Index Classifications: 1900s

Carlos Chávez’s music is generally read as infused with twentieth-century Mexican identity, a position introduced by Aaron Copland and Paul Rosenfeld. However, this reading discounts Chávez’s diverse stylistic choices, especially those apparent in his earlier works. In his earliest compositions, Chávez emulated the model of the Russian Five in using folk material to create novel music. Later, he ventured into modernism and primitivism with his 1921 ballet Toxiuhmolpia: El fuego nuevo, which represented an imagined Aztec religious ceremony. Chávez’s early nationalist pieces like his 1924 Sonatina for Violin and Piano exhibit an unconventional form of musical nationalism, borrowing traditional melodies but distorting them to achieve a more modernist sound. With his first forays into the international music scene in the mid-1920s, Chávez leaned into his modernist image, presenting works in an energetic mechanical style like his European contemporaries Varèse and Stravinsky. By the late 1920s, Chávez was also composing works with neoclassical influence as well as ultramodern works. Aaron Copland’s article “Carlos Chavez—Mexican Composer” praised Chávez for his unique modernist style and set a critical precedent for reading Mexican and Indian identities in his music that was quickly taken up by Paul Rosenfeld. These American interpretations of Chávez’s music, shaped by a Pan-Americanism movement in the United States, constructed Chávez as essentially Mexican and his Mexican identity as essentially Indigenous.

Works: Carlos Chávez: Jarabe (113-114), Sonatina for Violin and Piano (114-15)

Sources: Traditional: Jarabe Tapatío (114), El Atole (114), El Palomo (114), L’Inasia (115)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications:

Index Classifications: 1700s

Since Girdlestone's article on Rameau's self-borrowings omitted most of them and contains many errors, a re-examination is necessary. Sadler discovers patterns in Rameau's borrowing habits according to the genre of the pieces quoted from. These include (1) harpsichord collections, (2) instrumental pieces from operas, and (3) vocal borrowings. The article, however, excludes borrowings "consisting of a single phrase or motive in mid-piece" and "items moved bodily from one self-contained entrée of an opera to another when a work was revived." Rameau's harpsichord pieces were well known and quotations from them were the only ones that the public seems to have identified. Rameau did not disguise them but rather placed them in prominent positions of his first group of operas. His usual practice was to change the formal structure of the original considerably, borrowing only the first one or two phrases or the refrain of a rondeau. With these quotations Rameau hoped to transfer some of the popular appeal to his early operas. Once the Lulliste-Ramiste controversy had resolved in his favor, these borrowings were handled much more freely. Rameaus's approach to borrowing from instrumental operatic pieces differs considerably from the one discussed above. From 1745-60 he quoted his lesser-known operas with little change, whereas during the last four years of his life, he extensively reworked parts from his most famous operas, such as Castor and Pollux,Zoroastre,Platée, and Zaïs. The reluctance of the French to re-use vocal numbers and to re-set existing libretti explains why Rameau usually altered the text of his vocal borrowings, a fact which makes it difficult to trace possible borrowings from operas of which the music is lost. Vocal borrowings make up the smallest category and it is thus difficult to draw any conclusions about their purpose. Rameau quotes from some of his most famous arias but here again may borrow only the opening measures, stimulating his imagination to continue freely.

Works: Rameau: La Princesse de Navarre (260, 270, 273), Les fêtes d'Hébé (262), Zoroastre (262, 264-65, 266, 272), Les Indes galantes (264), Pièces de clavecin en concerts (265), Dardanus (266), Les surprises de l'amour (268), Les fêtes de Polymnie (273), Io (273).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Public disapproval with certain elements of Rameau's Les Indes galantes led the composer in 1735 to issue some of the opera's instrumental music in the form of harpsichord pieces, titled Quatre grands concerts. The collection, largely neglected by scholars, provides insight into Rameau's methods of reworking while filling a chronological gap in the composer's keyboard output. The reworkings are clearly intended for performance on keyboard despite the possibility of performance on multiple instruments. Rameau's modifications to the original pieces are extensive: they involve a general thinning of texture, recomposition of inner lines, significant alterations to accompaniments, mimicry of orchestral textures through chordal writing, and liberal addition of ornamentation idiomatic to the keyboard. In addition, cuts are made in the originals in several locations for the benefit of the new texture.

Works: Rameau: Quatre grands concerts.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

The analysis of film scores must consider not only the finished score but also the various layers of the construction process, including the so-called “temp track,” a temporary soundtrack often comprising cues from existing films or other pre-existing music. The temp track maps the topography of the future score and its relation to the film, and along with its precursor, the compilation score, it is limited in its ability to synchronize with the film by its use of units of pre-existing phrase structures and forms. Despite its limitations and the artistic misgivings of many composers, it is often extremely influential upon the final score. Music editors are thus increasingly powerful and significant in the establishment and perpetuation of musical filmic conventions, acting as surrogate composers.

Works: Antoine Fuqua (director) and Roy Prendergast (music editor): temp track to Tears of the Sun (170-74); Antoine Fuqua (director) and Hans Zimmer (composer): score to Tears of the Sun (172-73); Jonathan Demme (director) and Suzana Peric (music editor): temp track to Philadelphia (176-79); Jonathan Demme (director) and Howard Shore (composer): score to Philadelphia (176-79).

Sources: Alan Silvestri: score to What Lies Beneath (171-72, 174); Bruce Springsteen: Streets of Philadelphia (176-79).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

[from AG's dissertation: According to Sala, "a chorus from Alphonse Varney's music for Dumas and Auguste Marquet's Le chevalier de maison-rouge (1847) bears a strong resemblance to the opening chorus of La battaglia di Legnano (1849). Also another mélodrame/drame, Emile Souvestre and Eugène Bourgeois's Le Pasteur ou l'évangile et le foyer (1849) with music of uncertain authorship, may have provided musico-dramatic ideas for Stiffelio."]

Index Classifications: 1800s

Motet composers set lines of Ovid’s text that appear in juxtaposition with their respective explanatory glosses, taken from the translation L’Art d’amours. Related proverbs and intertextual refrains serve to comment even more so on Ovid’s original text. Several motet composers used these proverbs and intertextual refrains, and it is likely that these non-Ovidian texts were borrowed from earlier motets rather than a single literary source. Composers who set these texts in motets also appear to have borrowed musical material from each other, though the exact relationship of source and borrowing is not always clear. The current hypothesis is that the motetus voice of Dieus, je fui ja pres de joir / Dieus, je n’i puis la nuit dormir / Et vide et inclina aurem tuam provided the entire textual and musical structure of the Latin double motet Laus tibi salus / Laus tibi virgo / Et vide et inclina aurem tuam. Other motets are discussed in terms of text borrowing, though this borrowing could be between the motets or it could be composers borrowing the same text from the single source, L’Art d’amours.

Works: Anonymous: Cest quadrouble / Vos n’i dormires / Biaus cuers / Fiat (354-60); Anonymous: Laus tibi salus / Laus tibi virgo / Et vide et inclina aurem tuam (358); Anonymous: Ne sai tant / Ja de boine / Portare (364-67).

Sources: Anonymous: Dieus, je fui ja pres de joir / Dieus, je n’i puis la nuit dormir / Et vide et inclina aurem tuam (358-64).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

Many medieval pastourelle songs contain vivid depictions of rape, and there is virtually no medieval criticism of this practice. One pastourelle motet, Hé, Marotele/En la praerie/Aptatur, and its sacred Marian contrafact, Hé, mere Diu/La virge Marie/Aptatur, offer a rare example of musical commentary on and criticism of casual representations of rape in pastourelle songs. In the pastourelle genre, a knight tries to seduce a shepherdess (Marion/Marot) who remains loyal to her shepherd sweetheart Robin. In many songs, the knight then resorts to force, raping Marion. In Hé, Marotele, however, it is Robin, not the knight, who rapes Marot, an extremely unusual twist of genre conventions. This scene is recounted from Robin’s perspective in the triplum and from Marot’s in the motetus. The Marian motet Hé, mere Diu/La virge Marie/Aptatur has a musical setting nearly identical to Hé, Marotele/En la praerie/Aptatur and retains a textual refrain, suggesting that the sacred motet is a contrafact of the secular pastourelle. Thus, the reader is invited to conflate the penitent speaker in Hé, mere Diu with Robin, adding a moral and spiritual dimension to the pastourelle. Robin’s act of rape is cast as sinful and requiring repentance. Adding to this interpretation, the two motets are presented side by side in manuscript Mo, suggesting a narrative of confession: the penitence in the Marian motet is followed by the revelation of the sin in the pastourelle. Contrasting with the apparent indifference toward rape in medieval songs, this contrafact gives one example of unequivocal condemnation.

Works: Anonymous: Hé, mere Diu/La virge Marie/Aptatur (597-606)

Sources: Anonymous: Hé, Marotele/En la praerie/Aptatur (597-606)

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

During the years he was writing to Clara Schumann (1854-56), Johannes Brahms seems to have used musical ciphers and allusions in two of his pieces in much the same way that Robert Schumann used them, as meaningful references to Clara. Brahms compared the character of his Piano Quintet in C Minor, Op. 60, to Goethe's Werther, a man with unrequited love for a married woman, a possible allusion to the scenario between Brahms and Clara. A passage in this quintet also has musical allusions to Beethoven's An Die Ferne Geliebte, a work which Schumann quoted in his own Piano Fantasie, Op. 17, and to Schubert's Am Meer from Schwanengesang. Both songs contain themes of unattainable beauty and hopeless love. Likewise, Brahms's Piano Trio in B Major, Op. 8, contains an allusion to Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto, a work Clara was rehearsing during the time of their correspondence. In this same trio, Brahms also borrowed the C-L-A-R-A cipher from Robert Schumann's Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120, a theme with obvious references to Clara. The work also contains allusions to Schumann's Manfred Overture and Schumann's opera Genoveva, an opera about a man who falls in love with his master's wife.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio in B Major, Op. 8 (432-34), Piano Quintet in C Minor, Op. 60 (432-33); Robert Schumann, Fantasie, Op. 17 (433).

Sources: Beethoven: An Die Ferne Geliebte (432-33), Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58 (433); Schubert: Am Meer (432-33); Robert Schumann: Symphony No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 120 (433), Genoveva (433-34), Manfred Overture (434).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Liszt's youthful work Etude en 12 exercices demonstrates his achievement in the history of the etude, the use of particular idiomatic figurations as markers of genre, and the assembly of these figurations into a unified structure. Within this focus, parallels between Liszt's Etudes and those of his predecessors and contemporaries are discussed. For example, the figurations used in Liszt's Etude No. 2 have a parallel with those in Czerny's No. 28 from his Die Schule der Gelaüfigkeit, Book 3. The parallels between Liszt's etudes and Czerny's are reinforced by their relationship as teacher and pupil. The head motives of Liszt's several etudes in the same collection are modeled on those of Cramer's 84 Etudes. The head motives of Liszt's etudes Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10 correspond to those of Cramer's Nos. 7, 60, 5, 57, and 50, respectively. The several pianistic figurations of particular types associated with "topics" or genres shared between Liszt's etudes and those of other piano composers suggest intertextual connections, as exemplified in the use of operatic sighing thirds, common to Liszt's No. 5, Steibelt?s No. 3 in his Etude en 50 exercices, Cramer?s No. 1 in his Dulce et utile, and others.

Works: Liszt: Etude en 12 exercices (32-34, 42-44).

Sources: Carl Czerny: Die Schule der Gelaüfigkeit (32-33); Johann Baptist Cramer: 84 Etudes (32-34), Dulce et utile (42-44); Daniel Steibelt: Etude en 50 exercices (42-44); Cipriani Potter: Etudes (42-44); Henri Bertini: 25 Etudes Characteristiques (42-44).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Hyun Joo Kim

Although evidence suggests that the pairing of sacred works by Tudor composers was a popular compositional practice, the extensive loss of music from this period makes it difficult to discern to what degree this actually occurred. Of the surviving works that have been paired according to musical or textual similarities, a large number appear to have been written for specific liturgical or government-related celebrations. The sacred works involved in these groupings include cyclic masses, votive antiphons, and Magnificats, and it is the mass-antiphon pairs that have survived in greatest number. The degree to which each pair is related varies greatly, from a pair sharing the same cantus firmus, to a pair containing extensive cross-quotation, to a pair in which the similarities are vague enough to be considered coincidental. A more thorough investigation of techniques and purposes for the grouping of sacred works is needed to determine the historical importance of this practice.

Works: (listed as pairs or groupings): Aston: Missa Te matrem Dei and Te matrem Dei (9, 11); Taverner: Missa Mater Christi and Mater Christi (9, 12), Small Devotion Mass and O Christe Jesu (9, 12); Fayrfax: Missa Albanus and O Maria Deo grata (9, 11); Tallis: Missa Puer natus and Suscipe quaeso (9,12); Fayrfax: Missa O bone Jesu and O bone Jesu (antiphon and Magnificat) (10, 11), Missa Regali ex progenie, Gaude flore virginali, and Regale (10, 11); Tye: Missa Euge bone and Quaesumus omnipotens (10, 12); Ludford: Missa Inclina and Ave Maria ancilla Trinitatis (11), Missa Bendicta et venerabilis and Benedicta (11); Pashe: Missa Christus resurgens and Magnificat (11-12); Tallis: Missa Salve intemerata and Salve intemerata (12).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

The practice of sampling has democratized music production because instrumental dexterity is no longer required in order to produce compositions. The forms of sampling can be broken down into four general areas: sampling recognizable material that calls the listener's attention to its new context; sampling both familiar and arcane sources; a process dubbed "quilt-pop" by Chuck Eddy of the Village Voice, in which a new product is stitched together entirely from samples; and the use of samples to create alternate versions of tracks called "club mixes." Sampling falls into a gray area between the Postmodern aesthetic and the Romantic notion of the autonomous creator. The Copyright Act of 1976 fails to address questions of authorship and ownership which arise in sampling procedures and needs to be amended accordingly.

Works: Public Enemy: Yo! Bum Rush the Show (349), It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (349), Fear of a Black Planet (349); Grandmaster Flash: Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel (350); De La Soul: Transmitting Live from Mars (354); Beastie Boys: Yo Leroy (354); John Oswald: Plunderphonics (358-59).

Sources: James Brown: Funky Drummer (349); Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers (songwriters), Chic (performers): Good Times (350); John Deacon (songwriter), Queen (performers): Another One Bites the Dust (350); Deborah Harry and Chris Stein (songwriters), Blondie (performers): Rapture (350); Sugarhill Gang: 8th Wonder (350); Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five: The Birthday Party (350); Spoonie Gee: Monster Jam (350); Jim McGuinn and Gene Clark (songwriters), The Turtles (performers): You Showed Me (354); Jimmy Castor: The Return of Leroy (Part I) (354).

Index Classifications: General, 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

In Perle's Songs of Praise and Lamentation for chorus and orchestra, the musical borrowings are closely linked to literary references. The work consists of three movements: the first is a setting in Hebrew of Psalm 18, verses 4-15; the second is an a cappella setting of four poems by Rainer Maria Rilke from his Sonnets to Orpheus; and the third sets a poem by John Hollander written for this piece. Perle's style as exemplified in this work rests on his personal theory of twelve-tone modality as well as on the influences of other composers. The work laments the deaths of a number of composers through the use of borrowed music. The borrowings include Gregorian chant, Hebrew chant, and a number of specific works that follow the theme of lamentation. For example, Perle uses Ockeghem's Déploration sur la mort de Binchois, followed by Josquin's La Déploration de Johan Okeghem, followed in turn by Vinders's Lamentatio super morte Josquin de Prés. In the third movement, the roles of poetry and music are woven together most tightly. Hollander's poem refers to past poets as Perle's music refers to composers.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: General, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Scholars have reinforced narrative tropes about Steve Reich's early works at the cost of musical description. Such tropes have discouraged actual description of Reich's techniques of sampling in It's Gonna Rain, and they have obscured Reich's early "structural borrowings" from African music. Scholars often draw connections between Reich's 1968 essay "Music as a Gradual Process" and contemporary aesthetics in art. For instance, when Reich claims that the process and the sounding music "are one and the same thing" this resonates with minimalist aesthetics in art. This aesthetic has become the "myth of minimalism," standing in for actual musical descriptions. In It's Gonna Rain, the process and the sounding music are not equivalent, for, as Reich mentions, when listening to phasing you hear unintended consequences. The many techniques employed in It's Gonna Rain, such as repetition of full statements, phasing, and monophonic sampling, are more analogous to Andy Warhol than to minimalist art. Considering Reich's influence from African music, Reich's "structural borrowing" from African music occurs much earlier in his output than has been acknowledged. Most scholarship only cursorily acknowledges Reich's influence from African music and only after 1971. But Reich's earliest works show the influence of "structural borrowing" from his study of A. M. Jones's transcriptions in Studies in African Music (Oxford University Press, 1959). In works such as Piano Phase or Violin Phase, Reich is borrowing structural features such as a 12/8 meter and non-coinciding downbeats. The principle of non-coinciding downbeats is what led Reich to set the two samples in It's Gonna Rain at different phase relationships. By dismantling the narrative tropes connecting Reich's music to minimalist art and by acknowledging his early study of African music, one comes closer to clarifying his minimalist style.

Works: Steve Reich: It's Gonna Rain (208-11, 213-19, 227, 230, 235-37); Piano Phase (226-27).

Sources: Brother Walter: Recorded sermon; A. M. Jones: African music transcriptions in Studies in African Music (233-36).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Kerry O'Brien

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Mozart's arrangement of Handel's Messiah in 1789 is not a "joyless labor in which Mozart invested a minimum of artistic efforts" as many scholars perceive it. After being commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten, Mozart worked on the arrangement based on the first edition of Handel's score published by Randall and Abell. Mozart's changes fall into four categories: cuts and substitutions; changes of orchestration; addition and alteration of performance indications; and others. Most extensive and significant are the alterations made in orchestration. Mozart minimizes the juxtaposition of soloist and orchestra of the concerto-like dialogue in Handel; alters Handel's inflections by emphasizing important cadences in order to clarify the structure; and adds dynamic markings, bowings, articulations, trills, and tempo changes. All these alterations indicate an underlying logic of Mozart's artistic intention: to transform the outdated style of Baroque music and its performance practice into the musical language of his time in order to suit the taste of the late-eighteenth-century audience.

Works: Mozart: Arrangement of Handel's Messiah K. 572 (132-36, 140-46).

Sources: Handel: Messiah (137-39).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1900s

Interviews with hip-hop deejays, including Mr. Supreme, Domino, Prince Paul, Samson S., and King Otto, reveal that the practice of sampling relies on the practitioner?s ability to "flip a beat," that is, to recast sound material and its meaning. The new juxtaposition of a sample, the internal characteristics of sampled materials, and the relationship between samples within the structure all contribute to the interpretive context for a new recording. Most hip-hop producers interviewed agree that the quality of manipulation is the most important, rather than the quality of the final sound product. A hip-hop producer must preserve, master, and celebrate the ambiguities inherent in sample-based hip-hop.

Works: De La Soul: Say No Go (147-48); Alicia Keys, Jermaine Dupri, and Joshua Thompson (songwriters), Alicia Keys (performer): Girlfriend (151); Guy Berryman, Jon Buckland, Will Champion, and Chris Martin (songwriters), Yesterday's New Quintet (performers): Daylight (158-59); A Tribe Called Quest: Bonita Applebum (158-59).

Sources: Darly Hall, John Oates, and Janna Allen (songwriters), Hall and Oates (performers): I Can't Go For That (147-48); Ol' Dirty Bastard: Brooklyn Zoo (151); Guy Berryman, Jon Buckland, Will Champion, and Chris Martin (songwriters), RAMP (performers): Daylight (158-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

See annotation for chapter "Elements of Style."

