politics of marginality, and critique immigration policy. The mixtape relies on sampling as a signifier of hip hop authenticity to achieve this aim. In hip hop culture, the idea of a mixtape (an independently released album drawing on a tradition of bootleg tapes) and sonic signifiers of underground hip hop such as record scratching and overt sampling are used to mark authenticity. In Hamilton: An American Musical, Lin-Manuel Miranda uses hip hop’s status as the voice of the marginalized to make a statement about American history. The Hamilton Mixtape extends this project by featuring covers, remixes, and demos of numbers from the musical. The deliberately rough sound of the mixtape connects to the sound of underground hip hop more so than the polished, orchestrated musical. “Immigrants (We Get the Job Done)” is the central track of the mixtape and is titled after a line from “The Battle of Yorktown.” The line, spoken by Hamilton and Lafayette, became a fan-favorite moment in the show amid the immigration discourse sparked by Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign. The chorus of “Immigrants” samples this line and others from “Yorktown” in an intentionally choppy style to evoke the ethos of underground hip hop. The verses, supplied by rappers K’naan, Show Tha Product, Riz MC, and Residente, deal with issues of immigrant labor and the continuing impact of colonialism. While both The Hamilton Mixtape and Hamilton: An American Musical express critiques of immigration discourse, particularly issues of immigrant labor, the mixtape taps into the sound and voice of the global hip hop movement, moving beyond the American setting of the musical it samples.

Works: Lin-Manuel Miranda, Keinan Warsame (K’naan), Claudia Feliciano (Snow Tha Product), Rizwan Ahmed (Riz MC), René Pérez Joglar (Residente), and Trooko: Immigrants (We Get the Job Done) from The Hamilton Mixtape (493-500)

Sources: Lin-Manuel Miranda: Hamilton: An American Musical (493-500)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a particular subgenre of hip-hop arose, defined by its use of musical gestures, lyrical references, and images already encoded into popular audiences’ conception of jazz at that time. By the late eighties, due to the “jazz Renaissance” of that decade, jazz was deeply associated with “high art” and often discussed as an analog for an American classical tradition. As such, it brought with it a complex of hierarchies and standards for authenticity that jazz rap artists navigated in forging personal, artistic identities. Jazz “codes,” or musical elements which had been definitively associated with jazz (such as acoustic walking bass, muted trumpets, and other brass instruments) could be deployed concretely as samples or through the inclusion of jazz musicians in actual performance. They could also be deployed allusively, as timbral, lyrical, and rhythmic topics. Notably, these codes are demonstrably different from the gestures used in other subgenres of rap at the time, and can be found in the works of groups such as De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Gang Starr, and Digable Planets.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Verses from the Abstract (55), Check the Rhime (56), Jazz (We’ve Got) (56), Excursions (56-57); Digable Planets: Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat) (58-63), It’s Good to Be Here (60-61), Swoon Units (61).

Sources: The Last Poets: Time (58).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Molly Covington

Due to the elevation of jazz to a “high art” in the mainstream media during the 1980s, members of the hip-hop community interested in projecting such high-art ideologies began to associate themselves with jazz music. “Jazz rap,” which sampled jazz and used “conscious” lyrics in the spirit of bebop’s perceived highbrow nature, was seen as a form of high art within the hip-hop community starting in the early 1990s, and those who wished to justify its high art status argued that it was more authentic than the “lower,” more popular subgenres of rap music. Groups such as De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digable Planets, and Gang Starr utilize “jazz codes”—sounds, lyrical references, and imagery identified by audiences with jazz—to associate themselves with jazz music.

Works: A Tribe Called Quest: Verses from the Abstract (445), Check the Rhime (445), Jazz (We’ve Got) (445-46); Digable Planets: It’s Good to Be Here (449), Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat) (450-52).