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Popular

Index Classifications: 1400s

In the decade following Shostakovich's death, numerous composers wrote musical memorials to him not only as farewell gestures, but also as a way to grapple musically with the continued influence of the best-known of the Soviet composers while navigating the social and cultural developments of "late socialism." Whether in homage or as critiques, these memorials often attempted to recreate Shostakovich's style of composition, either through stylistic allusion or by quoting melodies and motives (the D-S-C-H motive in particular) from Shostakovich's works. These Shostakovich-inspired pieces help define his place in Soviet musical culture at the time of his death by showing how composers viewed him as a man and as the representative of a musical tradition. In DSCH (written six years before Shostakovich's death), Denisov uses the D-S-C-H motive as the foundation for a row and creates a collage juxtaposing his own serial style of composition with quotations from Shostakovich. In an attempt to create a musical dialogue between his music and Shostakovich's, Tishchenko also uses the D-S-C-H motive and quotations in his Symphony No. 5, resulting in a pastiche of some of Shostakovich's best-known works. Schnittke creates a musical lineage reaching back to the sixteenth century, superimposing D-S-C-H and B-A-C-H motives in his Prelude In Memoriam Dmitri Shostakovich. He likewise combines those two motives with quotations from Lasso and Beethoven in his third string quartet.

Works: Edison Denisov: DSCH (305, 308-10); various miniatures from appendix to G. Shneerson's D. Shostakovich: stat'i i materialï (310-13); Mieczysław Weinberg: Symphony No. 12 (314); Boris Tishchenko: Symphony No. 5 (314-18); Alfred Schnittke: Prelude In Memoriam Dmitri Shostakovich (320-322), String Quartet No. 3 (320, 322-27); Valentin Sil'vestrov: Postludium DSCH (329-31).

Sources: Shostakovich: String Quartet No. 8 (309), Symphony No. 8 (315), Symphony No. 10 (315); Orlando di Lasso: Stabat Mater (322-24); Beethoven: Grosse Fugue, Op. 133 (322-24).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Alexis Witt

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In George Crumb's Idyll for the Misbegotten, quotations of Claude Debussy's Syrinx serve many functions. Crumb evokes the morbid mythology of Pan and Syrinx through the quotation, which strengthens his program for Idyll.Syrinx is also used as material upon which Idyll elaborates: Crumb explores pitch structure as implicated by Debussy, composes Idyll in an expanded version of the form of Syrinx, bases tonal functions on the prominent A-Eb tritone in Syrinx, and expands Debussy's exploration of flute technique with numerous special effects. All this leads to an intensification of the innovative elements found in the quoted passage.

Works: Crumb: Idyll for the Misbegotten (171-94).

Sources: Debussy: Syrinx (171-94).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Brent C. Reidy

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Stadlmayr's Missa Fuggi pur se sai, based on Giovanni Gabrieli's secular composition of the same name, is one of four masses that borrow material from other composers, and one of two that borrow from works of Gabrieli. These two works in particular testify to the marked influence of the Venetian school in southern Germany during the first half of the seventeenth century. Both of Stadlmayr's masses based on works of Gabrieli use the original material sparingly. The Missa Fuggi pur se sai illustrates this economy while demonstrating some remarkable inventiveness on the part of Stadlmayr, particularly in his treatment of rhythm. Together, all four masses illustrate that imitation technique was far from being a unified procedure in seventeenth-century compositional practice.

Works: Stadlmayr: Missa Fuggi pur se sai.

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Hanuš Trneček’s solo harp arrangement of Smetana’s Moldau is commonly modified and rearranged in printed editions and live performances. When deciding whether to make changes to the arrangement, a performer should review six considerations: text, historical materials, structure, precedent, pragmatism, and taste. Text and historical materials draw on written authority, while the rest draw on unwritten authority. One common change to Trneček’s arrangement is to restore the final chords to correspond to Smetana’s original, drawing on the textual authority of the orchestral score. A common structural consideration is fixing misprints in the arrangement. Despite Trneček’s arrangement changing the key signature and cutting sections of the original entirely, the precedent set by a century of harp studios is faithful to the abridged version. Pragmatic alterations to orchestral harp parts have a long tradition, and Trneček’s modification of the moonlight passage in Moldau reflects this tradition. Considerations of taste apply to the final pages of Trneček’s arrangement, which replaces Smetana’s gradual decrescendo with loud, virtuosic arpeggios. Harpists can elect to cut some of these arpeggios, perform them as written, or fully commit to the bravura. Ultimately, any arrangement or rearrangement is a means to an end in conveying the celebration and spirit of the music.

Works: Hanuš Trneček: Moldau for solo harp (26-32).

Sources: Bedřich Smetana: Moldau from Má vlast (26-32).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

The film scores of John Williams are best understood with the concept of teleological genesis, and the score for Close Encounters of the Third Kind in particular combines this principle with motivic allusion in order to trigger subconscious associations in the viewer. Teleological genesis, the principle of developing motivic fragments into an extended melodic idea at the culmination of a piece, was first associated with composers such as Mahler and Strauss, but Williams’s film scores operate on essentially the same principle. His score for Close Encounters is an example of this practice with the additional twist of developing two contradictory ideas simultaneously—one of wonder and one of terror—reflecting the ambiguous nature of the aliens. The terror motive alludes to the Dies irae, a common musical symbol of the macabre and (more importantly to the theme of Close Encounters) the apocalypse. However, the Dies irae acts as a musical red herring in Close Encounters, a trick Williams uses again in his score to Home Alone. The wonder motive (“Fate is Kind”) alludes to When You Wish Upon a Star from Disney’s Pinocchio (1940). Williams intended to simply use the original recording from Pinocchio but opted instead to incorporate the tune into a new theme. The allusion is further developed in the revised score for the 1980 Special Edition release of Close Encounters. Williams develops the “Fate is Kind” motive teleologically through the film, merging with the Dies irae theme at key moments to evoke the uncertainty of the final alien encounter. In the end, the score (and film) arrives at the goal and the “Fate is Kind” motive transforms into the famous “Visitors” finale sequence.

Works: John Williams: score to Close Encounters of the Third Kind (104-23), score to War of the Worlds (106), score to Home Alone (107-8)

Sources: Attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (104-8, 112-14); Mykola Leontovych: Carol of the Bells (107-8); Leigh Harline and Ned Washington: When You Wish Upon a Star (108-23)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Many composers have tried to create art music from folk music. These two types of music should not be combined. In his String Quartet Op. 59, No. 2, Beethoven only treated the borrowed Russian folk melody in a fugato-like manner. A melody that is used in a large-scale formal structure must lend itself to developmental processes. A folk melody is complete in itself. This is beautiful music, unlike artificial "folk" melodies which try to represent the spirit of the people, yet result in trivial condescension. A motive, unlike a folk melody, is incomplete; for example, the opening motive of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 must be elaborated and developed to achieve its true character and to exhaust its expression. When folk song is used in a symphony, because the song is already complete, all composers can do is apply techniques of development, such as repetition, transposition, changes of instrumentation, and sequence.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (162).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The presence of parody techniques in The Mass of the Sorbonne proves the practice of parody existed in the 14th century, earlier than previously thought. Identical opening material, common melodic goals, and common main tones, suggest a relationship between the Sorbonne Mass Gloria and Ivrea Credo. The presence of similar motives and staggered sequences in the Benedictus sections, and nearly identical melismas in the tenores suggests the Sorbonne Sanctus and Ivrea Sanctus are also related. The musical insertions, "Salva nos" trope, and old form of writing in the Ivrea Manuscript suggest the composer based his setting on a source that is now lost. The composer adhered to the original source but altered it enough to accommodate a text trope, which he set to a new quadruplum melody. The composer of the Sorbonne, did not use the Ivrea version, but rather parodied the primary source.

Works: Mass of Toulouse, La Messe de Besançon (13-15); Mass of Sourbonne (14-16, 18-20, 25-32, 34-36, 39).

Sources: Gloria Qui sonitu melodie (13); Kyrie Rex Angelorum (16).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

The organ sections of alternatim masses in the fifteenth century are not arrangements of pre-existent polyphonic works but instead involve a newly composed duplum of an instrumental texture set above the Gregorian chant tenor. The organ alternates with the chorus that sings the chant in unison rather than with a polyphonic composition. This process of composition reveals an astonishing originality because the model for organ compositions comes from the organum of the twelfth century, a historical distance of three hundred years. Although it may seem strange that vocal organum could inspire fifteenth century organ music, there is evidence that suggests this vocal idiom was in use over a longer period of time in a number of European regions. There were also phases in the development of the organ mass, the first of which involved an elaborate duplum against the unrhythmical and sustained tenor. In the second stage, the tenor became more rhythmicized as a way of coordinating harmonies but usually only during limited sections of clausulae. The third development is the conductus style in which both voices move in chords, a form that is idiomatic to the instrument.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Johannes Lambuleti is confirmed as the composer of a fourteenth-century fragment initially published in Institut de Musicologie de l’Université Musicologiques, II (1954). This finding supplements a hypothesis offered in the original article, “A Fourteenth Century Parody Mass” by Schrade, published in 1955.

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Stoner

Index Classifications: 1500s

Alfred Hitchcock’s scripts were often driven by a vision of what the audio and visual effects would be, and this starting premise is very perceivable in Shadow of a Doubt. From the very beginning, the plot of the film is linked to visual images of dancing and audio elements of the Waltz from Franz Lehár’s The Merry Widow, although the two do not synchronize and the phrasing becomes distorted. The waltz appears in many guises throughout the film: both as diegetic and nondiegetic music, as well as the textual connection to Uncle Charlie named as the “Merry Widow Murderer.” However, Lehár’s music in the nondiegetic space has been distorted to the point where one could no longer dance to it, resulting in an effect similar to and probably inspired by Ravel’s La Valse that influences the film’s form and structure. The two-part form of Ravel’s piece, in which discordant passages gradually overtake the waltz tune, impacts the film’s form, where everyday, innocent life in a typical American town is gradually darkened and disrupted by a murderer’s presence. Both the diegetic and nondiegetic instances of Merry Widow waltz emphasize this distortion and appear at key points in the narrative, such as young Charlie discovering the identity of her uncle and his death at the end of the film.

Works: Alfred Hitchcock (director): Shadow of a Doubt (101-127), Suspicion (105, 107).

Sources: Franz Lehár: Waltz from The Merry Widow (103-27); Johann Strauss II: Wiener Blut (105); Ravel: La Valse (106-111, 113, 118-19).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

The melodic source material which Haydn uses provides insight into the creative process. Special attention is paid to the sources which Haydn draws upon (either consciously or unconsciously) in the slow introductions and allegro themes of the symphonies written during or after 1785. The use of these sources arises "naturally from [the composer's] storehouse of material in order to create certain effects or types of character." Slow introductions often show the influence of folk songs and hymns. Allegro themes have an affinity with dance music. Haydn draws upon his national heritage to create works of a strong individual cast. Statements by Mahler and Ravel indicate that Haydn is by no means unique in the manifestation of an aesthetic in which national heritage and individual consciousness meet.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 26 (499), Symphony No. 64 (500), Symphony No. 103 (508).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1900s

Many Renaissance composers borrowed musical materials in their compositions. In these cases, the borrowed material is often the first musical idea, offering the opportunity to reconstruct the compositional process. By using modular analysis, analysts can investigate areas where small-scale contrapuntal combinations repeat. Then, the composition can be retraced, informing the analyst on the compositional processes and goals of individual composers. To demonstrate the usefulness of this method of analysis, two Kyrie movements (one by Lassus and one by Palestrina) based on Johannes Lupi’s Je suys desheritée are compared. Lassus used the material to extend the length of the model by inserting new material. Palestrina, on the other hand, aimed for density by squeezing motives from the model together to create a thicker texture.

Works: Lassus: Missa Je suis desheritée; Palestrina: Missa Je suis déshéritée.

Sources: Johannes Lupi: Je suys desheritée.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Devin Chaloux

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The subject of parody procedure in Bach's music has been approached with uneasiness and skepticism by writers for at least the past 100 years. Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century writers, including Rust, Spitta, and Schweitzer, have exhibited a tendency to minimize the extent of Bach's borrowing procedure and to simultaneously reify his status as "Germany's greatest church composer." On the other hand, later twentieth-century scholars, such as Schering, Smend, Neumann, and Finscher, have approached Bach's parody technique more directly, defining its parameters more clearly while attempting explanations which at times assume an apologetic tone. Descriptions of parody procedure in Bach's era, in contrast, tend to be uncritical of it as a method but insist on a skillful application of new text to the existing music. A consideration of parody procedure in Bach's Christmas Oratorio (BWV 248) demonstrates that the joining of the new texts with the older music was carried out with great care. The implications suggested by this work and others for our understanding of Bach's parody procedure are manifold: a number of explanations--including those of economic necessity, "neutrality" of the music with respect to the original text as a prerequisite for parody, and the desire to further elaborate existing material--may be accepted without contradiction as long as an apologetic attitude is not adopted. In the final analysis Bach's borrowing procedure should be seen as a vital method by which a given piece of music is qualitatively elaborated upon.

Works: Bach: Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (9), Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (14-17).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

The invention of digital sampling and its pervasive use in rap music creates problems regarding concepts of authenticity, originality, and ownership that manifest themselves as conflicts with copyright law. The prevailing legal attitude towards sampling considers it to be intellectual thievery as well as simply lacking in artistic merit due to the absence of creative "originality." However, according to the theories of Walter Benjamin, in the age of modern reproduction there exist no originals, only a "plurality of copies." This, in conjunction with the fact that all popular music is a product of technological alteration and production, makes the concept of "authentic music" that exists in a pure, unaltered form an illusion. This illusive concept is widely accepted in western Anglo society and forms the basis of current copyright laws. However, it stands in stark contrast to the practice of "Signifyin(g)" that forms the basis of Black discourse in which meaning largely depends on the "intertextual referencing of previous texts." This institutionalized belief in the illusion of "authentic" and "original" music helps to perpetuate the use of authorial designations to reinforce positions of social power as described by Foucault. In addition, control of capital is affected by this concept as the legal system relies heavily on profitability in making decisions of copyright violation.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Despite the bitter press rivalries between the devotees of Brahms and Wagner, the two composers had a complicated artistic and personal relationship to one another, and they held each other’s music in high regard. Wagner’s 1863 visit to Vienna almost certainly triggered the creation of Brahms’s most “operatic” composition, the cantata Rinaldo, for tenor, men’s chorus, and orchestra. The plot, characters, and musical language of Brahms’s cantata share close similarities with works like Tannhäuser and Tristan und Isolde, and some sections heavily borrow techniques associated with the “New German School.” Nevertheless, Brahms’s engagement with Wagnerian devices in Rinaldo is limited. Much of the cantata maintains close ties to the styles of Beethoven and Schumann, and the “Wagnerian” music is mainly associated with the witch Armida and Rinaldo’s enslavement, rather than his heroism. Furthermore, while the male heroes of Wagner’s operas are often redeemed through a woman’s love, the titular hero of Rinaldo is saved through self-reflection and male comradery, as represented through the robust and forceful music of Brahms’s style. This latter point may reflect the anxieties Brahms felt over perceived “feminine” qualities in Wagner’s music and Wagner himself, which challenged his own sense of masculinity. Just as Rinaldo escapes Armida’s clutches through male companionship and Brahms’s virile music, Brahms himself uses Rinaldo to confront the influence of Wagner’s music, only to overcome it with a reassertion of his own individual style and masculinity in the cantata’s final chorus.

Works: Brahms: Rinaldo, Op. 50.

Sources: Wagner: Tannhäuser (67-70, 72-73, 78-79), Lohengrin (74-76), Tristan und Isolde (76-79); Beethoven: Fidelio, Op. 72 (67, 72).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1800s

In his Kinderhymne (1950/51), Hanns Eisler borrows from both the German national anthem (Deutschland, Deutschland über alles) and the East-German national anthem (Auferstanden aus Ruinen), which Eisler composed in 1949. According to Schutte, the listener not only should know what pieces the composer is quoting, but also should be aware of their historical background, since both aspects determine the intentions of a composition. The first part of the Kinderhymne alludes to both anthems, of which the melodic similarities in the opening measures prevent a clear distinction. In the course of the composition the origins of the opening measures are revealed: a direct quotation from the East-German anthem is combined with "intended" (obvious although not exact) quotations from the German anthem. By applying this technique, Eisler refers to the German anthem as a tradition that is taken over by East-Germany not in its original from but as a basis to create something new. Schutte compares Eisler's Kinderhymne with Stockhausen's Hymnen (composed 1967), another work including national anthems. In the second "region" (movement), Stockhausen combines the German anthem with fragments of the Horst-Wessel-Lied (the Nazi anthem). Although these quotations are "disturbed" by noise and electronic sounds, they always remain clearly recognizable. According to Schutte, Stockhausen's Hymnen therefore lack any sense of consciousness of tradition, and the fact that he places hymns standing for historical progress on the same level as the Horst-Wessel-Lied characterizes him as a "helplessly unpolitical composer."

Works: Eisler: Kinderhymne; Stockhausen: Hymnen (214-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The rise of musical publishing and the lack of copyright laws in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century strongly encouraged the practice of arranging. Beethoven was an active arranger of his own works, especially those of his early period. He would make unsolicited offers of his adaptations to publishers but would also assume the right to refuse a request for one if so desired. His personal reluctance to arrange works of others did not deter him from seeking the help of others in arranging his own works when time or interest was wanting, but he demanded control over the arranger and the manner of arranging. The criteria for acceptance or rejection of the arrangement were based on the abilities of the arranger. His most satisfactory relationship with a freelance arranger was that with Czerny.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1900s

The fourth movement of Schubert's Piano Sonata in A major, D. 959 (1828), is closely related to the third movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in G major, Op. 31, No. 1 (1802), which Schubert knew. Similarities between the two Allegretto finales are visible in the formal structure of the opening theme, the partial chromaticism of the thematic material, some rhythmic patterns, harmonic progressions, and overall form. Another conscious borrowing occurs in Schubert's Grand Rondeau in A major for piano four hands, D. 951, which is based on the second movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor, Op. 90; in this case, unlike the previous one, Schubert composed a work that differed considerably in emotional expression from Beethoven's, despite similarities in form. There is also a less obvious parallel between the second movements of Schubert's Piano Trio in E flat major, D. 929, and Beethoven's Piano Trio in D major, Op. 70, No. 1.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Index Classifications: 1700s

Scholars have long debated over the true evolution of the practice of fauxbourdon. They argue over whether it was a reproduction of an English method of cantus supra librum, or if it was conceived independently on the continent. The technique first appeared in the Communion of Dufay's Missa Sancti Jacobi, and the term "faburden" was in use in England by 1430. It evolved from a tradition of improvised polyphony in England that involved three voices singing in a primarily parallel style. The borrowed cantus firmus appeared in the middle voice, a technique that sets English practice apart from the continental one, where the cantus firmus appears in the treble. Musicians on the continent used and modified faburden, with similar aural results. Two written examples in the Old Hall manuscript are exceptions that prove the rule that faburden was an improvisatory technique. O lux beata Trinitas uses the plainchant in the middle voice transposed up a fifth and in a rhythmically flexible manner, with the outer voices lightly ornamented. In the Gloria trope Spiritus procedens, the chant is paraphrased untransposed in the middle voice. Thus, pieces using fauxbourdon exhibit the characteristics of faburden, proving the English origin of the practice.