Sources: Bronislaw Kaper (composer) and Lucky Thompson (performer): On Green Dolphin Street (446); Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers: A Chant for Bu (446); The Honeydrippers: Impeach the President (451-52).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Within hip-hop music and culture, there are many approaches to intertextuality and musical borrowing beyond digital sampling, the analysis of which can better situate hip-hop recordings in wider cultural contexts. Hip-hip music has openly used pre-existing material since its origins, and this practice has been linked to Henry Louis Gates Jr.’s literary concept of Signifyin(g). Intertextuality in hip-hop is generally unconcealed and is often, but not always, textually signaled, or highlighted by an element of the whole recorded text (the instrumental “beat” as well as the lyrical “flow”). One example of textual signaling is the vinyl pops and hiss audible in The Pharcyde’s Passin Me By), which show that the samples composing the beat come from older analog sources. Xzibit’s Symphony in X Major (2002), produced by Rick Rock, provides an illustrative case study of sampling from the classical music canon: Wendy Carlos’s version of Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 from Switched on Bach (1968). The two samples used in Symphony in X Major are both autosonic (from an existing recording) and textually signaled with audible artifacts of sampling. One sample is used in the chorus, the other in the verses. The meaning of these samples depends on how specifically a listener identifies the source: classical music, J. S. Bach, the Brandenburg Concerto, or Carlos’s synthesizer recording. Carlos’s recording, more so than Bach’s composition, aligns with the popularity of synth-heavy beats in early 2000s hip-hop and the general practice of re-appropriation. Still, genre or stylistic topic might be more important than the specific source for interpreting a sample. Signifying “classical music” and its cultural status better fits Xzibit’s boastful lyrics. Understanding the meaning of such samples is aided by conceptualizing an imagined community of hip-hop, a particular interpretive community with generic expectations, assumptions, and historical knowledge of hip-hop.

Works: The Pharcyde: Passin Me By (193-95); Dr Dre (producer) and Snoop Doggy Dogg: Who Am I (What’s My Name?) (193-95); Rick Rock (producer) and Xzibit: Symphony in X Major (196-201).

Sources: The Jimi Hendrix Experience: Are You Experienced? (194); Weather Report: 125th Street Congress (194); Skull Snaps: It’s a New Day (194); Quincy Jones: Summer in the City (194); Eddie Russ: Hill Where the Lord Hides (194); Tom Browne: Funkin’ for Jamaica (195); George Clinton: Atomic Dog (195); Parliament: Tear the Roof off the Sucker (Give up the Funk) (195); Wendy Carlos (arranger), J. S. Bach (composer): Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G Major BWV 1048 (196-201).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Jeremy O. Harris’s Slave Play, an exploration of the inherited trauma from slavery in contemporary America, uses popular music to communicate nonverbally its characters’ psychological perspective on their temporal experience. The choice of borrowed pop songs, their use within the play’s narrative, and characters’ intersectional black and queer identities all contribute to the play’s queer temporality, disrupting linear time and dramatizing the lingering trauma of history. The play, drawn in part from Harris’s experience as a black queer man, is about three interracial couples engaging in “Antebellum Sexual Performance Therapy,” an experimental treatment for the three black characters’ obsessive-compulsive disorder. The OCD patients all share the symptom of musical hallucinations, which are heard as metadiegetic music shared between certain (but not all) characters and the audience. For example, Kaneisha’s auditory hallucination is Rihanna’s Work, which first appears with Kaneisha singing and dancing along to it in an antebellum home and costume. In addition to this juxtaposition of time and place, Work reveals other dramatic themes: it lyrically presents the theme of labor, it endears Kaneisha to the audience, it creates a counterpoint to the play’s action, and it foregrounds the experience of being trapped in an unending cycle. Gary’s hallucination is Multi-Love by Unknown Mortal Orchestra, which is featured prominently in a dream ballet where he works through his sexual hang-ups with his husband. Both musical hallucinations deal with issues of queer temporality, disrupting the linear, objective time of the play and emphasizing the characters’ interconnected lived times. The musical hallucinations are deeply embedded in the characters’ internal lives as well as in the audience’s impression of the play as a way to connect with and remember their traumas.

Works: Jeremy O. Harris: Slave Play (9-24)

Sources: Jahron Brathwaite, Matthew Samuels, Allen Ritter, Rubert Thomas Jr., Aubrey Graham, Robyn Fenty, and Monte Moir (songwriters), Rihanna (performer): Work (9-21); Roban Nielson and Kody Nielson (songwriters), Unknown Mortal Orchestra (performer): Multi-Love (21-24)

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

In the early eighteenth century, the concepts of "intellectual property" and "proprietary authorship" were just emerging and entering English, German, and French law. English jurist William Blackstone, in the second volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-69), argues forcefully for the author's product as intellectual property. Jonathan Swift's Battel of the Books (1704) sets out the argument that borrowing material was acceptable so long as the borrower transformed it substantially. This view is also held by Johann Mattheson in Der volkommene Cappellmeister (1739). Handel's Acis and Galatea shows how transformative borrowing was employed. The librettist, probably John Gay, used numerous sources to create the text of the masque; these included Pope, Hughes, Dryden, and others. Handel's musical borrowings sometimes changed the nature of the original material altogether. Most often, however, Handel borrowed certain motives, transforming and absorbing them into the musical texture.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Acis and Galatea, "O ruddier than the cherry" (454-61), "Must I my Acis still bemoan" (458, 463-68), Teseo,"Quanto che è me sian care" (461-66).

Sources: Reinhard Keiser: Janus, "Wann ich dich noch einst erblicke" (456-58), La forza della virtù, "Mit einem schönen Ende" (461-68).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1600s

Although Bruckner's piety has been put forth as reason for his use of liturgical music in non-liturgical works, most explanations are too facile. Bruckner's borrowings in his symphonies must be understood in light of his attitude toward other composers, the style of his music in comparison with church music, and his style compared with the beliefs, arts, and institutions of his day. His relationship with Wagner, his foundation in church music, and his fundamentally Romantic harmonic conception are factors, apart from his beliefs, which contributed to his borrowings.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Country musician Jimmie Rodgers’s use of hillbilly yodeling—including his style, choice of melodic material, and lyrical themes—set the paradigm for many popular and country music vocal practices. Throughout his extensive recording catalogue, Rodgers uses three species of yodel: wordless yodel (first species), texted yodel (second species), and yodeled grace notes (third species). Each of these species can be used within three functional categories: structural types, melodic archetypes, and word decoration. One of the central yodel tropes in Rodgers’s songs is the home trope, typically associated with nostalgic songs. An important home yodel is melodically derived from the yodel in John Handley’s Sleep, Baby, Sleep (published in 1885, first recorded by Rodgers in 1927). A cheerful yodel trope is taken from Rodgers’s Away Out on the Mountain, possibly derived from J. K. Emmet’s Cuckoo Song. Less well defined but still widely used are the blue-yodel turnarounds, which exist in two primary forms incorporating swung blues-scale patterns. A later blues yodel pattern is derived from W. C. Handy’s Memphis Blues. The stylistic sources for Rodgers’s yodeling practice are extremely varied, ranging from nineteenth-century yodel melodies to contemporary ragtime and blues practices. As a carrier and aggregator of multiple traditions, Rodgers proved to be foundational in the construction of rural singing style and a major contributor to American music.

Works: Jimmie Rodgers: Mother, the Queen of My Heart (18), I’ve Only Loved Three Women (18), Dream with Tears in My Eyes (18-19), Yodeling My Way Back Home (19), Lullaby Yodel (19), Treasures Untold (19), The Land of My Boyhood Dreams (19), The Cowboy’s Last Ride (19), Whisper Your Mother’s Name (21), A Drunkard’s Child (21), The Yodeling Cowboy (21), The Mystery of Number Five (21), The Brakeman’s Blues (22), Everybody Does It in Hawaii (22), Tuck Away My Lonesome Blues (22), Jimmie’s Mean Mama Blues (22, 26), Mississippi Delta Blues (26), Those Gambler’s Blues (31); Texas Drifter (Goebel Reeves): The Tramp’s Mother (19), Hobo’s Lullaby (19), The Wayward Son (19); Cliff Carlisle: Nevada Johnny (19); Ward Barton: Rock-a-bye Baby (20); Rex Griffin: You Gotta Go to Work (21), My Hillbilly Baby (26), Everybody’s Trying to Be My Baby (27)