Works: Dufay: Missa Sancti Jacobi (345); Binchois: Te Deum (351); Anonymous: O lux beata Trinitas (352); Gloria trope: Spiritus procedens (352); Credo: Conditor alme siderum (352); Anonymous: Te Deum (352).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Rebecca Dowsley

Amid the general discussion of the various forms that indebtedness can take (Handel is most specifically discussed), the article questions composers' frequent use of "familiar phrases": Was Wagner aware that the opening notes or intervals from the prelude to Tristan had already been used by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann, and Liszt? The main interest focuses on various and sundry quotations, merely citing examples by well-known composers, while no real connection between the quotations is apparent.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2 (504-06), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (503); Wagner: "Anvil" motive from the Ring (504-05); Brahms: Symphony in C Minor (505), Piano Quartet in G Minor (505); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique) (506); Liszt: Dante Symphony (507); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (502, 507); Mozart: Don Giovanni (508); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (508); Brahms: Unüberwindlich (509); Elgar: "The Music Makers," from Enigma Variations (509); Mackenzie: London Day by Day Suite (509), Dream of Jubal (509); Puccini: Madame Butterfly (509); Richard Strauss: Elektra (498); Bach: Wachet, betet (504), Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss (504), Uns ist ein Kind geboren (504), St. John Passion (504), St. Matthew Passion (504).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

After its premiere in Leningrad in 1956, Aram Khachaturian’s ballet Spartacus was reworked three times for the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow under three choreographers during the cultural and artistic upheavals of the Thaw. The three versions of the ballet reflect the ideological shifts in the Soviet government, particularly regarding the relationship between the various nationalities of the USSR. The libretto for Spartacus was developed in 1933 by Nikolai Volkov as a Socialist Realist ballet, linking Spartacus to the revolutionary Bolsheviks. Aram Khachaturian did not complete the score until 1954 but composed in the grandiose Socialist Realist style of the 1930s and 1940s. Khachaturian uses a Russian style for the depiction of the slaves, linking their struggle with the Russian revolution, while side characters are given more orientalist material. Earlier versions of the ballet reflect the Soviet Union’s stance on supporting multi-ethnic revolutions, particularly in Korea and Vietnam. Moiseyev in 1958 kept the grandiosity of Khachaturian’s score, choreographing a huge cast in several ethnic styles of dance. Most of Khachaturian’s 1954 score was preserved, although the finale had to be minorly reworked. Yakobson’s 1962 choreography attempted to recreate the aesthetic of ancient Greek and Roman artwork in the dance and staging. In several key scenes, Yakobson spliced together different parts of Khachaturian’s score to add drama to the production, even going so far as to set the invasion of the Spartakans to Khachaturian’s crucifixion music, angering the composer. Grigorovich in 1968 made the most substantial changes to the score. In focusing dramatic attention to the four lead roles, Grigorovich abandoned the ethnic diversity of the ensemble cast. He also drastically recomposed the ballet score, rearranging and recasting many dances. The exoticized dances were significantly reworked to underscore the actions of the slave ensemble rather than showcase the multi-ethnic cast. This reworking corresponds with Khrushchev’s and Brezhnev’s attempted transformation of Soviet society from a multi-ethnic state to a supra-ethnic one. Incidentally, Grigorovich’s choreography won the best critical reception of the three versions. Despite the departure from Khachaturian’s original score, most new productions of Spartacus use Grigorovich’s rearranged version. Spartacus and its revisions demonstrate how Soviet artists continued to produce compelling works in agreement with state politics even during the Thaw.

Works: Aram Khachaturian, Igor Moiseyev (choreographer): Spartacus (1958) (375-80); Aram Khachaturian, Leonid Yakobson (choreographer): Spartacus (1962) (380-88); Aram Khachaturian, Yuri Grigorovich (choreographer): Spartacus (1968) (388-97)

Sources: Aram Khachaturian: Spartacus (1954) (375-97)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Counter to the common scholarly dismissal of Sergei Rachmaninov’s music as unsophisticated kitsch, a new interpretation of his symphonic poem Isle of the Dead—contextualized by the myth of Orpheus and psychoanalytic theory—reveals it to be a subversive psychological drama. The affinity between musical modernity and the Orpheus myth is well established, and the Orphic role of re-enchanting the world was particularly potent in late imperial Russia. Post-revolution, Rachmaninov can be understood as a Russian Orpheus figure whose music adopts an ethic of mourning, exemplified in Isle of the Dead. The 1909 symphonic poem, inspired by a reproduction of Arnold Böcklin’s painting, is best understood as using a rotational form, with three musical ideas recycled through four broad rotations. The first idea is the river ostinato, perhaps evoking Charon’s oar in the river Styx. The second idea is the borrowed Dies irae motive. The third idea is a languishing chromatic gesture. The Dies irae motive serves as the germinal idea for the telos of the piece. At the center of the of the piece is a lyrical B section that can be understood through Adorno’s concept of Durchbruch, a epiphanic moment of interruption and reversal. Mapped onto the Orpheus myth, this section is Orpheus’s rescue of Euridice. Following this section, the menacing Dies irae erupts once more in the final apotheosis of the motive. In psychoanalytic terms, the piece moves from desire to drive with the inciting fantasy (the Durchbruch section) appearing late and forcing a rehearing of the music. It also synthesizes the psychoanalytic insight that the apparently vain efforts of grief are in fact the agents of subjective catharsis.

Works: Rachmaninov: Isle of the Dead (199-209)

Sources: Attributed to Thomas of Celano: Dies irae (199-209)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Within an overall discussion of Handel's 1720 publication Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1, similarities in style and notation are noted with Muffat's Componimenti musicali.

Works: Handel: Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1.

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (140).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The Beastie Boys’ Paul’s Boutique (1989) and Public Enemy’s Fear of a Black Planet (1990) are often compared for their abundant digital sampling, but these two albums use sampling in markedly different ways. This difference is evident with the introduction of a more systematic typology of digital sampling practices in hip-hop. In this new typology, there are three main types of samples: structural, surface, and lyric. Within the structural type—a looped sample that creates the groove of the track—there are four subtypes depending on which elements of the sample are used in the new track: percussion only, intact, non-percussion, and aggregate. While both Public Enemy and the Beastie Boys frequently use the aggregate structural type, the individual component samples are layered in Public Enemy’s grooves and alternating in the Beastie Boys’. Surface samples punctuate a track’s groove outside of the primary loop and can be momentary, emphatic, or constituent. Differing from the Beastie Boys’ style, momentary surface samples pervade tracks by Public Enemy, whose producers often create collages and quodlibets. Lyric samples add spoken or sung text from a source and can be singular or recurring. When using lyric samples, the Beastie Boys typically treat them as substitutions, preserving the rhyme scheme and meaning of their own rapped text. Public Enemy do not avoid substitutions, but more often treat lyric samples as additive, part of the groove and not replacing rapped text. Genre and race considerations also reveal meaningful differences between the Beastie Boys’ and Public Enemy’s sampling techniques. By analyzing Paul’s Boutique and Fear of a Black Planet with this typology, it is clear that there are rich possibilities in sampling a shared genre, artist, or track, and that close listening is fundamental in hip-hop production.

Works: Beastie Boys (Michael Diamond, Adam Horovitz, and Adam Yauch, performers), Dust Brothers (Mike Simpson and John King, producers): Johnny Ryall (36-37), Shake Your Rump (40), B-Boy Bouillabaisse (40-41); Public Enemy (Chuck D, Flavor Flav, Professor Griff, and Terminator X, performers), The Bomb Squad (Chuck D, Eric Sadler, Hank Shocklee, and Keith Shocklee, producers): 911 is a Joke (34-35), Anti-N—r Machine (38-39), Welcome to the Terrordome (39-40)

Sources: Lyn Collins: Think (34-35, 38-39); Wilbur Bascomb: Feel Like Dancing (34-35); Sound Experience: Devil with the Bust (34-35); Mico Wave: Misunderstood (34-35); Parliament: Flash Light (34-35, 38-39); Donny Hathaway: Magnificent Sanctuary Band (36-37); Paul McCartney: Momma Miss America (36-37); David Bromberg: Sharon (36-37); Grandwizard Theodore and Kevie Kev Rockwell: Military Cut-Scratch Mix (36-37); Salt ’n’ Pepa: My Mike Sounds Nice (38-39); Malcolm McLaren: Buffalo Gals (38-39); Zapp: More Bounce to the Ounce (38-39); Herman Kelly and Life: Dance to the Drummer’s Beat (38-39); Diana Ross and the Supremes: Love Child (38-39); Dyke and the Blazers: We Got More Soul (38-39); Schooly D: PSK—What Does it Mean? (38-39); Fab Five Freddy and Beside: Change the Beat (38-39); Pleasure: Let’s Dance (38-39); The 45 King: The 900 Number (38-39); Boogie Down Productions: South Bronx (38-39); Rufus Thomas: Funky Hot Grits (38-39); James Brown: Get Up, Get into It, Get Involved (39-40); Foxy: Get Off Your Aahh and Dance (40); Johnny Cash: Folsom Prison Blues (40-41)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Louis Moreau Gottschalk’s Symphonie romantique: la nuit des tropiques (1859) and À Montevideo: 2me symphonie-romantique pour grand orchestre (1868) reflect his politics of pan-American republicanism. In his writing, Gottschalk expressed a desire to see republicanism flourish in South America, a position informed in part by contemporary US cultural expansionism into Latin America. With his many concert tours to Latin American countries, Gottschalk saw himself as a musical diplomat, contributing to the moral uplift of the region. Gottschalk composed Symphonie romantique in Matouba, French Antilles in 1859, and the work premiered later that year in Cuba. With its blending of Cuban music (the cinquillo rhythm pervades the symphony), European art music, and American vernacular music (including a quotation of Foster’s Camptown Races), Symphonie romantique offers a musical ideal for an Americanized Cuba. À Montevideo, composed for a music festival in Montevideo, Uruguay, expresses a similar subtle imperialism. In its finale, Gottschalk quotes the Uruguayan national anthem alongside Hail, Columbia, and Yankee Doodle, presenting the pan-American ideal of Uruguay and the United States side by side. In many ways, Gottschalk’s pan-Americanism in Latin America was similar to nineteenth-century German universalism in the United States. Both presented an ideology of supranationalism and moral edification through music, and both emerged as a product of distinctly nationalist ideologies.

Works: Louis Moreau Gottschalk: The Battle of Bunker Hill (445), Symphonie romantique (455-62), À Montevideo: 2me symphonie-romantique pour grand orchestra (462-65)

Sources: Francis Smith (lyricist): America (My Country ’Tis of Thee) (445); Anonymous: Yankee Doodle (445, 463-65); Philip Phile (composer) and Joseph Hopkins (lyricist): Hail, Columbia (445, 463-65); Felix Mendelssohn: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Op. 21 (458); Stephen Foster: Camptown Races (461); Francisco José Debali (composer) and Francisco Acuña de Figueroa (lyricist): ¡Orientales, la patria o la tumba! (Himno Nacional de Uruguay) (463-65)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1500s

The standard biographies of Schubert are silent about the events that occurred between March and July of 1824. Two works for piano four hands from this period, the Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 and the Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat major, D. 813, respectively quote from Beethoven's Second and Seventh Symphonies. Schubert is shown to have been present at the Kärntnertor Theatre on the evening of May 7, 1824 when Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was premiered, and Schubert was moved enough to pay tribute to Beethoven in his next two pieces for piano duet mention above. Although transformed into Schubertian sentiments, the borrowed ideas show unmistakably his allegiance to Beethoven's symphonic model. Schubert's quotation of the "Freude" theme from the Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in his "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (1825), provides further evidence that Schubert was present at the Ninth's first performance since the score was only published in 1826.

Works: Schubert: Gran Duo in C Major, D. 812 (421-25, 31), Eight Variations on an Original Theme in A-flat Major, D.813 (421-22, 26-29, 31-32), "Great" C major Symphony, D. 944 (432-434).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Bizet's Symphony in C was composed in 1855 but was not performed until 1935. The symphony has often been cited as being reminiscent of earlier composers' music. Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Rossini, Schubert, Mozart, and even Brahms (!) have been mentioned. Bizet in fact wrote his symphony with a specific model in mind, the Symphony in D by his teacher and friend Gounod. Almost all of the conspicuous features of the Bizet can be traced back to Gounod. Gounod's symphony had been a great hit in Paris, and this may indicate that Bizet chose not to have his symphony performed upon completing it for fear of being charged with imitation. Bizet did quote a fragment of his symphony in his opera Don Procopio. (He also quoted this opera in two later operas, Les Pêcheurs de perles and La jolie fille de Perth.)

Works: Bizet: Symphony in C Major (462), Don Procopio (474), Les Pêcheurs de perles (474), La jolie fille de Perth (474).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

In the late seventeenth century, Henry Aldrich "translated" many sacred Latin compositions by Palestrina, Carissimi, Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, and others into English, for use in Anglican Church services. Aside from changing the language, Aldrich "naturalized" the Italian works by adapting the musical settings to fit into contemporary English practice. These changes included the removal of melismas, use of alternate textures, and changing modality into tonality, as well as adding choral punctuations to the motets of Carissimi. Aldrich's recompositions were inspired by the theories of imitatio that were manifest in the English educational system of the 1600s.

Works: John Aldrich: We have heard with our ears (392-94), Hold not thy tongue (394-96), I am well pleased (396-400).

Sources: Giovanni di Pierluigi da Palestrina: Doctor bonus (392-94), Nativitas tua (394-96); Giacomo Carissimi: Praevaluerunt in nos, Vidi impium (396-400).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Charles Burney, in his 1789 History of Music, appears to have been the first person to make note of Handel's borrowings. This, in turn, inspired William Crotch, in Substance of Several Courses of Lectures on Music (1831), to identify some twenty-nine composers from whom Handel borrowed. After reviewing the literature to date on the subject, examples are cited for all but six of the composers listed by Crotch. In several cases, the borrowings were not from specific composers but rather from a common repertory of familiar figures used by many composers. For the most part, Crotch feels that Handel's borrowings constitute "improvements" over the originals.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Agrippina, "L'alma mia frà le tempeste ritrover spera il suo porto" (596), Solomon, "Music spread thy voice around" (597), Solomon, "From the censer" (598), Chaconne in G (597), Susanna, "Virtue shall never long be oppressed" (598), Triumph of Time and Truth, "Comfort them, O Lord" (598), Suite in F (598).

Sources: Antonio Cesti: "Cara dolce libertà" (596); Agostino Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (597); Henry Purcell: "Saul and the Witch of Endor" (597); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (597); Johann Kuhnau: Frische Clavier Früchte, Sonata I (598), Neue Clavier-‹bung (598); Antonio Lotti: Mass (Latrobe, No. 16), "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Antonio Caldara: Mass a 5, "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer: Fugue (598); William Croft: Musicus Apparatus Academicus, "Laurus cruentas" (598).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Musical allusions in contemporary postmodern operas are often meaningful and symbolic, shaping audience understanding of characters, plot points, and the work’s relationship to the history of opera. Three stylistically divergent operas—John Adams’s Nixon in China (1987), Louis Andriessen’s La Commedia (2008), and Thomas Adès’s The Exterminating Angel (2016)—demonstrate that allusion-making is rarely just a postmodern game. Postmodern operas that engage in extensive collage, notably John Cage’s five Europeras (1987–91) and John Coriglioni’s The Ghosts of Versailles (1987/1991), address the continuing presence of the operatic past. This approach is extended by later postmodern composers who work extensively in the opera genre. Despite Adams’s claims that Nixon in China is not a work of political satire, his score often undermines characters with satirical effect through musical allusions, particularly to works by Wagner and Stravinsky. Andriessen’s multimedia opera La Commedia alludes to a wide variety of composers and styles (including Stravinsky, Ravel, Wagner, Bebop jazz, nursery rhymes, and twentieth-century medievalism) in degrees of salience ranging from near quotation to suggested resemblance. While the rapid style shifts suggest an air of ironic detachment, Andriessen’s allusions to Fauré’s Requiem (and other requiems) offer a more personal, melancholic sentiment. Likewise, the allusions in Adès’s The Exterminating Angel meaningfully contribute to its surrealist atmosphere by acting as a “force field,” trapping the characters within the confines of the opera. Musical allusions also appear in operas by composers not known for musical borrowing; Philip Glass’s Akhnaten (1983), Shara Nova’s YOU US WE ALL (2013/2015), and Missy Mazzoli’s Song from the Uproar (2012) all contain allusions to Baroque operas. The frequency of allusions in contemporary operas, along with the self-consciousness of opera as a genre, walk a fine line between rewarding knowledgeable audience members and inadvertently suggesting that the genre is out of new ideas.

Works: John Cage: Europeras nos. 1–5 (220-21); John Corigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles (221-26); John Adams: Nixon in China (225-34); Louis Andriessen: La Commedia (234-53); Thomas Adès: The Exterminating Angel (253-59); Philip Glass: Akhnaten (261-63); Shara Nova: YOU US WE ALL (262-67); Missy Mazzoli: Song from the Uproar (266-69).

Sources: Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni (221), Le nozze di Figaro (222-23); Rossini: L’italiana in Algeri (223), Il barbiere di Siviglia (224); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (223, 244), Siegfried (227-29), Das Rheingold (230-31), Parsifal (233-34); Traditional: Marlbrough s’en va-t-en guerre (223-34); Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 2 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 10 (224-26); Richard Strauss: Salome (227-29, 258-60); John Stafford Smith (composer), Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (230-31); Stravinsky: Perséphone (232-33, 240-41), The Rite of Spring (232-33, 244), Requiem Canticles (250-52); Olivier Messiaen: Turangalîla-Symphonie (243-44); Benjamin Britten: Curlew River (244); Puccini: Madama Butterfly (244); Leonard Bernstein: West Side Story (245-47); Charlie Parker: Bird of Paradise/All the Things You Are (245-47); Maurice Ravel: Introduction et allegro (245-47), La valse (255-57); Claude Debussy: Claire de lune (245-47); Gabriel Fauré: Requiem (247-50); Andrew Lloyd Webber: Requiem (252); J. S. Bach: Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208 (256, 259), Well-Tempered Clavier (264-65); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (258); Monteverdi: L’incoronazione di Poppea (261-63), Orfeo (264, 265); Purcell: Dido and Aeneas (268-69).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Music is used in American World War II films in several ways as a vehicle for anti-Japanese propaganda, offering new perspectives on musical exoticism at it relates to representing the Japanese people and Japanese music. The goal of World War II propaganda films, produced by Hollywood and the U. S. Government, was to convince soldiers and civilians of the necessity of fighting the evil enemy. The Japanese enemy was constructed using Orientalist stereotypes, including musical stereotypes drawn from European music, Orientalist signs for Japan, and actual Japanese music or imitations thereof. Russian immigrant film composer Dimitri Tiomkin used Russian concert music, particularly excerpts of The Rite of Spring, to accompany scenes of Japanese violence in several films he scored, drawing on primitivist associations with that repertoire. Other films rely on a stable of musical tropes to evoke the Japanese enemy including loud, low brass instruments, pentatonic scales, and gongs. These tropes were adapted primarily from music associated with Native Americans in Hollywood westerns. World War II propaganda films are also remarkably intertextual, with shots and even full scenes repurposed several times. Depictions of Japanese folk music are generally confined to films meant to instruct G.I.s on Japanese culture—a necessarily distorted image of it—and are rarely heard in Hollywood films. Anti-Japanese propaganda, shaped in large part by Orientalist music, had a lasting effect on American perceptions of Japanese people and culture after the war, even as Hollywood attempted to counter these messages in the following decades.

Works: Frank Capra (director), Alfred Newman (musical director): score to Prelude to War (314-18); Dimitri Tiomkin: score to The Battle of China (318-21), score to Know Your Enemy—Japan (318-21); Alfred Newman: score to The Purple Heart (344-347)

Sources: Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen (314-18); Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring (318-21); Modest Mossorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (318-19); Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi: Kimigayo (344-47)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Documents from the Gonzaga Archives in Mantua demonstrate that Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, was a composer of some repute who produced madrigals, motets, and magnificats. Letters reveal the publication and reception history of these works, including instances of musical borrowing. Gonzaga’s madrigals and motets have been identified with two anonymous collections that were published in 1583 by Gardane of Venice. The madrigals were utilized by Ludovico Agostini and Girolamo Belli d’Argenta in their own collections, Lagrime del peccatore (1586) and Furti amorisi (1587), respectively. Because Agostini and Belli attributed these borrowings to Gonzaga, their compositions further strengthen assertions by Einstein and Gallico, among other scholars, that the anonymous works published by Gardane are indeed by Gonzaga.

Works: Ludovico Agostini: Lagrime del peccatore (121-22); Girolamo Belli d’Argenta: Furti amorisi (122).

Sources: Guglielmo Gonzaga: Padre che’l ciel (120-22), Madrigals (122).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Francis Poulenc’s frequent use of self-allusion is a structural component of his musical aesthetic, and a queer reading of this practice reveals the interrelation between his musical allusions and autobiographic analyses of his music. Queer discourse, invoking sexual minority, semantic slippage, performative reclamation, and historical reenactment, is a powerful critical tool for analyzing musical self-reference. Poulenc’s Ier Nocturne (1929/30) includes examples of self-allusion that can be understood more fully in this way. The nocturne evokes melodic themes from Poulenc’s earlier works, specifically Concert champêtre and Aubade, which in turn reference notions of pastoral childhood. Poulenc often uses pastoral modes in his music to safely express and reflect on his queer sexuality. Poulenc later alludes to a chromatic sequence in the coda of Ier Nocturne in Les Soirées de Nazelles and in Dialogues des carmélites, where it is the musical motive for Blanche’s spiritual transformation. Relistening to Ier Nocturne with the pastoral references and coda interpreted as spiritual awakening as in Dialogues yields a musical “coming out” narrative. This interpretation brings up issues of historical queer representation and aesthetics of concealment and personal memory. Jean Cocteau’s novel Le Livre blanc and Marcel Proust’s novel Sodome et Gamorrhe exhibit aesthetics of queer self-representation similar to Poulenc’s nocturne. Although Ier Nocturne benefits from this mode of listening, the process of engaging in queer analysis of Poulenc’s work is itself a process of self-allusion and reference and reflects Poulenc’s deferral of a totalizing interpretation.

Works: Poulenc: Ier Nocturne (201-9, 214-21), Les Soirées de Nazelles (209-11), Dialogues des carmélites (211-13)

Sources: Poulenc: Concert champêtre (203-5), Aubade (205-7), Ier Nocturne (209-13)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Ben Johnston’s Fourth String Quartet was commissioned by the Fine Arts Quartet and was completed in the summer of 1973. This centric work has only one movement, a theme and variations form on the traditional American hymn Amazing Grace. The fusion of this borrowed material and the heterogeneous composition in its entirety creates a unified effect that seems to be highly influenced by the mature works of Ives. At the beginning of the work the hymn is presented in such a way that, harmonically, fifths and fourths seem to be the only intervals treated as consonant, while all other intervals are handled as non-harmonic tones. The Pythagorean ratios created by these intervals are 3:2 (fifths) and 4:3 (fourths). In the ensuing variations, Johnston introduces several new proportions and applies them to different rhythmic layers and harmonic intervals in a variety of ways. This combination of the old—a form that is anachronistic—and the new—cutting edge compositional techniques based on proportions—creates a unique and fascinating composition that is easier to comprehend than most “modern” music. Furthermore, Johnston’s positive attitude towards the past, as exhibited by his Fourth String Quartet, might be regarded as homage to his mentor, Harry Partch.

Works: Ben Johnston: Fourth String Quartet.

Sources: John Newton and William Cowper: Amazing Grace (149-59).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Chelsea Hamm

Index Classifications: 1900s

The 1854 version of Brahms’s Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8, is recognized as containing allusions to Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte and Schubert’s Schwanengesang, but a third, thus far unacknowledged allusion to Domenico Scarlatti’s Sonata in C Major, K. 159, is also present in the trio. This allusion supports the program proposed in existing scholarship, but it also suggests a new reading of Brahms mourning the loss of the musical past. Throughout the trio, but most clearly at the climax of the first movement, Brahms references Scarlatti’s sonata and develops the borrowed themes. Brahms’s own composed themes in the trio are also constructed to develop into the near-quotation of Scarlatti’s sonata. Contextual evidence for this Scarlatti allusion comes from Brahms’s longstanding championing of Scarlatti’s music in his writings and performances. The allusions to Beethoven and Schubert both refer to songs on the theme of distant or lost love. Although Scarlatti’s sonata is not based on a text, the particular way Brahms uses the borrowed material suggests distance by distorting Scarlatti’s theme to the edge of unrecognizability. The theme of distant love in the trio is often interpreted as a secret program referring to Brahms’s romantic longing for Clara Schumann. The presence of the Scarlatti reference suggests an alternate program of Brahms paying homage to music of the past. In 1889, Brahms extensively revised the trio, eliminating the allusions to Beethoven, Schubert, and Scarlatti. Scholars have interpreted this removal as Brahms attempting to hide his past feelings toward Schumann. Acknowledging the Scarlatti allusions as well, this removal can be interpreted as Brahms coming to terms with his place in music history and the evolution of his complicated relationship to music of the past.

Works: Brahms: Piano Trio No. 1 in B Major, Op. 8 (1854 version) (63-78)

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte (63-65); Schubert: Schwanengesang (64-65); Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata in C Major, K. 159 (65-78)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Corigliano's opera is a prime example of camp, using allusion and quotation to present a parody-like interpretation of the history of opera. Hoffman and Corigliano have created an opera within an opera with a mixture of both fictional and historical characters. The fictional characters represent principal buffa characters from various operas by Mozart and Rossini. Corigliano creates a larger allusion to the history of opera by composing in a style that recalls the operas of Mozart, Rossini, and Verdi. At times, he even quotes from specific operas to allude to a Mozartian opera that, though it was never written, would be firmly placed in the grand history of opera between The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni. This quotation of an allusion is placed into a new field of musical borrowing defined in the writings of Jean Baudrillard as simulacrum. Parody, allusion, and quotation are further supported with a cameo appearance of Marilyn Horne in a role that alludes to a previous character she popularized in the 1980s. This camp sensibility adds another dimension to Corigliano's opera as a history of the past opera and a possible future of opera.

Works: Corigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles (117-32).

Sources: Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (117-18, 121-28); Rossini: The Barber of Seville (117, 121); Verdi: Il Trovatore (119, 121-23).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Altizer

Recent film sound tracks that consist of previously recorded material are used with the assumption that the audience will recognize the style, if not the specific artist or song. The use of such music affects the feeling of youthful nostalgia in the nostalgia film genre. For example, in American Graffiti, music is the most important element of the production of nostalgia, even though it gives an idealized picture of music from the 1950s. American Graffiti also established a new model in which popular music is used without a clear differentiation between diegetic and non-diegetic music.

Works: Works: Mike Nichols (director): Sound track to The Graduate (37-38); Dennis Hopper (director): Sound track to Easy Rider (38-39); George Lucas (director): Sound track to American Graffiti (39-42); Lawrence Kasdan (director): Sound track to The Big Chill (43-44); Emile Ardolino (director): Sound track to Dirty Dancing (45-48); John Sayles (director): Sound track to Baby, It's You (48-49).

Sources: Sources: Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel: Sounds of Silence (37), April Come She Will (37-38), Scarborough Fair/Canticle (37-38); Dennis Edmonton [Mars Bonfire] (songwriter), Steppenwolf (performers): Born to be Wild (38); Hoyt Axton (songwriter), Steppenwolf (performers): The Pusher (38); Chuck Berry: Johnny B. Goode (41); Brian Wilson and Mike Love (songwriters), The Beach Boys (performers): Surfin' Surfari [Surfin' Safari] (41); Arthur Singer, John Medora, and David White: At the Hop (41); Max C. Freedman and James E. Myers [Jimmy De Knight] (songwriters), Bill Haley and the Comets (performers): Rock around the Clock (42); Hoyt Axton (songwriter), Three Dog Night (performers): Joy to the World (43); Brian Wilson and Tony Asher (songwriters), The Beach Boys (performers): Wouldn't It Be Nice? (43); Mick Jagger and Keith Richards (songwriters), The Rolling Stones (performers): You Can't Always Get What You Want (43); Phil Spector, Jeff Barry, and Ellie Greenwich (songwriters), The Ronettes (performers): Be My Baby (45); Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio (songwriters), The Four Seasons (performers): Big Girls Don't Cry (45); Berry Gordy, Jr. (songwriter), The Contours (performers): Do You Love Me? (45); Maurice Williams (songwriter), Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs (performers): Stay (45); Otis Redding: These Arms of Mine (45), Love Man (45); Gerry Goffin and Carole King (songwriters), The Shirelles (performers): Will You Love Me Tomorrow? (47); Al Kooper: (I Heard Her Say) Wake Me, Shake Me (49); Lou Reed (songwriter), The Velvet Underground (performers): Venus in Furs (49).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

George Crumb’s setting of When Johnny Comes Marching Home in his 2004 Winds of Destiny: A Cycle of Civil War Songs, Folk Songs, and Spirituals can be understood in the context of memorialization as a manifestation of public memory that challenges some aspects of war remembrance. When Johnny Comes Marching Home was written in 1863 by Union army bandleader Patrick S. Gilmore and has functioned as a musical memorial and vehicle of critique long before Crumb’s setting. Winds of Destiny was composed during a wave of memorialization in the early 2000s, and combines Civil War imagery with recent American history. The opening verse of Crumb’s setting evoke the belliphonic sounds of military parade with a variety of percussion instruments, and the singer ends the verse with an excited shriek. The second and third verses share the same orchestration with the addition of tubular bells, a significant part of the sonic landscape of the Civil War. The fourth verse starkly contrasts the celebratory mood of the first three with a grotesque, ironic affect. During this verse, the piano plays a quotation of the funeral march from Mahler’s First Symphony, which evokes nostalgia for a (tonal) past in addition to the ritual funeral procession. With his grotesque final verse, Crumb satirizes the established meaning of the song and negates its patriotic glorification of war. Crumb laments rather than valorizes those who die in war, and his use of the grotesque resists the normalization of war by exposing its long-term impact.

Works: George Crumb: Winds of Destiny: A Cycle of Civil War Songs, Folk Songs, and Spirituals (1.1-8, 2.6-8, 3.1-10, 4.1-7, 5.1-5); Morton Gould: American Salute (1.7); Jerry Bilik: Civil War Fantasy (1.7).

Sources: Patrick S. Gilmore: When Johnny Comes Marching Home (1.1-1.8, 2.6, 3.1-10, 5.1-5); William Steffe (composer) and Julia Ward Howe (lyricist): Battle Hymn of the Republic (2.7-2.8); Mahler: Symphony No. 1 in D Major (4.1-7).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1400s

The aptitude of the B-A-C-H motive for infinite variation (unendliche Variation), its terseness and possibility to appear as part of a twelve-tone row led composers like Reger, Schoenberg, and Webern either to use it as a point of departure for or to integrate it into their composition. They thus refer to Bach, who used the motive himself and who especially in his later works also developed a great variety of forms from similarly limited material.

Works: Reger: Fantasy and Fugue Op. 46 (420-21); Schoenberg: Variations for Orchestra Op. 31 (421), Piano Suite Op. 25 (421), Moses und Aron (421); Webern: Cantata Op. 26 (421), Cantata Op. 29 (421), Quartet for Clarinet, Tenor Saxophone, Piano, and Violin Op. 22 (421), String Quartet Op. 28 (421).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

John Harbison’s fascination with history manifests itself in his extensive use of borrowed musical material in his compositions, which can be grouped into the categories of misreading, pastiche, and quotation. Twilight Music for violin, horn, and piano, composed in 1984, is an example of misreading in Harbison’s music. In particular, the distinctive trio of instruments points to Brahms’s Trio, Op. 40, which uses the same set. The intervallic motives of a perfect fifth and minor second present in Brahms’s horn part (written for natural horn) appear in Harbison’s horn part as well. Harbison also adapts Brahms’s theme as an unordered verticality in a process called generalization, a common device for adapting tonal music into a post-tonal context. The three Gatsby Etudes, excerpts from Harbison’s 1999 opera The Great Gatsby, evoke the early 1920s through pastiche. Several stylistic markers of ragtime appear throughout the etudes, including the opening gesture of Scott Joplin’s The Entertainer and cadential figures from Maple Leaf Rag. November 19, 1828 for piano and string trio, the title of which refers to Schubert’s death date, is a example of quotation in Harbison’s music. Harbison quotes Schubert’s Allegretto in C Major, D. 346 in its entirety in a rondo alternating with original passages. Each time the Allegretto returns, it is slightly altered, becoming increasingly uncanny as Harbison’s post-tonal style creeps in. Harbison’s use of musical borrowing is noteworthy for its breadth of source material as well as its sophisticated interaction between borrowed and original music.

Works: John Harbison: Twilight Music (147-159), Gatsby Etudes (166-72), November 19, 1828 (173-87).

Sources: Brahms: Trio, Op. 40 (147-59); Scott Joplin: The Entertainer (166-72), Maple Leaf Rag (169-72); Franz Schubert: Allegretto in C Major, D. 346 (173-87).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

It is well known that Handel in his Grand Concertos Op. 6 borrowed musical material from the Componimenti musicali of Gottlieb Muffat. In eight examples Handel may also have incorporated music from the Essercizi per cembalo of Domenico Scarlatti. There is no firm evidence that Handel actually saw these particular works of Scarlatti, since he and the Italian composer had no direct contact after Handel left Italy. However, the Scarlatti pieces were published in London between April 1738 and January 1739, and it seems likely that Handel would have maintained an interest in the newest works by his former colleague. Handel wrote his Concertos during September-October 1739. The similarities in themes, key, meter, phrase structure, and register together prove that Handel did see the Essercizi before the composition of several portions of his Grand Concertos.

Works: Handel: Grand Concertos Op. 6: Nos. 1, 5 (93), No. 3 (93-94).

Sources: D. Scarlatti: Essercizi per cembalo: Sonatas nos. 2, 26 (93), Sonata no. 30 (93-94), Sonata no. 15 (94); Muffat: Componimenti musicali (93-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle, Felix Cox

Intabulating polyphonic music for the keyboard presents certain problems of representation, whether the transcriptions are sixteenth-century arrangements or twentieth-century modern editions. While an intabulation is often thought of as a representation of the original work, in some cases, it might be better to consider it as a recomposition of its source.

Works: Jacques Buus: Recercar primo, Intabulatura d’organo (89); Anonymous (transcriber), Frescobaldi (composer): Capriccio sopra un soggetto in Ravenna, Biblioteca comunale classense, MS Class. 545, fol. 27 (89-90).

Sources: Jacques Buus: Recercar primo, Secondo libro (89); Frescobaldi: Capriccio sopra un soggetto (89-90).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Ives’s eighteen German songs form an important link between his earlier and later works. The songs demonstrate his wish to conform to prevailing art music trends in Europe while also exhibiting his determination to be original and push inherited musical idioms to the limit. Ives’s German language songs were likely a personal project, influenced by his previous composition of sentimental ballads. His rich harmonic language in these sentimental ballads deviated from the norms of the genre, an approach Ives continued in his German songs by using unorthodox harmonies, forms, and melodies. His German songs may be classified in three categories based on approximate composition date: 1894-1897, 1897-1898, and 1898-1902. Songs from the first group are the most conservative and are most similar to sentimental ballads. Those from the second group use poems that were associated with earlier settings by European composers and thus invite direct comparison with the European masters. Songs from the third group continue the ideas Ives initiated in the second group and use increased dissonance and chromaticism in the service of text expression. A table of all of Ives’s German songs lists reworked and alternate titles, text incipits, authors, and sources.

Works: Ives: Leise zieht (144-47), An Old Flame (149, 155), At Parting (150-55, 158), My Lou Jennine (153-56), Feldeinsamkeit (157-62), Zum Drama “Rosamunde” (159, 163), Du bist wie eine Blume (159-60), Wiegenlied (160), Wie Melodien zieht es mir (160-62), Ich grolle nicht (157-63), Die Lotosblume (160), Mir klingt ein Ton (160-61), Weil’ auf mir (163-64).

Sources: Grieg: Gruß (144-47); Mendelssohn: Gruß (144-47); Robert Franz: Leise zieht durch mein Gemüth (144-46); James Rogers: At Parting (150-53); Schumann: Ich grolle nicht (161); Brahms: Feldeinsamkeit, Op. 86, No. 2 (162-63).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein, Amanda Jensen, Christine Wisch

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1900s

In most of Brahms’s writings about variations, he privileged the older styles of Bach and Beethoven and techniques such as keeping the theme pure and using the bass line as the theme. In practice, however, he wrote variations that explored both these older styles and the newer fantasia styles of Schumann and others. In his variations, Brahms sought to reconcile old and new models by writing variation sets in pairs, each with a complementary theme from a different era or style. Brahms’s Op. 23 and Op. 24 Variations on Handel and Schumann themes form one such complementary pair. The two sets from Op. 21 differ in that the first has a newly-composed theme and the second a borrowed theme. The first also borrows the constant-harmony techniques with only occasional melodic references that characterized Beethoven’s “Eroica” Variations, Op. 35, while the second recalls Beethoven’s WoO 80 in its eight-bar theme and group of opposite mode variations (where the theme goes into the bass). Brahms’s Op. 9 Variations do not have a pair of individual variations pieces, but contain a synthesis of traditions and an internal pairing or dual persona, marked by the labelling of slower, more introspective movements as “Brahms” and more energetic movements as “Kreisler.”

Works: Heinrich von Herzogenberg: Variations on a Theme of Brahms, Op. 23 (136-38); Brahms: Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel, Op. 24 (141-43), Variations on a Theme of Schumann, Op. 23 (141-43), Variations, Op. 21, Nos. 1 and 2 (144-45), Variations on a Theme of Schumann, Op. 9 (145), String Sextet in G Major, Op. 36 (149-51), String Quintet in G Major, Op. 111 (152-53).

Sources: Beethoven: Variations in C Minor, WoO 80 (144-45), Variations and Fugue in E-flat Major (“Eroica” Variations), Op. 35 (144-45).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Index Classifications: 1700s

Busoni's character was full of dualities, including those of musical tastes, careers (composing vs. pianistic), centuries, and hybrid vs. original works. He edited and transcribed copious works by Bach, Liszt, Mozart, and other composers, including Beethoven, Chopin, and Mendelssohn (pp. 177-294). He was attracted to Bach's art of counterpoint and structure, Liszt's piano writing, and Mozart's clarity and conciseness of form. Busoni's transcriptions manifest a synthesis of his past and future as he believed it to be (pp. 295-313). His attitudes toward transcription are tied to his ideas on notation and the "Unity of Music." He regarded transcribing as an independent art; he created totally new sounds on the piano and gave the art of transcribing a new freedom and dignity.