Sources: John Handley: Sleep, Baby, Sleep (16-20, 21); Traditional: 5-6-5-3-1-5 Yodel Trope (20-21), St. James Infirmary Blues (31); Jimmie Rodgers: Away Out on the Mountain (21-23); J. K. Emmet: Cuckoo Song (22-23); W. C. Handy: Memphis Blues (26-27)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A variety of compositional approaches are used by twentieth-century composers when they confront the music of their predecessors. Sympathetic completion occurs when a composer reconstructs sketches or completes an unfinished work. "Compulsive orchestrators" rearrange older works into new orchestral versions. "Ultra-pragmatic composers" rework a composition, often in a new genre, to express a more personal vision. Changes are made to suit the new instrumentation, but the essence of the music remains the same. Distancing through quotation occurs when one musical work refers to another. In this new context, the inclusion of the older work adds an underlying subtext. A distance in style is often exaggerated, creating moments of surprise or shock. Taking this idea a step further, composers can also "relish the discomfort factor" by being intentionally indifferent toward a source. An example of distancing through quotation is found in Michael Tippett's The Knot Garden (1970). In the penultimate scene, the character Flora begins singing "Die liebe Farbe" from Schubert's Die schöne Müllerin. Yet she only makes it through half of the first verse before Schubert's music begins to dissolve into Tippett's tonal language. What begins as pure Schubert merges into a hybrid, and then ultimately resigns itself to a modern idiom. Luciano Berio's Rendering (1990) is harder to categorize. Berio begins by realizing the sketches of Schubert's tenth symphony. He then fills the compositional gaps with complex counterpoint and solo colors. Though quite outside of Schubert's style, this filler material is based upon three of Schubert's late works: the Piano Trio in B-flat Major, D 898 (1827), the Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D 960 (1828) and Winterreise (1827). These juxtapositions of style exaggerate the stylistic difference between the two composers, but they might also create a relationship that we as listeners are not able to stand ("relishing the discomfort factor"). Hans Zender's Schuberts "Winterreise" (1993) falls into two categories. Some of his movements are extremely faithful to Schubert's Lieder, containing only minimal alterations. Other movements undergo several changes: "Auf dem Flusse" has a new prefatory section; "Der stürmische Morgen" includes percussive simulations of a storm; the accompaniment of "Die Leiermann" moves continually farther away from the tonic of B minor, though the melody remains unaltered. With his orchestral style differing greatly from that of Schubert, Zender may be "relishing the discomfort factor." Yet, Zender relates many stages of the song cycle's emotional journey, much like an "ultra-pragmatic" work retains the essence of its source.

Works: Michael Tippett: The Knot Garden (211-14, 226-27); Luciano Berio: Rendering (215-19, 227-29); Hans Zender: Schuberts "Winterreise" (219-26, 229-30).

Sources: Schubert, Die schöne Müllerin, "Die liebe Farbe" (212-14), Symphony No. 10 in D Major (incomplete) (215-19), Piano Trio in B-flat Major, D. 898 (216), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, D. 960 (216), Winterreise (216, 219-226).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Bernard Hermann’s score to the 1944 CBS radio broadcast Moat Farm Murder was later reused in eleven episodes of The Twilight Zone. This appropriation of a radio score for a new television soundtrack is a case study in how music editors and supervisors created new layers of meaning with network cue libraries in the 1960s. CBS established its Stock Music Library in 1956, allowing its back catalogue of radio and television scores to be reused in future productions. Newly composed scores were also mandated by the CBS musicians’ union, leading to a mix of episodes containing wholly new music, partially new and partially stock, and wholly stock music. Hermann’s score to the Moat Farm Murder radio broadcast is broken into fourteen distinct cues. Each cue was used in at least one episode of The Twilight Zone and several cues are used in multiple episodes. Cue 5, which uses descending chromatic lines to signify danger, appears in seven different episodes of The Twilight Zone in a large section or reduced to a short stinger to punctuate a shocking moment on screen. Cue 9, which features descending chromatic lines with a distinctive nasal timbre, is used in four episodes of The Twilight Zone, often during flashback scenes. In their use of music libraries to create television soundtracks, music directors and editors across different programs and studios acted as hidden authors, shaping the emotion of programs in ways the drama by itself could not.

Works: Robert Drasnin (music editor): soundtrack to The Twilight Zone (164-67, 172-182).

Sources: Bernard Hermann: score to Moat Farm Murder (164-67, 172-182).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Not only "stray motifs," but many entire Yiddish folksong melodies can be traced to Jewish liturgical music. Most of these folksongs are metrical and rhythmical although derived from motifs that were sung in the synagogue in an improvised manner free of steady meter. For instance, cantillation motifs from the Ashkenazic High Holiday Pentateuch appear in the folksong Ya-amod Reb Yehude. In some cases, the topic of the folk song is similar to the topic of the prayer source, as a folksong about the approach of winter borrows motifs from the autumn prayer for rain. Other folksongs do not borrow motifs, but use the synagogue modes. The synagogue mode known as the Ukranian-Dorian (G-A-Bb-C#-D-E-F) is used not only in prayers like Mi Sheberakh and Ov Horahamim, but also in folk songs like Dos Fertsente Yor.