Works: Busoni: arrangement of Bach's Four Duets for Piano (185-86), "interpretation" of Bach's Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue (188-89), collection and completion of Bach's Fantasia, Adagio, and Fugue (189-90), Fantasia after J.S. Bach for Piano (201-204), Prelude, Fugue, and Figured Fugue after J.S. Bach's WTC (204); Liszt-Busoni: Andantino Capriccioso, Etude No. 2 after Paganini's Caprice (216), free arrangement of the Theme and Variations on Paganini's Etude No. 6 (220-224), arrangement of the Spanish Rhapsody for piano and orchestra (228-230); Mozart-Liszt-Busoni: completion of the Figaro Fantasy (235), Don Juan Fantasie (227-28); Busoni: two-piano arrangement of Mozart's Fantasy for mechanical organ (253-55), two-piano transcription of the overture to Mozart's Magic Flute (255-56), piano solo arrangement of the Andantino from Mozart's Piano Concerto, K. 271 (256-57), piano arrangement of the fugue from String Quartet K. 546 (265).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

Index Classifications: General

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1900s

The principal theme which never appears in the Enigma Variations is identified as being drawn from Brahms's Vier ernste Gesänge. The opening motive of the variations can be combined with a passage in the second song while the Nimrod tune can be combined (once a change of key is made) with a passage in tbe fourth. Other allusions which appear on the surface of the music in the variations are to Bach's Pedalexercitium (eleventh variation) and to B-A-C-H (in the Enigma theme itself) as well as to the slow movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op. 13 (ninth variation). The Enigma theme may also refer to the first of the Vier ernste Gesänge such that the Brahms was Elgar's point of departure.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The circumstances surrounding the creation, premiere, and reception of Stravinsky’s 1941 harmonization of The Star-Spangled Banner are obscured by incomplete information, rumors, and even intentional obfuscation. Newly examined primary documents help to paint a more accurate and complete picture of the work and its origin. In August 1940, Stravinsky led a performance of Walter Damrosch’s (by then) standard harmonization of The Star-Spangled Banner, which had been officially declared the U. S. national anthem in 1931. This event, plus the influence of Earnest Andersson and James Sample, inspired Stravinsky to create his own harmonization. The premiere of Stravinsky’s version took place in October 1941, and although some critics praised the performance, many attacked Stravinsky’s harmonization as unpatriotic. The 1944 Boston premiere led to more notoriety due to a (false) rumor that Stravinsky had been arrested for breaking a Massachusetts law against rearranging the national anthem. While the orchestral harmonization is by far the best-known, Stravinsky produced several arrangements of The Star-Spangled Banner for different performing forces based on four distinct harmonizations completed between July and September, 1941: one in B-flat major and three in D major. While all of these harmonizations differ from the Damrosch harmonization, they are not as radical or modernist as many critical reviews suggest. The fourth harmonization, inked in an untexted fair copy for male choir, is the only version besides the first B-flat harmonization to be performed, but not until 1993. Besides the key, the fourth harmonization differs slightly in realization from the orchestral version (differing chord inversions for instance). However, both harmonizations share a well-developed contrapuntal technique. Stravinsky also uses the anthem’s tune in a Christmas card sent in December 1941. The reception history of Stravinsky’s harmonization touches on many issues of American music culture. Much of the criticism surrounding the work stems not from its musical merit, but from malleable notions of American patriotism, perceptions of Stravinsky’s politics, and expectations for a “modernist” composer. Revisiting Stravinsky’s harmonization of The Star-Spangled Banner might revitalize it as a work of national importance.

Works: Stravinsky (arranger): The Star-Spangled Banner (Harmonization I) (371-386), The Star-Spangled Banner (Harmonization II) (386-88), The Star-Spangled Banner (Harmonization III) (388), The Star-Spangled Banner (Harmonization IV) (388-92)

Sources: Francis Scott Key (lyrics), John Stafford Smith (melody), Walter Damrosch (arranger): The Star-Spangled Banner (371-92)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Housed in the Chiesa Collegiata at Castell’Arquato are keyboard intabulations of vocal works (among them transcriptions of madrigals and sacred pieces) that were crafted by a single, anonymous hand. Three pieces within Fascicles IV and VI of these intabulations, along with their models, can be used to demonstrate that the intabulator performs multiple functions that range from transcription to interpolation and recombination. The seventy-year transmission of the four-voice hymn Fit porta Christi displays numerous stylistic changes. Magnificat was modeled upon two different Magnificats, with odd-numbered verses modeled after an unknown source and even-numbered verses modeled upon a Magnificat by Lasso. O gloriosa domina stitches together borrowings from Willaert. Consequently, each of these three pieces maintains an idiomatic relationship with its models.

Works: Anonymous: Canti donque (133-35), Assumpta est Maria (135-37), Ego dormio (137), Adoramus te, Christe (138-39), Fit porta Christi (139-43), Magnificat (143-45), O gloriosa domina (145-49).

Sources: Anonymous: Fit porta Christi (139-42), Magnificat (143-45); Lasso: Magnificat primi toni (143-45); Willaert: O gloriosa domina—Maria, mater gratie (145-49).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Davies is praised for his use of gesture and for his uninhibited re-use of music of the past, especially that of the medieval period. The existing music that he incorporates becomes increasingly obvious to the ear as his style matures. In his early works, he obscures the borrowed material by fragmentation, serial procedures, and complex canonic techniques. The borrowed material begins to be readily audible with Antechrist. In this work, the 13th-century motet, Deo confitemini, is reorchestrated and stated boldly at the outset. The juxtaposition of it with completely original music of Davies within a single work provides the key to the composer's originality.

Works: Davies: Alma Redemptoris Mater (3), Shakespeare Music (3), St. Michael (3), Ecce Manus Tradentis (3), Taverner Fantasias (3), Antechrist (3), L'Homme Armé (3-4).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Vincenzo Bellini was once thought by the scholarly community to be immune from practices of self-borrowing, but evidence shows that he reworked material as much as Handel and Rossini. In Bellini's time, self-borrowing was deemed dishonest and unprofessional, and the critics and audiences were very aware of his self-borrowings. He reworked many passages from his earlier operas (before 1828) into his later operas, totaling twenty-five recycled melodies. Most of these melodic reworkings reduce the motivic material to make it more economical and declamatory. The reworkings also share with the original a formal function, poetic meter and content, and dramatic situation, although in one instance (the 1829 Zaira and the 1830 I Capuleti e i Montecchi) Bellini set a once happy cavatina into a much darker expressive context. Even unconscious borrowings, like between Il pirata and I puritani, have dramatic similarities, although they do not share formal function. All of this evidence shows that even though nineteenth-century opera is by its very nature conventional and thus often dismissed as musically uninteresting, these conventions are often instances of self-borrowing, which can be of more analytical interest.

Works: Bellini: Il pirata (25-27, 37-43), La sonnambula (28-29, 31), Norma (31, 37), I Capuleti e i Montecchi (32, 47-52), Zaira (37), La straniera (43-47), I puritani (53-66).

Sources: Bellini: Ernani (28, 31), Adelson e Salvini (32, 37-47), Bianca e Fernando (32, 37), Zaira (32, 47-52), Beatrice di Tenda (32-36), Norma (32-36), Il pirata (53-66).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Mark Chilla

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The album Broadway the Hard Way is a prime example of Frank Zappa's use of quotation and allusion to generate and alter meaning within his works. Zappa accomplishes this by invoking what he refers to as "Archetypal American Musical Icons." These icons are commonly known, readily recognizable material from American mass culture, such as the theme from The Twilight Zone or The Battle Hymn of the Republic, and carry with them connotations and associations that Zappa then manipulates to expressive ends. The associations carried with "Archetypal American Musical Icons" are deliberately invoked to create a subtext within a song that supplements and generates meaning. Zappa will also often alter a song's original meaning by adding style allusions and quotations to create a new subtext, a procedure referred to as "putting the eyebrows on it." An appendix outlines borrowings and allusions in portions of Rhymin' Man,Promiscuous, and Jesus Thinks You're a Jerk.

Works: Zappa: Dickie's Such an Asshole (40-41), When the Lie's So Big (42), What Kind of Girl? (42), Jesus Thinks You're a Jerk (43-44, 57-58), Rhymin' Man (44-48, 53-54), Promiscuous (49, 55-56).

Sources: William Steffe: Battle Hymn of the Republic (40-44); Marius Constant: Theme from The Twilight Zone (44-48, 53, 57); Lalo Schifrin: Theme from Mission Impossible (44-48, 53); Hava Nagilah (44-48, 54); Hail to the Chief (44-48, 54); La Cucaracha (44-48, 54); Julius Fucík: March of the Gladiators (44-48, 54, 57); Milton Ager: Happy Days are Here Again (44-48, 54); Frère Jacques (53-54); Ennio Morricone: Theme from The Untouchables (53); Berton Averre and Doug Fieger [The Knack]: My Sharona (54); Rock of Ages (57-58); Dixie (57-58); Richard Berry: Louie Louie as peformed by The Kingsmen (58).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz, Popular

Contributed by: Sarah Florini

Modern films often use popular songs to generate comic allusions or puns that rely on audience connections to either lyrics or pop culture references. Musical irony’s cinematic history began with “film funners,” took on a less comic tone in Classical Hollywood, and regained its humorous function in New Hollywood. American Graffiti (1973) was influential on Hollywood’s use of popular music for its innovative deployment of popular songs. After American Graffiti, there was a strong economic impetus to use popular music in movies, but this does not reflect how the music is actually used. Musical puns have three primary relationships to comedy: narrative function, the relevant perceptions audiences might have of the music, and bisociative qualities.

Works: Jerry Bruckheimer (director): soundtrack to Con Air (407); George Lucas (director): soundtrack to American Graffiti (410-11, 423); Lawrence Kasdan (director): soundtrack to The Big Chill (417-20); Renny Harlin (director): soundtrack to The Long Kiss Goodnight (419-20); Lana Wachowski (director): soundtrack to Bound (420); Arlene Sanford (director): soundtrack to A Very Brady Sequel (421-22); David Mirkin (director): soundtrack to Romy and Michele’s High School Reunion (421-22); Wes Craven (director): soundtrack to Scream (422); Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (directors): soundtrack to The Big Lebowski (423-24); Paul Thomas Anderson (director): soundtrack to Boogie Nights (423-27).

Sources: Lynyrd Skynyrd: Sweet Home Alabama (407); Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong (songwriters) and Marvin Gaye (performer): I Heard it Through the Grapevine (417-19); The Zombies (songwriters) and Santana (performer): She’s Not There (420); Ronnie Shannon (songwriter) and Aretha Franklin (performer): I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You) (420); Homer Banks, Carl Hampton, and Raymond Jackson (songwriters) and Luther Vandross (performer): If Loving You is Wrong (421-22); Blue Öyster Cult: Don’t Fear the Reaper (422); Creedence Clearwater Revival: Lookin’ Out My Back Door (423-24); Gene McDaniels (songwriter) and Roberta Flack (performer): Compared to What (424); Melanie: Brand New Key (425-26); Hot Chocolate: You Sexy Thing (426); Jeff Lynne (songwriter) and ELO (performers): Livin’ Thing (426-27); Randy Newman (songwriter) and Three Dog Night (performers): Mama Told Me Not to Come (427).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Index Classifications: 1900s

Composers of ballet scores for the Paris Opéra from the early nineteenth century evince dramatically and aesthetically sensitive approaches to borrowing, even during the 1830s and 1840s as critical opinion turned against the use of borrowed material. Composers sometimes borrowed because they held particular works in high esteem. Moreover, composers often used borrowed material because it served the dramatic needs of ballet scenes, which were often confusing and benefited from the use of well-known music to aid the audience in interpreting the action. For example, borrowing from an air parlant (a familiar song) could bring to mind the song's text, which would in turn clarify the action at hand even without the words being sung. When critical opinion turned against borrowed material, some ballet composers satisfied audiences' need for familiarity through the use of recurring themes, as seen in Adolphe Adam's Giselle, Ferdinand Hérold's La Somnambule, and Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer's La Sylphide. Includes an extensive table of ballet-pantomime scores using borrowed material.

Works: Ferdinand Hérold: La Fille mal gardée (4), La Somnambule (9); Alexandre Montfort: La Chatte metamorphosée en femme (5); Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer: La Sylphide (5-6, 10), La Tempête (11); Frédéric Venua: Flore et Zéphire (9); Rodolphe Kreutzer: Clari (9); Adolphe Adam: Le Diable à quatre (12).

Sources: Rossini: La Cenerentola (4, 18), Il Barbiere di Siviglia (4-5), Moïse (5); J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (6); Paganini: Variations on "Le Streghe" (6); Anonymous, Réveillez-vous, belle endormie (9), Dormez chères amours (9-10), Mon mari n'est pas là (12); Salieri: Les Danaïdes (9); Gluck: Iphigénie en Aulide (9), Orphée et Euridice (10-11); Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (11-12); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (12).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

The practice of tenor repetition in Notre Dame organa marks the first time in which the existing chant is manipulated for the purpose of an artistic goal. The practice probably began with the simple addition of a new clausula to an existing one; sometimes these new clausulae may also exist independently. In this practice, the break between the repetitions was simultaneous and obvious. Later, composers began to manipulate the length, mode, and starting point of the tenor, in a way that resembles isorhythm. The duplum was written to be continuous across tenor repetitions.

Works: Organum (numbering from Friedrich Ludwig, Repertorium organorum recentioris et motatorum vetusissimi stili): M12: Alleluia: Adorabo ad templum, (329-31), M 37: Propter veritatem (332-33, 336), M 33: Alleluia: Assumpta est Maria (333, 336), O 16: Styrps Yesse (333), M 40: Timeta dominum (339), M 5: Exiit sermon (343), M 1: Viderunt omnes (343), M 25: Alleluia: Spiritus sanctus procedens (344), M 34: Alleluia: Hodie Maria virgo (345), M 49: Alleluia: Letabitur Justus in domino (347); Clausulae: Adorabo nos. 1-3(329-30), Sanctum tuum nos. 1-3 (340-41), Et confitebor nos. 1-10 (330-31, 344-45), Aurem tuam nos. 1-3 (332-33, 336), Angeli (336), Potentem nos. 1-3 (336-37), Non deficient nos. 1-2 (339-41), Nobis no. 2 (342), Donec veniam (343), Omnes no. 10 (343-44), Hodie perlustravit no.1 (344), Regnat (345-46), Et sperabit nos. 1-2 (347-51).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

In the discussion of the relationship between the clausula and the motet, a systematic study of notational practice, particularly with regard to fractio modi, has often been lacking. Using clausula-motet pairs in Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Pluteus 29.1, motets in first rhythmic mode that have a corresponding clausula are considered. The Latin motets show exceptional musical fidelity to the melismatic originals, but the motets gain flexibility in syllabification by use of fractio modi in the source clausula. Tables compare the motet and clausula sources, and list all instances of fractio modi within the study group. Rhythmic alterations were sometimes made to the source clausula, usually by the introduction of semibreve pairs or by shifting groups of three breves forward by one perfection.

Works: Christe via veritas (151-54); Gaude Syon filia (155-6); Stirps Iesse--Virga cultus (155, 158); Doceas hac die (158-59); Radix venie (158, 160); Immolata paschali victima (160-63).

Sources: Adiutorium no. 2 (147-54); Et Iherusalem no. 2 (155-56); Flos filius eius (a3) no. 3 (155, 158); Docebit no. 1 (158-59); Immolatus est (a3) no. 1 (158-63).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Not only the symphonies with actual voice parts but also many others borrow from Mahler's song cycles. Smith identifies the borrowings and emphasizes not only their importance for the interpretation, but also the key position of their musical material. The song elements appear as the pillars of the whole work.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, Symphony No. 7.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Most of the songs which Mahler incorporated into his symphonies were originally written with orchestral accompaniment (rather than piano). Unlike Schubert, who used vocal themes as bases for variations in some movements of his instrumental works, Mahler never quoted a song for the specific purpose of writing variations. Instead, the material directly influences the melodic structure and content of the symphonies, particularly the first five, through the literal quotation of entire themes and motives.

Works: Schubert: Wanderer Fantasy; Trout Quintet; Death and the Maiden; String Quartet in D Minor; Octet in F Major (based on the air "Gelagert unter'm hellen Dach der Bäume," from the operette Die Freunde von Salamanka); Fantasy in C Major for violin and piano (based on Sei mir Gegrüsst); Introduction and Variations for piano and flute, Op. 160 (based on Trock'ne Blumen); Mahler: "Ging heut' morgen über's Feld" and "Die zwei blauen Augen von meinem Schatz" from Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen; "Das Himmlische Leben," "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt," "Ablösung in Sommer," "Es sungen drei Engel," "Lob des hohen Verstandes," "Um schlimme Kinder artig zu machen," and "Nicht Wiedersehen" from Lieder aus des Knaben Wunderhorn; "Nun will die Sonn' so hell aufgeh'n" and "Nun seh' ich wohl, warum so dunkle Flammen" from Kindertotenlieder; Symphonies 1-7. [??]

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

The music of Stephen Foster was frequently used in scores for Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons produced from the 1930s through the 1960s—especially those by Carl Stalling—to represent the American South and African Americans, revealing pervasive attitudes about race and place in American culture. The convention of using Stephen Foster songs to represent “Negro,” “Southern,” and generic “American” categories was developed in the silent film era and codified by Erno Rapée’s 1924 guidebook, Motion Picture Moods for Pianists and Organists. Carl Stalling, who arranged and supervised Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies scores for Warner Bros. starting in 1936, adopted this convention for its pervasiveness in silent films and because Foster’s music was in the public domain. Three Looney Tunes cartoons in particular, Confederate Honey, Mississippi Hare, and Southern Fried Rabbit, use various Foster songs in conjunction with representations of both the American South and of minstrel tropes. For example, Confederate Honey (a 1940 parody of Gone with the Wind) opens with Foster’s My Old Kentucky Home and Old Black Joe played over scenes of a plantation with slaves depicted with exaggerated features in the manner of minstrel shows and Sambo illustrations. Beautiful Dreamer later serves as a leitmotive for Crimson O’Hairoil, the daughter of the plantation owner and heroine of the cartoon. Despite their ubiquity, the use of Foster songs in Looney Tunes significantly decreased in the 1960s with the retirement of Carl Stalling and changing attitudes toward race representation. The legacy of these representations of race in Looney Tunes and other classic cartoons, especially those that depict racist imagery and caricature, has been debated for decades. Like Foster’s songs themselves, the cultural signifiers and meanings attached to Looney Tunes are unfixed and malleable.

Works: Carl Stalling: score to Confederate Honey (357-60), score to Mississippi Hare (360-61), score to Southern Fried Rabbit (362-364)

Sources: Stephen Foster: My Old Kentucky Home (358), Old Black Joe (358, 362), Beautiful Dreamer (358, 360), Oh! Susanna (358), Old Folks at Home (360, 362), Camptown Races (360-61), Ring, Ring de Banjo! (361); Dan Emmett: Dixie (358, 360-61, 362); Franz von Suppé: Light Cavalry Overture (358); Traditional: Yankee Doodle (364)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1900s

A number of surviving manuscripts contain masses with a motet based on the same musical material included at the end of the cycle. While it is easy to assume that these masses are merely parody masses based on the accompanying motet, it appears instead that these are examples of masses and motets conceived simultaneously. Unity is achieved primarily through the use of a common tenor and/or head motive that occurs throughout, with similarities in remaining voices varying greatly from one example to another. The six positively identified examples of the mass-motet cycle all exist in manuscripts located in southern Germany, and many of the compositional traits in each mass suggest the influence of the continental English composers working in Germany in the first half of the fifteenth century. Given the few extant examples of the mass-motet cycle, it is likely that its popularity was limited due to the lack of liturgical function associated with the motet.

Works: Anonymous: Missa O rosa bella, O pater eterne (303-5); Philipus: Missa Hilf und gib rat, O gloriosa mater cristi maria (305-6); Anonymous: Missa Esclave puist yl, Gaude maria virgo (307-8); de Rouge: Missa Soyez aprantiz (309-10); Anonymous: Stella coeli extirpavit (309-10); Anonymous: Missa Meditatio cordis, Gaude maria virgo (309); Frye: Missa Summe trinitati (310); Anonymous: Salve virgo mater pia (310).

Sources: Dunstable: O rosa bella (303); Binchois: Esclave puist yl (307); Frye: So ys emprentid (309); Gregorian Chant: Meditatio cordis (309), Summae trinitati (310).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

Index Classifications: 1900s

[Suggests Haydn borrowed from Stamitz, Beck, Boccherini, and others. Challenged by Jan LaRue, "Significant and Coincidental Resemblance Between Classical Themes," Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (Summer 1961): 224-34.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Four German manuscripts of the fifteenth century (Lochamer Liederbuch and Fundamentum organisandi, bound together as Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Mus. MS 60413; Schedelsches Liederbuch, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cim. 351a; and Buxheimer Orgelbuch, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cim. 352b = Mus. MS 3725) contain a number of French, Italian or English pieces that were adapted or altered through instrumental arrangement or replacement of the original English, French, or Italian texts with German or Latin texts. These four manuscripts form a cohesive group with regard to time of origin and contents, as each manuscript includes foreign pieces also present in the other manuscripts. Therefore, these manuscripts are useful for understanding dissemination of foreign works, demonstrating the popularity of well-known composers such as Du Fay as well as the popularity in Germany of lesser-known composers such as Johannes Touront.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Amanda Jensen

[Need annotation for discussions of borrowings within African-American tradition.] Within the context of her comprehensive volume on the musical tradition of black Americans, Southern briefly discusses the use by white Europeans and Americans of specific music and of musical styles of black Americans. She focuses on ragtime (pp. 331-32), jazz (pp. 395-97), and rhythm-and-blues (pp. 498-500).

Works: Debussy: Children's Corner (331-32); Stravinsky: Piano-Rag Music (331-32), Ragtime (331-32), L'Histoire du Soldat (331-32); Satie: Parade (331-32); Hindemith: Piano Suite (1922) (331-32); Carpenter: Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1916) (331-32), Krazy Kat (395-97), Skyscrapers (395-97); Krenek: Johnny spielt auf (395-97); Milhaud: La Création du Monde (395-97); Ravel: Piano Concerto in D (1931) (395-97); Walton: Façade (395-97); Stravinsky: Ebony Concerto for Dance Orchestra (395-97); Copland: Music for the Theater (395-97), Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1927) (395-97); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (395-97), Concerto in F (1925) (395-97), An American in Paris (395-97).

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Susan Richardson

All numbers of Rossini's Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (Naples, 1815) are borrowed from his previous operas with the exception of only one totally original piece. Most of the reused music was selected from the best material from Aureliano in Palmira and Sigismondo, which were previous fiascoes in other cities, but Rossini also borrowed from Ciro in Babilonia and the Cantata Edipo Coloneo. In spite of the numerous self-borrowings, Elisabetta cannot be considered a simple pastiche, since Rossini reworked all the reused materials and achieved a balance between dramatic and musical time in the opera, which became the first great success of his Naples's period. It seems that Rossini chose the borrowed material according to the following criteria: (1) themes with similar dramatic function; (2) texts with similar metrical structure; and (3) identical tonal settings. Likewise the libretto of Elisabetta by Giovanni Schmidt is shown to have been modeled upon the play Il paggio di Leicester by Carlo Frederici (Naples, 1813), which was derived from an English play by Sophia Lee and not from a romance by Sir Walter Scott as asserted by previous biographers.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

In the years following Parliament's approval of the Act of Supremacy in 1534, strong restrictions were placed on composers of Latin music in England. This obstacle may have encouraged many musicians to focus their attention on instrumental music. Even though John Taverner never composed any instrumental music, his Missa Gloria tibi Trinitas had a strong effect on the rise of consort music in England in the second half of the sixteenth century. The Mass is based on the antiphon Gloria tibi Trinitas, which is heard in the medius voice throughout each of the four movements. The opening of each movement also contains a head motive. This motive begins with a rising minor third, which refers to the opening interval of the original plainsong. Transcriptions of one section of the Sanctus appear in many manuscripts, with different instrumentation. This In Nomine section, named after the text of the original passage in Taverner's Mass, can be found in arrangements for keyboard, viols, and voice and lute. The Mulliner Book, for example, includes a keyboard arrangement from Taverner's Mass as well as compositions by Allwood, Johnson, and others, which were derived from Taverner's setting.

Works: John Taverner: Missa Gloria tibi trinitas (218-22).

Sources: Antiphon: Gloria tibi Trinitas (218-22).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General

Felix Mendelssohn’s 1836 oratorio Paulus (St. Paul in English) received enthusiastic acclaim in Germany and England, but English critics understood the work differently from their German counterparts. While Germans appreciated the devotional aspects of the oratorio and recognized the Lutheran chorale quotations and its connection to Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, the English were unfamiliar with the chorales and likened it to Handel’s dramatic oratorios. Mendelssohn composed Paulus shortly after staging a revival of Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, and he modeled several aspects of the oratorio on Bach’s work, including its use of a narrator similar to Bach’s “Evangelist.” Furthermore, like Bach, Mendelssohn incorporated several popular Lutheran chorales into his oratorio, making sure to select recognizable tunes. When Paulus debuted in England as St. Paul, critics warmly praised the work but made no mention of Bach or the Lutheran chorales. The lack of references to chorale tunes in particular in the English press suggests that English audiences did not recognize the Lutheran tunes as German audiences did. Structural similarities between St. Paul and Bach’s Passion that were mentioned in the German press were ignored by the English. Even references to the chorale genre in the English press were confused, apparently not recognizing the term as one connected to contemporary devotional practice in Germany. English audiences expected a dramatic oratorio in the manner of Handel and judged Mendelssohn’s work on that metric. Mendelssohn’s next oratorio, Elijah, was composed with an international audience in mind, intentionally landing far closer to Handel’s dramatic oratorio model than St. Paul did. “Regard thy servant’s prayer” in Elijah exemplifies this change in attitude. Rather than using an actual chorale, Mendelssohn composed a new melody in the chorale style for this number. By switching his oratorio model from Bach to Handel, Mendelssohn secured his reputation in England.

Works: Felix Mendelssohn: Paulus (St. Paul) (27-32, 37-38)

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (27-32); Philipp Nicolai: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme (37-38)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Trombonist Charlie Green's bluesy solo over a rhythmic vamp in a 1924 recording of W. C. Handy's The Gouge of Armour Avenue has been quoted dozens of times in subsequent recordings, although not usually acknowledged. A few months after this recording session, trombonist Jake Frazier quoted Green's solo in Get Yourself a Monkey and Make Him Strut His Stuff with the Kansas City Five. Kid Ory quoted it again in a 1926 recording with Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five of The King of the Zulu's, and Dicky Wells copied the solo almost exactly in Symphonic Scronch with Lloyd Scott and his orchestra in 1927. Over time, Green's solo has undergone a process of transformation through multiple performers, so that the melody has become a standard term in the jazz vocabulary rather than a specific reference to a particular nameable musical source. The extensive history of quotation of Green's solo fits into larger patterns of borrowing in early jazz recordings; a cornet solo by Joe Oliver on 1923 recordings of Dipper Mouth Blues was also quoted by other musicians. A partial list of later recordings that either quote Green's melody or feature "extended solo cadenzas" or vamps is included.

Sources: Charlie Green: Trombone solo in 1924 Vocalion recording of W. C. Handy's The Gouge of Armour Avenue (136-39).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Serge Nigg’s political opposition to Stravinsky’s neoclassicism after World War II and his involvement with French Vichy politics and the French Communist Party (PCF) contextualize his mid-1950s foray into composing French nationalist music. As a result of experiencing the German occupation and associated artistic propaganda, Nigg turned away from the neoclassical establishment (Stravinsky) and toward serialism and communism. After Soviet artistic directives instructed composers to abandon serialism and embrace their national heritage, Nigg’s political ideology and artistic proclivity were in conflict. Nigg’s 1954 Concerto for Piano and Orchestra was his first orchestral attempt at a (fleeting) embrace of his national heritage as directed by the Soviet proclamations. Nigg modeled his concerto on Vincent d’Indy’s 1886 Symphonie sur un chant montagnard français. Like d’Indy’s Symphonie, Nigg’s concerto adapts a French folksong for the primary theme using a similar orchestration. The transformations Nigg applies to the folksong, Filles, chantez le mois de mai, have led some critics to argue that he did not adhere to the ideals of socialist realism as closely as he said he did. The conservatism Nigg adopted in his concerto was similar to the same conservatism he protested in Stravinsky’s music. Nigg’s new approach was short-lived, however, as he and many others left the PCF in 1956 after the Soviet invasion of Hungary.

Works: Serge Nigg: Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (123-30)

Sources: Vincent d’Indy: Symphonie sur un chant montagnard français (123); Traditional: Filles, chantez le mois de mai (123-30)

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

The inclusion of chorales in nineteenth-century oratorios provided a religious aura to these works even when performed in a concert setting. Furthermore, the chorale was seen as the epitome of Protestant music, and by extension German culture, thus taking on a nationalistic character as well. Composers drew from various chorale collections published in the eighteenth century for their source material. Because these collections included new chorales as well as old ones, the source materials represented a variety of musical styles. Mendelssohn's St. Paul consciously drew on Bach's St. Matthew Passion as a pattern for the use of chorales, but Mendelssohn uses fewer of them, and they differ in style and function from Bach. Mendelssohn also realized that his oratorios were concert music, not liturgical music. By contrast, Friedrich Schneider intended his Gethsemane und Golgotha to be a true liturgical work, including congregational participation in the chorales. Even works without chorales, such as Spohr's Des Heilands letzte Stunden, often included movements designed textually and musically to evoke the chorale.

Works: Carl Loewe: Das Sühnopfer des neuen Bundes (124, 134-35, 139-40); Heinrich Elkamp: Paulus (124-25); Carl Heinrich Graun: Der Tod Jesu (126-27); Felix Mendelssohn: St. Paul (127-31); Friedrich Schneider: Gethsemane und Golgotha (132-33); Carl Loewe: Die sieben Schläfer (137), Die Zerstörung von Jerusalem (137-38), Johann Huss (140-41).

Sources: Chorales: Schmucke dich O liebe Seele (124), Herzliebster Jesu (127, 132), Dir Herr will ich mich ergeben (128-29), Allein Gott in der Höh sei Her (128), Wachet auf (128-31, 132-22), O Jesu Christe, wahres Licht (128-29), Wir glauben all an einem Gott (128), O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden (132, 136), O Lamm Gottes (132), Aus tiefer Noth (132), Herr Jesu Christ mein Lebens Licht (132), Wie lieblich ist O Herr die Stätte (132), Erscheinen ist der herrlich Tag (137), Jesus meine Zuversicht (138), Grosser ist, o grosser Gott (139) Was mein Gott will, das gesheh allzeit (140-41); Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Geistliche Oden und Leider mit Melodien (124-25).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Copland's music defies traditional demarcations of style. Rather than being defined by function, genre, or chronology, Copland's style results from unities of compositional procedure in apparently dissimilar works. The subtle rhythmic, harmonic, and motivic techniques in Piano Variation can also be found in Billy the Kid, which uses compositional complexities to create a simple surface into which quoted cowboy tunes fit perfectly. Copland creates the folksong anew in order to demonstrate the aesthetic distance between the American past and contemporary life. His folk borrowings, like Stravinsky's, thus have the affect of musical commentary of one repertoire upon another.

Works: Copland: Vitebsk (71), Billy the Kid (77-81), El salón México (81-82).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Elizabeth Bergman

Ives's early works display a remarkable coexistence of pieces in conservative and radical styles. However, his interest in emulating and quoting European composers can be seen not only in the conservative works written for courses at Yale, such as the First Symphony, of which the scherzo is modeled on the corresponding movement from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, but also in those from before and after his formal study, such as the Slow March from 114 Songs where Ives quotes from Handel's Saul.

Works: Ives: Symphony No. 1 (76), Slow March (79).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1900s

Archival evidence reveals that Heinrich Schütz’s Saul, Saul, was verfolgst du mich? was first performed in 1632 as part of an anniversary celebration commemorating the Protestant victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld. This performance occurred nearly twenty years before Schütz published Saul in Symphoniae sacrae III (1650), allowing him time to conceivably revise the concerto. A table summarizes other potential sources that Schütz may have also adapted for Symphoniae sacrae III, along with their original and revised scorings. In all of these cases, and perhaps that of Saul, Schütz retained the text and many musical features common to both the sources and their adaptations.

Works: Schütz: Saul, Saul, was verfolgst du mich? (385-387).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Accounts of Clara Schumann’s virtuosity emphasize a spiritual or transcendent quality associated with her performance of canonic repertoire alongside showpieces. However, these accounts fail to capture the importance of popular piano styles in her compositions and choice of repertoire and the ways that the discourse of interiority in Schumann’s work imbues popular piano styles with sentiment and “soul.” Near the beginning of Schumann’s career, she often programmed showpieces deemed by contemporary critics (including her future husband, Robert Schumann) as transcending physical virtuosity. Chopin’s Variations on “La ci darem la mano” , based on a theme from Mozart’s Don Giovanni, was particularly significant in this respect and was a regular encore in Schumann’s recitals. Schumann’s own compositions from this era, including the 1833 Romance variée and 1835 Piano Concerto, adopt an approach to harmonic and formal intricacy similar to Chopin. Other repertoire selections, particularly Adolph Henselt’s opera variations and her own Pirate Variations, hew more closely to popular tastes and provide Schumann a vehicle to exhibit her mastery of texture, a facet of her pianism that garnered much critical acclaim. Schumann’s 1854 Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann, Op. 20, reflects a shift in her career regarding her performance of virtuosic interiority. In this work, Schumann evokes a sense of interiority through memory, achieved in part with allusions to two Mendelssohn variation sets and a quotation of her earlier Romance variée. This reminiscence is not just a historicist gesture or a nod to the romance with her husband; it recalls a radically different time in her career as a young virtuoso.

Works: Chopin: Variations on “Là ci darem la mano” , Op. 2 (707-19); Adolph Henselt: Variations de concert sur le motif de “L’elisir d’amore” de Donizetti, Op. 1 (728-44); Clara Schumann: Variations de concert tur la cavatine du “Pirate” de Bellini, Op. 8 (744-52), Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann, Op. 20 (752-61)

Sources: Mozart: Don Giovanni (710-19); Gaetano Donizetti: L’elisir d’amore (728-44); Vincenzo Bellini: Il pirata (744-52); Felix Mendelssohn: Variations in E-flat Major, Op. 82 (754-61), Variations in B-flat Major, Op. 83 (754-61); Clara Schumann: Romance variée (754-61)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

In contrast with the anti-virtuoso stance scholars typically ascribe to him, Robert Schumann and several of his contemporaries used the rhetoric of the sublime to construct an aesthetic of transcendent virtuosity that embodies serious artistic values. Schumann’s concept of the musical sublime, developed in his 1841 review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, emphasizes qualities of composition over those of performance and audience enjoyment. Schumann’s own compositions follow this same aesthetic of virtuosity and the sublime. Several of Schumann’s works allude to works by Beethoven. Schumann’s Toccata in C Major, Op. 7 in particular is modeled on the first movement of Beethoven’s Third Symphony and presents its virtuosic passages both as heroically difficult and as part of a Beethovenian thematic apotheosis. Schumann composed his Toccata during a time when he was trying to establish himself as a composer, not a performer, and the use of Beethoven as a model was a way to align his work with the Beethovenian sublime. Further associations with Beethoven appeared in reviews of Schumann’s Études symphoniques, comparing them to the finale of Eroica in motivation if not in any musical similarity. The combination of virtuosity and the sublime as understood in Beethoven’s music continued to be an important concept in music criticism through the end of the nineteenth century.

Works: Robert Schumann: Paganini Etude, Op. 10, No. 4 (467-68), Toccata in C Major, Op. 7 (466-77)

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (466-77)

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Roy Harris was a prolific borrower of folk songs. Stehman treats Harris's work in chronological order and in divisions by genre, so references to borrowing can be found throughout the book. However, Stehman makes no attempt to differentiate between stylistic allusion, specific quotation, and simple arrangements. Several pieces are treated in more extended discussions, and these include explanations of how the folk songs are borrowed in the works. The Folksong Symphony serves as one of the examples of borrowing, as each of the seven movements draws on one or more folk melodies. This piece for orchestra and chorus involves some extensive manipulations of borrowed tunes, including fragmentation, canon, and fantasia-like effects. Harris's Tenth Symphony also makes use of a folk tune, as the third movement is based on When Johnny Comes Marching Home. Harris's only violin sonata is an example of his ability to use folk materials in an abstract way; the tune I'll Be True to My Love is subjected to development and variations. Stehman also discusses Harris's self-borrowing (187) and his use of folk music in pieces for solo piano (225-26) without going into detail about any one work.

Works: Harris: Folksong Symphony (72-79), Tenth Symphony (124-31), Pere Marquette Symphony (137-44), Violin Sonata (210-11).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Jessica Sternfeld

In the second half of the fifteenth century, many composers from both France and Italy were experimenting with polyphonic quotation. An examination of the masses of three composers shows the different ways in which polyphonic borrowing was accomplished. Johannes Martini tended to quote both cantus firmus and other polyphonic voices literally. Heinrich Isaac paraphrased cantus firmus and other voices of the models, often using entire phrases but freely changing the vertical alignment as well as the melodic content. Josquin des Prez mixed literal and paraphrased borrowings, usually using less than an entire phrase worth of material. In terms of borrowing techniques, it is very unlikely that the anonymous Missa O rosa bella III was composed by Martini, as Reinhard Strohm has suggested.

Works: Johannes Martini: Missa Ma bouche rit (6-7, 10-11), Missa La martinella (6-10); Heinrich Isaac: Missa Comme femme desconfortée (11-18); Josquin des Prez: Missa Fortuna desperata (18-22); Anonymous: Missa O rose bella III (23-24).

Sources: Johannes Ockeghem: Ma bouche rit (7, 10-11); Johannes Martini: La martinella (9-10); Gilles Binchois: Comme femme desconfortée (13-18); Antoine Busnois: Fortuna desperata (18-22); John Bedyngham: O rose bella (23-24).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1400s

A Missa De tous biens plaines, one of six mass settings based on Hayne's chanson of the same name, is found in five sources with conflicting attributions. The cantus firmus is quoted almost literally throughout, varying only at approaches to a cadence, and phrases taken from the chanson are frequently split in the middle of a phrase, rather than at a cadence. While this technique is unusual in fifteenth-century practice, it can be found in several masses by Compère. A comparison of this work to Compère's masses, and specifically to his Missa Ominum bonorum plena, reveals additional similarities in compositional approach. Besides being based on the same chanson, both the Missa De tous biens plaines and the Missa Ominum bonorum plena feature a simplicity of cantus firmus setting not found in Compère's other masses, and both have distinctly Marian associations. These similarities suggest that the two masses were composed at approximately the same time, and that both can be convincingly attributed to Compère.

Works: Compère: Missa De tous biens plaine (437-54), Missa Alles regrets (448-50), Missa L'homme armé (448-49), Missa Ominum bonorum plena (448-54).

Sources: Hayne van Ghizeghem: De tous biens plaine (438).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Sherri Winks

In comparison to other contemporary composers such as Isaac, Martini, and Josquin, Johannes Ockeghem is the only composer who varied his approach to borrowed material within his masses. In the second half of the fifteenth century, composers used polyphonic quotation, a method of borrowing the tenor melody and other voices from a polyphonic work within their masses. Three kinds of polyphonic quotation were employed: literal (adhering to the model but with an occasional ornamental note), paraphrased (extensive use of ornamentation, often obscuring the actual model), or mixed (an incorporation of both literal and paraphrased techniques within a piece). Four of Ockeghem's masses are based on a polyphonic model with a cantus firmus as the structural basis, and two of his masses allude to polyphonic models making occasional reference to the model but not as a cantus firmus. In Ockeghem's Missa Fors seulement and Missa Ma maistresse, both based on his own chansons, the borrowed cantus firmus and discant are stated literally within the new work. In Missa De plus en plus, based on Binchois's rondeau, Ockeghem paraphrased the cantus firmus melodically and rhythmically. Ockeghem's Missa Au travail suis is based on a rondeau of uncertain authorship, but like Missa Fors seulement and Missa Ma maistresse, the chanson tenor is stated literally and in its entirety within the Kyrie. In Missa Mi mi, Ockeghem alludes briefly and literally to his bergerette Presque transi, and similarly in the Missa L'homme armé, Ockeghem alludes once to Robert Morton's chanson Il sera pour vous/L'homme armé. It appears, then, that Ockeghem had a different approach to borrowing depending on whether he wrote the model himself or borrowed from another composer. He borrowed literally in the masses that were based on his own work or in masses with brief allusions. Because Ockeghem used literal quotations in cases where he borrowed from himself, this suggests that Missa Au travail suis is based on his own chanson. Ockeghem's polyphonic quotations demonstrate his individuality as a composer who used different borrowing techniques depending on the authorship of the model.