Works: Folk Songs: Ya-Amod Reb Yehude (34), S'Yomert Peterburg (36), Akdomus (37), Alef, Indiks Est der Nogid (37), Af b'ri s'iz Nito Vos Tu Gebn (39), Tzvelf a Zeyger (40), Eli Tsiyon (40), Eliyahu Ha-Navi (44-45), Aye-le-lyu-leh (46), Dos Fertsente Yor (48).

Sources: Liturgy: Ashkenazic High Holiday Pentateuch (34), Kol Nidre (38), Geshem (39), Omar Rabbi Elozor (42), Bmeh Madlikim (42), Elu Devorim (42), Aimidah (43), B'fi Y'shorim (45), Mi Sheberakh (48), Ov Horahamim (48).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Contributed by: Eytan Uslan

Mozart became director of Baron van Swieten's oratorio concerts in 1787. One of the pieces he was asked to arrange was Handel's Messiah. For this he was provided with a skeleton version of Handel's score that was condensed and translated into German by van Swieten with lines left blank for Mozart to add extra parts. Van Swieten expected Mozart to arrange the work to fit musical taste of the time, which involved extensive changes in orchestration including the addition of several extra wind parts with mostly new material. Mozart also added material so that the instrumental parts would more directly reflect the text. The declamatory style and basso continuo parts were also changed in some sections. Baron van Swieten specifically suggested some of these additions. During this arrangement process, van Swieten and Mozart represented conflicting aims, van Swieten wanting to make dramatic alterations and Mozart wanting to stick closely to Handel's original. Mozart executed all of these ideas, however. This arrangement served as the basis of the German performance tradition of the work throughout the nineteenth century and led to further reworkings of baroque compositions by German Romantic composers.

Works: Mozart/Baron Gottfried van Swieten/Handel: Messiah (1-14); Mozart: Requiem (2).

Sources: Handel: Messiah (1-14).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Schubert's song "Der Tod und das Mädchen" takes the form of a dialogue in which Death is represented by a slow chordal sequence and the maiden by recitative-style writing. This is probably modeled on very similar procedures in Gluck's Alceste and the cemetery scene from Mozart's Don Giovanni. In addition to a musical reworking in a setting of a similar poem ("Der Jüngling und der Tod," D. 545) composed shortly thereafter, the song also reappears in the String Quartet in D Minor, D. 810. Although the most obvious instance of this is the expanded version of the song's chordal sequence that serves as the theme for the slow movement's variation set, material from the entire song can be seen to be present in the remaining three movements as well, thus imparting a cyclical nature to the work as a whole.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Since the time of Forkel, the study of the music of Vivaldi has generally been carried out with respect to Bach, and has resulted in an overemphasis on the former composer's concertos. While Forkel to some extent oversimplified the significance of Vivaldi to Bach's music, it is nevertheless the case that the study and transcription of Vivaldi's concertos played an important role not only in the formation of Bach's musical style, but also in the development of his "musical thinking." Bach recognized that Vivaldi had developed a system for the composition of instrumental music that was based on a threefold process of order/organization (Ordnung), connection/continuity (Zusammenhang), and relation/proportion (Verhältnis). This process transcends superficial considerations of genre and directly addresses the elaboration of musical material from germinal ideas. Bach's transcriptions of Vivaldi's concertos represent an opportunity to observe this process of "musical thinking" as it unfolds in the elaboration of musical motives. The compositional process consists, then, in the exploration of the potentialities of core ideas: their organization and reorganization, their contribution to the unity of the movement, and their relationship and proportion with respect to other ideas. Such a system of "musical thinking" was instrumental not only in the formation of Bach's style, but also in the gradual dominance of instrumental music in the eighteenth century.