Works: Ockeghem: Missa Fors seulement (40-43), Missa Ma maistresse (43-45), Missa De plus en plus (45-49), Missa Au travail suis (49-53), Missa Mi mi (53-57), Missa L'homme armé (57-60).

Sources: Ockeghem: Fors seulement l'actente (40-43), Ma maistresse (43-45), Presque transi (53-57), L'aultre d'antan; Binchois: De plus en plus (45-49); Barbingant or Ockeghem: Au travail suis (49-53); Morton: Il sera pour vous/L'homme armé (57-60).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Analyses of improvised jazz music have focused either on musical-structural or group-interactive elements. For the Art Ensemble of Chicago, an avant-garde jazz collective founded in the late 1960s by Roscoe Mitchell, musical-structural and group-interactive elements are inseparable. Two live recordings demonstrate an interactive framework in which members of the group refer to multiple Art Ensemble compositions to build up to a full-length performance of a single work. Within a single interactive framework, performers freely incorporate bass lines, melodic fragments, timbres, and rhythmic motives associated with these compositions.

Works: Roscoe Mitchell (composer) and The Art Ensemble of Chicago (performers): A Jackson in Your House (60-61); Lester Bowie and Don Moye (composers) and The Art Ensemble of Chicago (performers): Mata Kimasu (61-65).

Sources: Roscoe Mitchell: A Jackson in Your House (60-61), Duffvipels (60), Get in Line (60); Albert Ayler, Bells (61); Lester Bowie and Don Moye: Mata Kimasu (61-65); Roscoe Mitchell: People in Sorrow (63).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Nathan Blustein

Index Classifications: General

South African kwaito group Boom Shaka’s 1998 version of the hymn Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika (Nkosi Sikelela from the album Words of Wisdom), despite being seen by many South Africans as disrespectful of the religiously and nationalistically loaded hymn, successfully re-imagined the future of South African youth culture in the post-apartheid era. Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika was composed in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga and became the anthem of the African National Congress in 1925. A multilingual version of the hymn incorporating the apartheid-era anthem Die Stem has been the national anthem of South Africa since 1997. Kwaito music, a South African variant of House music that is typically produced by slowing down House tracks and adding vocals and samples, became an important means of expression for black youths following the end of apartheid in 1994. Boom Shaka’s Nkosi Sikelela is built on a looped four-measure sequence with a different chord progression than the original hymn. The opening section includes a sample of a 1998 Nelson Mandela speech appealing to African allies of the liberated South Africa. The second section introduces Boom Shaka’s Lebo Mathosa singing the opening eight measures of Nkosi Sekelel’ iAfrika , slightly modified but in the original C Major, over the loop sequence in A Minor. The familiar tune is harmonically recontextualized, yielding dissonance where there was stability in the original. In the third section, Boom Shaka’s Thembe Seete sings the same eight measures of Nkosi Sekelel’ iAfrika modulated down a minor third to match the loop in A Minor. Although hermeneutical readings of Boom Shaka’s Nkosi Sikelela are fraught—especially surrounding assertions of a rejection of “Western” harmony—post-apartheid black empowerment is apparent in the re-composition of a culturally and politically significant hymn in the globally-mediated style of kwaito.

Works: Boom Shaka: Nkosi Sikelela (109-13)

Sources: Enoch Sontonga: Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika (109-13)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

This article is designed primarily to introduce the music of Crumb to its English readership on the occasion of Crumb's appearance at the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival. The author discusses Crumb's use of quotation on two levels: (1) the art of allusion to other works or styles, and (2) actual quotation. Crumb's use of quotation is primarily seen as the inclusion of tonal elements in atonal surroundings to give them new meaning. Steinitz describes these quotations as "in major keys of either several sharps or flats whose comforting warmth contrasts with the hard-edged or bleakly desolate surroundings" (p. 845).

Works: Crumb: Eleven Echoes of Autumn,Black Angels,Voice of the Whale,Makrokosmos I,Makrokosmos II,Night of the Four Moons,Music for a Summer Evening.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Will Sadler

Despite Varèse's claims to being entirely independent-minded, an early mélodie not intended for publication, Un grand sommeil noir, shows distinct traces of being composed with forebears in mind. Fauré, Hahn, and Debussy all set texts by Paul Verlaine, and Dirk Foch, Raoul Laparra, and Gustave Sandrew set the text of Un grand sommeil noir, but it was Debussy's L'Ombre et arbres that Varèse used as a model for his setting. Both settings make use of the octatonic scale and of a matrix of a half step followed by a tritone, a pitch set that would also appear in Varèse's Arcana. The final measures of Varèse's mélodie are an exorcism of Debussy from his own style, accomplished by harking back to the end of Act IV of Pelléas et Mélisande.

Works: Varèse: Un grand sommeil noir (53-61), Arcana (56-57).

Sources: Debussy: Ariettes Oubliées (57), L'Ombre et arbres (57-59), Pelléas et Mélisande (61).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Geelhoed

Bruckner's influence led twice to a qualitative change in Mahler's career as a composer of symphonies, first in the Second and later in the Ninth Symphony. Stephan discusses correspondences of melody (remarkably similar thematic material), formal concepts (structure of the exposition, false reprise), use of chorale, and dispositions of sound. Stephan even raises the question whether the listener has to keep Bruckner's works in mind in order to understand Mahler adequately.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (Resurrection), Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Discusses the methodological change in making "music about music" which was introduced by Stravinsky around 1920. The concept of creating an updated and/or "improved" setting for familiar thematic material is exemplified here by Baroque practice and related to the late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century vogue involving both salon pieces and serious variation sets and fantasies. The musical goal of all such works, that is, the exhibition of artistry through inventive development of recognizable material, finds its inversion in the trend, eventually termed Neo-Classicism, of the twentieth-century. Therein new thematic materials, and even new musical languages, could be introduced by placing them within recognizable, traditional structural frameworks.

Works: Bach: Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 579, Organ Pieces on Themes by Corelli, BWV 579, Organ Pieces on Themes by Legrenzi, BWV 574; Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Handel, Variations on a Theme by Haydn; Fortner: Elegies for Piano; Hindemith: Ludus Tonalis, Neues vom Tage; Reger: Prelude and Fugue in G Major for Violin Solo, Op. 117, No. 5, String Trio in A Minor, Op. 77b; Stravinsky: Piano Sonata (1924), Pulcinella.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1900s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

This article provides an interesting perspective with regard to the early twentieth-century attitude toward musical borrowings. Sternberg argues that musical borrowings are a legitimate compositional device employed by a number of great composers. The issue of emulation and competition is also addressed. Although Sternberg asserts that "stealing is stealing," musical borrowing is established as a long-standing compositional tradition, and Sternberg remains inconclusive as to whether or not this tradition should be defined as plagiaristic.

Works: Bizet: Carmen (391); Schumann: "The Happy Farmer," from Album for the Young (392); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 3 (392); Wagner: Lohengrin (392); Schubert: Atlas (393); Liszt: Les Préludes (393).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s

Contributed by: Lee Ann Roripaugh

An analysis of Ives's Second Symphony reveals quotations both from the European Classical tradition and form American tunes. One of the latter, "Down in the cornfield," an excerpt from Stephen Foster's Massa's in de cold ground, appears more often than any other, and Sterne interprets it on four levels. First, it portrays an American landscape; second, it recalls memories of Ives's youth; third, this and all the other American tunes represent Ives setting himself apart from the European tradition and his teacher Horatio Parker in particular, symbolized by the European themes; finally, the text of Massa's in de cold ground tells us of Massa's death, which Sterne interprets as Ives declaring the death of the European symphonic tradition.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Stravinsky's ballet Petrouchka contains authentic Russian folk melodies. Five can be identified based on counterparts in four Russian folk song collections (listed in a bibliography). Ironically, the familiar composers Tchaikovsky, Balakirev, and Rimsky-Korsakov produced less authentic folk song anthologies than did scholars such as Melgunov, Istomin and Diutsch, and Lineva, since the composers were tempted to "improve" on the originals. Stravinsky did not necessarily consult these collections, but these models facilitate understanding and acknowledgment of borrowings. The songs Stravinksy used come from both Christian and pagan traditions. The "Song of the Volochebniki," traditionally sung at Easter, occurs in the first and fourth tableaux and is found in the Rimsky-Korsakov collection. The rare "Song for St. John's Eve," from the Istomin and Diutsch collection, occurs in the first tableau. The fourth tableau also contains "Ia vechor moloda," a popular dance song found in the Rimsky-Korsakov collection, as well as "O Snow Now Thaws" (about soup and love) from the Prokunin-Tchaikovsky collection and "Akh vy sieni, moi sieni" (about a happy bride) from the Swerkoff collection.

Works: Stravinsky: Petrushka.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips, Daniel Bertram

Mozart heard Bach's motet Singet dem Herren ein neues Lied in 1789. The chorale "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" is prominent in this motet. The history of this chorale melody is discussed. Bach himself used the melody in some ten works (listed on pp. 216-17). Mozart may have known several of these works besides the motet which he certainly heard and another he may have heard; four of the works were published during his lifetime. The melody of lines 6-7 of "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" as set in Singet dem Herren largely corresponds to the beginning of Papageno's Lied "Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen" in Die Zauberflöte. (The melody has also been discovered in Haydn's Mondo della Luna.) The strong impression made upon Mozart by Bach's music (evident in Mozart's increased interest in counterpoint in several works) is here made manifest in the form of a quotation.

Works: Bach: Cantata No. 17, Cantata No. 28,Cantata No. 29, Cantata No. 51, Cantata No. 167, Motets Singet dem Herrn and Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren, Chorales Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 389) and Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 390), Organ Prelude Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV, Anhang, No. 60); Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Establishing whether a musical quotation is deliberate or whether it is an unconscious reminiscence is not simple. Quotation may take various forms, including variations, where it is well-disguised. It may be used for many different purposes--to convey emulation, to enhance the plot of a drama, to add textual significance, for symbolic significance, and for popular appeal. Self-quotation may take the form of organic motivic quotation.

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 (430), Diabelli Variations (431); Peter Cornelius: Beethoven-Lied for mixed choir, Op. 10 (431); Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice (431); Mozart: Bastien et Bastienne (431); Don Giovanni (431), Die Zauberflöte (431).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1600s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Index Classifications: 1500s

Denis Forman's claim that J. C. Bach transferred certain stylistic devices of opera to his piano concertos is an uncritical assumption. In his study of Mozart piano concertos, Forman argues that the virtuosic solo passage which occurs at the end of the first solo section--the "piano climax"--is essentially a musical device particular to da capo aria, conceived and developed in opera first and transferred to concerto later. He believes that this transfer was first made by J. C. Bach, in two of his concertos published in 1763, which subsequently influenced young Mozart. A study of the keyboard concertos of C. P. E. Bach shows that he used a similar kind of cadential passage as early as the 1720s, under the influence of J. S. Bach and contemporary Italian opera composers. Transferring musical devices from one genre to another is an oversimplified theory. Knowing that J. C. Bach studied with C. P. E. Bach, it is equally unlikely that J. C. Bach discovered the "piano climax" in the aria and simply transferred it to an instrumental genre.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 25 in C Major, K. 503 (245-52), "Se il tuo duol" from Idomeneo (253-54); J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (255-56), Keyboard Concerto in F Minor, Op. 1, No. 2 (257-58, 260-61), "Trafiggero quell core" from Allesandro nell'Indie (259); Vivaldi: Concerto in G Minor, Op. 4, No. 6 (263-65); C. P. E. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, H. 404 /Wq. 2 (264-67), Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, H. 413/Wq. 10 (267-68); Hasse: "Corre al cimento ardita" from Armino (267-69); C. P. E. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in A Major, H. 411/Wq. 8 (270-71), Keyboard Concerto in C Minor, H. 441/Wq. 31 (273-75).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

The influence of Chopin on Delius is illustrated by the appearance of a particular dominant 13th chord from Chopin's Waltz in E minor in Delius's Sea Drift. Delius's affinity for added-note harmonies may stem from the richly-spaced dominant 9th and added 6th chords of the E major trio of the same waltz. Wagner's leaping, flexible bass line from the Ride of the Valkyries nfluenced Delius's Messe des Lebens.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

A recurrent theme in coming-of-age films starring female protagonists is that of feminine interaction with records. The record collector has usually been associated with a masculine stereotype, but in films depicting feminine interactions with records, the inscribed voice of the record expresses the girl's character. A scene depicting a transformational rite in Heavenly Creatures features music that slips between diegetic use of Mario Lanza's Donkey Serenade, the girls' own singing of the song, and a non-diegetic newly composed orchestral version. In The Virgin Suicides, songs from records, while non-diegetic, organize the relationship of a young couple. The record and its music function as a ritual object in the narrative as the girl experiences a coming-of-age transformation.

Works: Terry Zwigoff (director): Sound track to Ghost World (152-53, 158-59); Mark Herman (director): Sound track to Little Voice (159-60); Peter Jackson (director): Sound track to Heavenly Creatures (160-63); Sofia Coppola (director): Sound track to The Virgin Suicides (163-66).

Sources: Skip James: Devil Got My Woman (152); Sammy Cahn and Nicholas Brodszky (songwriters), Mario Lanza (performer): Be My Love (161); Rudolf Friml and Herbert Stothart (composers), Robert Wright and George "Chet" Forrest (lyrics), Mario Lanza (performer): Donkey Serenade (161-62); Ann Wilson and Nancy Wilson (songwriters), Heart (performers): Magic Man (164-65), Crazy On You (165).

Index Classifications: 1900s, 2000s, Film

Contributed by: Karen Anton Stafford

Michael Kamen’s score to Die Hard is both an integral part of the complete text and an interpretation of the film. The score focuses on the character of Hans Gruber rather than the hero John McClane, and Kamen’s choices aid in the characterization of Gruber as a sophisticated anti-hero rather than a villain. In a particularly illuminating scene, Kamen further musically distinguishes Gruber from McClane by scoring a speech as a recitative and aria, and the music is sensitive to Alan Rickman’s delivery. Kamen communicates cultural information and further elevates Gruber by the extensive use of borrowed music. Whereas McClane has no musical theme, Kamen assigns quotations and manipulations of the Ode to Joy from Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony to Gruber. The choice of Beethoven was a suggestion from the film’s director, John McTiernan, influenced by Wendy (formerly Walter) Carlos’s score for A Clockwork Orange. Kamen’s uses of Beethoven (and Singin’ in the Rain, also used in A Clockwork Orange) are dramatically and musically distinct from the earlier film. Whereas in A Clockwork Orange the borrowings are largely quotations that frame the violent and transgressive onscreen acts, Kamen’s score manipulates the borrowed melodies as themes appropriate to the dramatic action and cultural suggestions of the film.

Works: John McTiernan (director) and Michael Kamen (composer): score to Die Hard (552, 561-72, 575-80); Stanley Kubrick (director) and Wendy (Walter) Carlos (composer): score to A Clockwork Orange (568-72).

Sources: James Lord Pierpont: Jingle Bells (561-62); Felix Bernard and Dick Smith: Winter Wonderland (561, 563); Sammy Cahn and Jule Styne: Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow! (561); Arthur Freed and Nacio Herb Brown: Singin’ in the Rain (561-63, 568-71); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 (563-71).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Film

Contributed by: Kate Altizer

Bach's organ trios are divided into three categories: free works, chorale settings, and transcriptions. It is likely that three organ transcriptions, the Trio in G Major, BWV 1027a, and two trios not listed in the Schmieder catalogue, are not by Bach, although they are crucial to the understanding of a possible lost Bach chamber work. Stinson shows how these transcriptions rework the Bach originals and suggests names of Bach's contemporaries who could have been responsible for these transcriptions.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alfredo Colman

Index Classifications: 1900s

[Discusses collage technique in recent music on pp. 224, 266, 277, and passim; citation from Tibor Kneif, "Collage oder Naturalismus?"]

Index Classifications: 1900s

Despite the common interpretation that Johannes Ciconia’s quotations of polyphonic songs by Filippotto da Caserta in Sus une fontayne reflect a relationship of homage between the two composers, the evidence suggests that contemporary audiences would have understood the quotations as ironic gamesmanship. Although the sources of the quotations are never acknowledged in Ciconia’s text, their appearance can be interpreted as a type of diegetic music within the fictional realm of Ciconia’s virelai. That is, the fictional speaker of Ciconia’s text can hear Filippotto’s music. Similar to the word play of some contemporaneous poems, which require a reader to follow encoded instructions to discover the author’s name, Ciconia’s unattributed quotations invite the audience to identify the quoted composer through the interplay of metaphors (such as the fountain) and musical symbols (such as mensuration signs). Thus, Ciconia’s work seems to suggest that he was not a student paying homage to a teacher but a master composer.

Works: Ciconia: Sus une fontayne (361-90).

Sources: Filippotto da Caserta (Philipoctus de Caserta): En remirant vo douce portraiture (362-64, 371-72, 380, 388-89), En attendant soufrir m’estuet (365, 372-79), De ma dolour (362, 366-67, 372).

Index Classifications: 1300s

Contributed by: Daniel Rogers

Modena, Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, Alpha.M.5.24 (often referred to as the “Modena Manuscript”) is an important collection of Ars subtilior French songs, including some composed by Matteo da Perugia and Antonella de Caserta. The contributions by these two composers have garnered attention because they invoke music from the previous generation’s most influential composer, Guillaume de Machaut. Following a common practice of the late 14th century, Antonello de Caserta imbues his song Biauté parfaite with the metrical and textual qualities found in Machaut’s song of the same title. Matteo da Perugia uses Machaut’s Se vous n’estes as a scaffolding for a new composition by adding a new countertenor to the original song. He also quotes two Machaut songs directly in his ballade Se je me plaing de fortune. Tables and charts with extensive musical examples highlight the connection between the Modena Manuscript and Machaut’s works. These examples also demonstrate the variety of borrowing and reworking that occurs in compositions of the early fourteenth century, which are consistent with copying and transmission practices elsewhere during the period. Even so, the relationship of the composers represented within the manuscript to their looming predecessor is difficult to interpret without the referencing later notions of authorship and authority. This problem is alleviated by the emerging sense of authorship for secular songs and a new practice of circulating polyphonic songs. This opens the possibility for seeing an emerging historical self-consciousness among composers at the end of the fourteenth century. Thus, the invocation of Machaut in the Modena Manuscript can be interpreted as an early example of the borrower invoking the authority of the source.

Works: Antonello de Caserta: Biauté parfaite (172, 175-77); Matteo da Perugia: Se vous n’estes (172, 177-80), Se je me plaing de fortune (172, 180-87); Anonymous: Dame qui fut (185-87); Johannes Ciconia: Sus une fontayne (187).

Sources: Machaut: Se vous n’estes (177-80), De Fortune je me doi plaindre (179-87), Se je me plaing, je n’en puis mais (179-87); Filippotto da Caserta: En atendant, souffrir m’estuet (188), Sus une fontayne (188).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini, Elizabeth Stoner, Nicolette van den Bogerd

Stone traces the performance history and historical importance of Ives's Fourth Symphony and describes each movement in detail. Stone attacks what he considers the noncommittal quality of Ives's music, his reluctance to compose using his own thematic ideas, as well as Ives's tendency to build complex and unconventional musical structures from simple and familiar tunes that have no musical relevance to the whole work and no interrelationship among themselves. While the symphony is significant for its historic interest and because in makes an enormous impact on anyone who listens to it, Stone concludes that its many self-contradictions in taste, artistry, and spirit seem too serious and too powerful to permit wholehearted acceptance.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

Index Classifications: 1800s

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Orlande de Lassus's Primo Libro di Madrigali a cinque voci, published by Antonio Gardano in 1555, was an attempt by Lassus to write serious music in the style of the Venetian masters. He borrowed material from several of Adrian Willaert's madrigals—published only later in the Musica nova from 1559—hoping to attract notice from the Venetian clientele. Because Lassus's earlier madrigal books were published in Rome, some scholars have asserted that Book I à 5 was also printed in an earlier edition. It appears, however, that Lassus intended this manuscript to be published in Venice from the start, evidenced by its borrowings and appeal to Venetian tastes. The poetry within this work is overwhelmingly devoted to Petrarch—a distinctive characteristic in comparison with Lassus's other madrigal collections, however in keeping with Willaert's and Rore's collections. The more extensive use of chromaticism and cross relations in this collection is probably drawn from Rore, while several of Lassus's madrigals show resemblances with Willaert. In Lassus's and Willaert's settings of Pien d'un vago pensier, the melodic and harmonic similarities are striking within the prima parte. In their settings of Cantai, hor piango, both use the same tonal type and evade cadences on the E final. Lassus also uses chromaticism sparingly, following Willaert's restraint with regard to textual expression. Lassus's Book I à 5 is an effort both to pay homage to Willaert and to strengthen his prestige as a composer writing for the Venetian audience.

Works: Lassus: Pien d'un vago pensier (548-52), Cantai, hor piango (552-56).

Sources: Willaert: Pien d'un vago pensier (548-52), Cantai, hor piango (552-56).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Histories of hip-hop typically link the vital practice of sampling with African American culture, but a parallel history of sampling by Jewish artists—in particular, Steinski (Steven Stein), the Beastie Boys, and Beck—reveals a practice driven by Jewish worldviews that exists outside of hip-hip. The concept of fragmentation is pervasive in both religious and secular Jewish culture, leading to a cultural affinity toward sampling. An early precursor to sampling by Jewish artists is Frank Silver and Irving Cohn’s 1922 song Yes! We Have No Bananas, the chorus of which is a patchwork of quotations from other songs. Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman’s 1956 novelty song The Flying Saucer, which samples eleven recent pop songs as “answers” to a reporter’s questions about an alien invasion, has a more direct link to later hip-hop sampling. Steinski himself recognizes The Flying Saucer as a precursor to his sampling technique. Double Dee (Doug DiFranco) and Steinski released The Payoff Mix in 1983, the first of their underground The Lesson series. The Payoff Mix is distinctive in both the extent of sampling and the function of sampling as the foundation of the track. Double Dee and Steinski’s synthesis of samples into a new, seamless whole mirrors the kabbalistic account of creation. In 1989, the Beastie Boys released their second album, Paul’s Boutique, which built on Steinski’s sampling aesthetic in its use of over a hundred samples throughout the album. The layered construction of sampling in Paul’s Boutique was also anticipated by The Lesson series. In his 1993 song Loser, alternative rock artist Beck uses samples as parody, recalling Jewish insider-outsider humor. The relationship between Jewish thought and sampling long preceded hip-hip and is similar to, but distinct from, African American sampling.

Works: Beastie Boys: Rhymin’ and Stealin’ (51-52), License to Ill (album) (64, 67), Paul’s Boutique (album) (67-68); Frank Silver and Irving Cohn: Yes! We Have No Bananas (60-61); Bill Buchanan and Dickie Goodman: The Flying Saucer (61-63); Double Dee (Doug DiFranco) and Steinski (Steven Stein): The Lesson: The Payoff Mix (62, 63-67); John Oswald: Dab (66); Beck: Loser (68-69)

Sources: Led Zeppelin: When The Levee Breaks (51-52); Black Sabbath: Sweet Leaf (51-52); The Clash: I Fought The Law (51-52); Handel: Messiah, HWV 56 (60); Traditional: My Bonnie Lies Over The Ocean (60), Seeing Nellie Home (60); Cole Porter: An Old-Fashioned Garden (60); Michael William Balfe: The Bohemian Girl (60); The Platters: The Great Pretender (61); Elvis Presley: Heartbreak Hotel (61); Smiley Lewis: I Hear You Knocking (61); Little Richard: Tutti Frutti (62); G.L.O.B.E. and Whiz Kid: Play That Beat Mr. DJ (63-65); Hamilton Bohannon: Take The Country To New York City (65); The Supremes: Stop! In The Name of Love (65); Indeed: Last Night A DJ Saved My Life (65); Culture Club: I’ll Tumble 4 Ya (65); Michael Jackson: Bad (66); Malcolm McLaren: Dude Rock (66); Dr. John Creaux (Mac Rebennack, songwriter), Johnny Jenkins (performer): Walk On Gilded Splinters (68)

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The practice of recomposition, in which compositions from earlier periods are absorbed and modified in new ones, is evident in many works of the twentieth century. In Stravinsky's Pulcinella, Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra, and Webern's orchestration of the Ricercare from Bach's The Musical Offering, a post-tonal musical structure is imposed upon a tonal model. In the Schoenberg the first movement is a recomposition of Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7; the last three movements are fantasias on material drawn from Handel. Schoenberg's recomposition enhances the motivic structure of the model. "Motivic saturation" is also evident in Schoenberg's orchestration of the Bach Chorale Prelude, Schmücke dich (BMW 654). The Stravinsky is a recomposition of music by Pergolesi and others. Recomposition is also evident in Stravinsky's orchestration of Bach's Canonic Variations on Vom Himmel Hoch. He also recomposed two songs by Wolf and worked on setting selected preludes and fugues of The Well-Tempered Clavier. In general, these twentieth-century recompositions force us to rehear each model as a network of motivic associations.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The Lyric Suite of Alban Berg has several connections to Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde. The final movement is strictly serial, yet Berg created borrowings from the music drama through the structure of his row forms. At one point, Berg even quotes the opening bars of the Prelude to Tristan, made possible through the structure of the pitch row. Furthermore, the set-type of the Tristan chord is a subset of one of the two row forms used in this movement. What is remarkable about the borrowings from Tristan is that they relate to the secret program of Berg's work. The names Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs-Robettin create the pitches A, B flat, B, F (0, 1, 2, 6), a motive whose set type is the same as a Tristan motive, in the first four pitches of the cello, thus creating a correlation throughout the two works and an association between the Tristan myth and Berg's unfulfilled relationship. In Tristan, the cello part is heard in the highest voice in inversion. This motive, a minor sixth followed by three semitones in the opposite direction, creates the set-type (0, 1, 2, 3, 7). Berg's use of serialism thus creates a strong relationship with the past.

Works: Berg: Lyric Suite (33-41).

Sources: Wagner: Prelude to Tristan und Isolde (33-41).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1900s

The nature of the music industry makes it difficult to positively isolate the author of a given musical recording. Whom do we include from the list of composers, arrangers, performers, producers, sound engineers, and other figures associated with a recording? The group production systems involved in music and cinema are frequently set against the presumably individual efforts involved in writing or painting, but the latter types engage with a complex system of intertexts and conventions. Similarly, musical performances form connections with prior performances, and in so doing, raise questions about what is original in any given performance. Historically, the relationship between songwriter and song has been a source of anxiety. Since the mid-twentieth century, popular music has addressed this anxiety through increased expectations that singer-songwriters will produce their own music, and that they will build up a body of their own music that represents some sort of coherent identity for that artist (allowing of course for the natural evolution and development of an artist over the span of his or her career). Due to the recognized connections between singer-songwriter and song, cover songs and other forms of borrowing are now understood as deliberate "gestures of affinity" (203) that point to a specific artist.

Index Classifications: 1900s, Popular

Contributed by: Paul Killinger

Index Classifications: 1800s

Diversity was a prominent feature of Poulenc's view of life and personality and manifested itself in his compositions. One aspect of his compositional process which contributed to such diversity was his habit of borrowing from other composers and from his own works. In the earlier part of his career, Poulenc tended to borrow from others (for example, in the Sextet he quoted Stravinsky and Hindemith) whereas in the late chamber sonatas self-borrowing predominated, particularly from his opera, Dialogues des Carmélites (for example, in the Flute Sonata).

Works: Poulenc: Three Pieces for Piano (7), Sextet (96), Sonata for Flute and Piano (166-67), Sonata for Oboe and Piano (192-93), Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (193).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1400s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Melodic quotation is the process by which a jazz instrumentalist quotes melodic fragments from one or more jazz compositions, while improvising on another. This technique is used to import various elements from the source material, such as the imagery of the lyrics or title. Depending on how they are combined, these elements can generate meaning through ironic juxtaposition, thematic unity, or narrative coherence. Additional meaning may be generated by the ways and the degrees to which the quotation is altered in the moment. This is both a musical and rhetorical phenomenon, and recognition by the listener is required. Since quotations may come from multiple sources—of varying degrees of obscurity—different levels of competence will result in a unique meaning for each listener. Melodic quotation in jazz improvisation is still seen somewhat as gimmick and is not as likely to be heard on commercial recordings as it is in live performance in small clubs. Despite this, the technique merits consideration, especially for studies of audience experience.

Works: Dexter Gordon (performer): There’s a Small Hotel (6-7); Jimi Hendrix (performer): The Star-Spangled Banner (20).

Sources: Wagner: “Bridal Chorus” from Lohengrin (6); Richard Rodgers (composer) and Lorenz Hart (lyricist): There’s a Small Hotel (6-7); Francis Scott Key (lyricist): The Star-Spangled Banner (20); Daniel Butterfield: Taps (20).

Index Classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Molly Covington

The Missa L'homme armé by Jacob Obrecht is a parody of Busnois's mass on the same theme. Obrecht's mass quotes the tenor exactly as does Busnois, and even Obrecht's free sections correspond to the other composer's mass. These similarities are, however, contrasted by Obrecht's use of new canons, more extensive use of imitation, and new harmonic schemes. The relations between these masses supports the theorist Aron's notion that Busnois had written the model and that Obrecht's work is a tribute to the "authority" of that model. Morton's chanson setting of L'homme armé also gives credence to Busnois as the author of the model, since his work is almost entirely a borrowing of the "Tu solus altissimus" section of Busnois's mass.

Works: Obrecht: Missa L'homme armé; Busnois: Missa L'homme armé; Morton: L'homme armé.

Sources: Busnois (?): L'homme armé; Busnois: Missa L'homme armé.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

The correspondence between the liturgical situation and musical style of motets in the sixteenth century justifies a classification of types. One can view these particular types in the music of Palestrina. The most distinctive motet form for the Mass is the sequence, which lent itself well to the motet form because of its adaptable parallel structure. Palestrina wrote twelve motets based on sequences, some of which paraphrase the borrowed material and others of which utilize homophonic textures without the chant melody. The bulk of Palestrina's motets can be divided into two main classes of antiphon and respond. In the motets utilizing an antiphon, the paraphrase technique is much more pronounced, and in the cases of Ave reginia coelorum and Salve regina, the structure of the borrowed material results in a division into two choirs. In motets in which a respond is borrowed, the works more often have clearly delineated sections, and the first section sets the text of the Respond proper and the second section sets the verse and concludes with the final lines of the respond. This structure also offers an opportunity to experiment with contrast between the sections. Palestrina's motet Libera me Domine is a respond setting that features a number of exceptional characteristics; it includes paraphrase technique although that is not commonly used in respond settings, and it distinctly sets the plainsong model in a polyphonic setting. Finally, motet settings of the psalms or canticles call for yet another treatment. In this case the eight-part chorus is typically used, the chant is not present, and the text is often set homophonically because of its extensive length.

Works: Palestrina: Alma redemptoris mater (157), Ave regina coelorum (158), Salve regina (158), Libera me Domine 159-60).

Sources: Antiphons Alma redemptoris mater (157), Ave regina coelorum (158), Salve regina (158); Respond Libera me Domine 159-60.

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Britten's "eclecticism" incorporates elements from Bach, Schubert, Berg, Stravinsky, and Purcell. The opening of Peter Grimes is described as having been "lifted" from one of the Brandenburg Concertos, while in Act II the burgesses' hornpipe and the singing of the rector are considered "sheer Schubert." Britten is compared without elaboration to Berg in terms of harmony, while Stravinsky is evoked in relation to parody in Albert Herring. Purcell's influence is described as "the most fruitful and readily definable" of Britten's manners, but this is not elaborated.

Works: Britten: Peter Grimes (248), Sinfonia da Requiem (249), Beggar's Opera (249), Spring Symphony (249), Albert Herring (249), Saint Nicolas (249), String Quartet No. 2 (249), Violin Concerto (249).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nikola D. Strader

Stuckenschmidt points to two similar (he calls them "identical") passages in the music of Debussy and Berg. Each passage involves five chords in which the top voice moves from G to Eb while the bass moves by fourths and fifths as follows: Bb-Eb-ab-Db-Gb. The passages occur in Debussy's Six épigraphes antiques composed in 1914 (a suite for piano duet; the passage is in the fourth piece, "Pour la danseuse aux crotales") and in Berg's Vier Lieder, Op. 2, completed in 1909 (the passage is in the last song). The Debussy suite incorporates music he had written some fourteen years earlier for Pierre Louy's Chansons de Bilitis, the passage in question, however, is not present in the earlier music. It appears, therefore, that Debussy is referring (probably unconsciously) to Berg. A famous precedent for this sort of reference occurs as an unusual chord in Ravel's Habanera (1895) is repeated literally in Debussy's "Soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes (1903).

Works: Debussy: "Soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes (1903) (459); Scriabin: Piano Sonata No. 6 (456).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Bartók’s interest in the music of Bach, Beethoven, and Debussy, and the desire to incorporate their styles in his music, is evident in his Second String Quartet. The work exhibits contrapuntal texture, classical form, and complex harmonies. All three movements are based on classical forms: the first movement is in sonata form, the second movement is in a rondo form, and the final movement is a sonatina. Debussy’s influence on this quartet is demonstrated by Bartók’s musical phrases that are built on seventh and ninth chords that descend in parallel motion, as well as the use of whole tone scales. The use of contrapuntal techniques and the polyphonic texture allude to Bach’s compositional style.

Works: Bartók: String Quartet No. 2, Sz. 67 (30, 32), Twenty Hungarian Folk Songs for Voice and Piano, Sz. 92 (32), For Children, Sz. 42 (32), Sonatina for Piano, Sz. 55 (32).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Nicolette van den Bogerd

Index Classifications: 1400s

Questions regarding the authenticity of J. S. Bach's Sonata in E-flat Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1031, resurfaced when several similarities were noticed between it and Quantz's Sonata in E-flat Major, QV2:18. Both works share stylistic, thematic, and structural elements, notably in the first and third movements. For example, the first movements are in common time and feature a ritornello structure that uses an identical musical motive. The second movements are sicilianos in minor keys, and the third movements are quick, bipartite compositions in 3/8. The use of parallel thirds, two-measure units, and a concluding tonic pedal further connect the final movements. Because BWV 1031 has never been firmly attributed to Bach, the similarities between it and QV2:18 may indicate that Quantz composed both pieces. The contrapuntal writing is not typical of Bach and the range of the flute is quite limited, unlike Bach's other works for flute. Yet the first and third movements of BWV 1031 are thematically complex and extended in length, which, though not incongruent with Quantz's compositional procedures, is more characteristic of Bach. The opening ritornello of BWV 1031 also shares several characteristics with the opening ritornello of a work firmly attributed to Bach: the Sonata in A Major for flute and cembalo, BWV 1032. Thus while it is possible to see that QV2:18 served as a model for BWV 1031, it remains impossible to determine whether Bach or Quantz is the work's composer.

Works: J. S. Bach: Sonata in E-flat Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1031 (31-47), Sonata in A Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1032 (44-47), Sonata in G Minor for Violin and Cembalo, BWV 1020 (45-47).

Sources: Quantz: Sonata in E-flat Major, QV2:18 (31-47), Sonata in G Minor, QV2:35 (45-47).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Peter Maxwell Davies's compositions have often been interpreted through dialectical criticism. Davies seeks a fundamental truth through the juxtaposition of opposing ideas. In the case of Vesalii Icones, this opposition occurs between Davies's use of a plainsong, Ecce manus tradentis, and portions of Pierre de la Rue's Missa L'homme armé. Scholars tend to read this work as an opposition of good and evil resulting in the eventual triumph of evil manifested in the Antichrist. Davies achieves this conflict through stylistic juxtaposition, parody, stripping the music of any decoration or embellishment in a reverse Schenkerian process, and stylistic transformation of material into a foxtrot parody. Yet, this interpretation of the work ultimately rests on the shoulders of Davies's analysis, his "program" given in the liner notes to the recording of Vesalii Icones, and his attitude toward popular music as inherently untruthful. One can also interpret this composition in terms of deconstruction. Deconstruction, unlike dialectics, attempts to eradicate a closed system of interpretation and resists the urge to use the opposing ideology to reinforce the primary belief. In this composition, the opposing forces are rarely stable enough to produce dominance of one over the other. Instead, what Davies has done is to juxtapose several conflicting ideas through "distortion," "ambiguity," "dissolution," and "fragmentation." Davies borrows from a specific repertoire to undermine that repertoire and distort ideas for which it stands, in an attempt to deconstruct those ideas, but what emerges results is an open composition in which multiple interpretations are possible.

Works: Davies: Vesalii Icones (14-20), Missa super L'homme armé (14).

Sources: Plainsong: Ecce manus tradentis (15-16); Pierre de la Rue: Missa L'homme armé (16).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Christopher Holmes

Index Classifications: 1500s

New York jazz quartet Mostly Other People Do the Killing (MOPDtK)’s 2014 album Blue, a detailed, note-for-note recreation of Miles Davis’s 1959 album Kind of Blue, calls attention to the sonic materiality of music and encourages listeners to rethink what constitutes a musical work. Founded in 2003, MOPDtK has long taken a playful, irreverent approach to jazz history that exemplifies Fredric Jameson’s conception of postmodernism. In preparing to record Blue, the members of MOPDtK meticulously transcribed each instrumental part and rehearsing the nuances of each Kind of Blue performance to achieve maximum fidelity. The album’s liner notes are a reprint of Jorge Luis Borges’s short story “Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote,” a 1939 spoof of literary criticism concerning a word-for-word recreation of Don Quixote, implying that Blue is a musical actualization of Borges’s premise. This connection supports the assessment that Blue is about the meaning of artistic works and authorship. However, this understanding does not account for the materiality of music specifically. Kind of Blue sounds the way it sounds because of the specific musicians, their specific bodies and experiences, the specific space it was recorded in, and the specific technologies used to record it, all of which contributed to the sonic vibrations that constitute Kind of Blue, and none of which Blue can recreate. From the perspective of musicking assemblages—that is, thinking of music as sonic energy circulating within material arrangements, not rarefied objects—asking if Blue sounds like Kind of Blue is irrelevant; there is no singular musical object “Kind of Blue” to compare to. While there are many possible interpretations of Blue, it can disrupt listening habits and encourage a kind of listening that goes beyond assessing static musical works.

Works: Mostly Other People Do the Killing: Blue (99-114).

Sources: Miles Davis: Kind of Blue (99-114).

Index Classifications: 2000s, Jazz

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Bach's choice of the opening chorus from Cantata 12 as the basis for the Crucifixus of the B-minor Mass is based