Works: Bach: Concerto for Harpsichord in F Major, BWV 978 (75-83).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1500s

Though Bach's influence on Mendelssohn has been accepted and documented, the pervasive influence of Handel deserves greater attention. Mendelssohn quoted Handel directly; for example, he took the subject of Handel's overture Semele for his E Minor fugue for piano. He also used Handel's choruses, with their vocally grateful melodies and transparent polyphony, as models for his own works. The intimate connection between the two composers is demonstrated by Mendelssohn's efforts to perform, edit, and publish the music of Handel.

Works: Mendelssohn: Fugue in E Minor for Piano, Op. 35, No. 1 (175), St. Paul (175).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Index Classifications: 1700s

From 1900 through 1950, Ecuadorian composers Pablo Traversari, Sixto María Durán, and Segundo Luis Moreno articulated theories of nationalist art music and debated over the inclusion of Incan music in the construction of Ecuador’s music history. Ecuador’s historical past and national identity was split between the Incas (who are strongly tied to rival Peru) and the Kingdom of Quito. Traversari’s goal in developing Ecuadorian art music was to connect it to a continental Americanist style, drawing on what he viewed as authentic Incan music over “indigenous music, improperly called Incan.” Although his historical writings are dubious, Traversari’s music explores the possibilities of the Incan pentatonic scale. One example is his 1949 pentatonic arrangement of Chopin’s Étude, Op. 25, No. 7, which he created to demonstrate the pentatonic scale’s use in art music. Moreno took a different approach to Ecuadorian music history, arguing that it came from Quito music and that Incan music had no historical influence. Moreno also took an evolutionary view of music, arguing that the diatonic scale was the next step in musical development after the pentatonic scale. Durán presents yet another view of Ecuador’s musical heritage, categorizing all pre-Columbian South American music as “Incan.” In each case, concepts of Incan (or non-Incan) music in Ecuador’s music history were as much a product of political and cultural identity as they were a rigorous search for historical truth.

Works: Pablo Traversari: Arrangement of Chopin’s Étude in C-sharp Minor, Op. 25, No. 7 (242-44)

Sources: Chopin: Étude in C-sharp Minor, Op. 25, No. 7 (242-44)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The fugue subject in the second movement of Handel's Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, No. 2, is taken from a Ricercar by Gottlieb Muffat. Handel extends Muffat's subject by continuing the sequential progression one step further. He also uses Muffat's voice order and countersubject pattern. The Muffat ricercar used by Handel is found in only one source, a manuscript collection of keyboard music copied by Padre Alexander Giessel; like Muffat, Giessel was a pupil of Fux at the Minoritenkonvent in Vienna.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, no. 2.

Sources: Muffat: Ricercar.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Klezmer music, which is generally associated with old-world Eastern-European Judaism and Yiddish culture, manifests itself as a revived repertory in the work of DJ Sophie Solomon and DJ SoCalled (Josh Dolgin). By creating a fusion of klezmer with hip-hop performance and production techniques (including sampling), the duo constructs a contemporary “Hip Hop Khasene,” or hip-hop wedding, musically reenacting one of the ritual components of the wedding on each track of their 2003 album HipHopKhasene. In doing so, Solomon and SoCalled question concepts of musical and cultural authenticity in the face of changing cultural worlds, and create a sonically constructed contemporary Yiddish identity.

Works: Solomon and SoCalled: HipHopKhasene.

Sources: Abe Schwartz: Sadugerer Chusidl (256).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Nathan Landes

Rachmaninoff's frequent usage of the liturgical chant Dies Irae can be categorized as single appearances, textual devices, and transformations. Rachmaninoff was influenced by Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique, Liszt's Totentanz, and Mussorgsky's Songs and Dances of Death, works containing the Dies Irae which he had performed as pianist and conductor. The origins and early development of the chant and settings of the text alone are also traced, noting the important transition of its context from sacred to secular and its literary history. The following works are discussed in detail:

Works: Rachmaninoff: The Isle of the Dead, The Bells, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Piano Sonatas No. 1, Piano Sonatas No. 2, Suite No. 2 for Two Pianos, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, and several short piano pieces.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1500s

Serge Lacasse’s model of transtextuality requires expansion in order to account for referential practices involving transformations of medium in recorded popular music, as demonstrated by analysis of several songs by trip hop band Portishead. Lacasses’s distinction between syntagmatic (subject) and paradigmatic (style) transformations is expanded by the addition of phonomatic transformation, a transformation of medium or technology. Three types of phonomatic transformations can be found in the music of Portishead: retronormativity, vinyl aesthetics, and analogue allusion. These transformations can further be characterized as either allosonic, an abstract recreation of a musical passage from another musical work, or autosonic, a concrete insertion of an actual recording of a musical work. Retronormativity is the mechanism of referencing a combination of stylistic traits emblematic of a certain era. An example of autosonic retronormativity—inserting a specific recording to evoke the past—is found in Portishead’s Strangers (1994), which begins with a sample of Elegant People by Weather Report. An example of allosonic retronormativity can be found in Half Day Closing, which alludes to The American Metaphysical Circus by The United States of America, recreating the bass line, drum fill, and distinctive transformation of the vocal track, but not directly sampling the recording. Vinyl aesthetics refers to the sense of authenticity and humanity attributed to vinyl records by enthusiasts. Autosonic vinyl aesthetics can be found in Humming (1997), the drum track of which includes conspicuous vinyl pops and crackles as a result of its recording process. Analogue allusion describes brief sonic references to historical recording technologies, particularly when juxtaposed with contemporary technologies. An example of autosonic analogue allusion can be found in Only You (1997) in the juxtaposition of a crackling vinyl sample of She Said by The Pharcyde with clean digital silence, grounding the track simultaneously in both past and present. Lacasse’s model can be further expanded to include self-quotation as practiced by Portishead, wherein the group composes and records a private library of musical ideas in order to sample them as if they were external works. For example, the string loop, drum track, and outro of the song Western Eyes were recorded by Portishead, but were manipulated to add sonic markers of old recording technology (low frequency response and tape hiss). A fake sample credit was even included in the liner notes. This method of self-quotation allows musicians to engage with the creative process of sampling while retaining the legal and aesthetic implications of sole authorship.

Works: Portishead: Strangers (102-3), Only You (104-5), Half Day Closing (105-6)

Sources: Weather Report: Elegant People (102-3); The Pharcyde: She Said (104-5); The United States of America: The American Metaphysical Circus (105-6)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Despite his public denial of the practice, Bernard Herrmann frequently practiced self-borrowing in his radio, television, film, and concert music by both reproducing earlier works virtually intact and reworking the instrumentation, pitch, or notation of earlier material. Herrmann’s early work on radio plays for several CBS programs provided an important source for later self-borrowing. Herrmann’s score to Jason and the Argonauts (1968) includes at least five cues borrowed or reworked from radio scores and other film scores. One of these sources, the symphonic poem City of Brass (featured in a 1938 Columbia Workshop radio presentation), was borrowed from in several other film scores as well, including the score to The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad (1958). Herrmann’s opera, Wuthering Heights, borrows from several of his film scores as well, most notably from The Ghost and Mrs. Muir (1947) and Jane Eyre (1944). Herrmann also adapted material from his concert music into his film scores; for example, “The Office” cue from Psycho is adapted from his Sinfonietta for Strings. Throughout his entire career, Herrmann steadily practiced self-borrowing.

Works: Bernard Herrmann: Wuthering Heights (249-50, 256-7), score to Discoverie (250-53), score to Hangover Square (251), score to Jason and The Argonauts (251-55), score to The Kentuckian (252-54), score to The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad (254-57), score to Mysterious Island (255), score to Tender Is the Night (257-58), score to North by Northwest (258), score to Journey to the Center of the Earth (258), score to Psycho (258), score to Battle of Neretva (258-59), score to The Trouble With Harry (258), A Portrait of Hitch (258), Western Saga (258, 260), score to The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (259)

Sources: Bernard Herrmann: score to The Ghost and Mrs. Muir (249-50, 256-58), score to Jane Eyre (250, 256), score to The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (250-53), Nocturne and Scherzo (251), score to Beneath the Twelve Mile Reef (251-52), City of Brass (252-53), score to The Shropshire Lad (252-54), score to The Kentuckian (254-55), score to Five Fingers (255-57), score to Mysterious Island (255), score to The Triangle on the Round Table (255), score to The Magnificent Ambersons (257), score to On Dangerous Ground (258), Sinfonietta for Strings (258), Clarinet Quintet (258), score to James Evans, Fireman: How He Extinguished a Human Torch (258), score to Coyle and Richardson: Why They Hung in a Spanking Breeze (258), score to Fahrenheit 451 (258-59), score to Blue Denim (259)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet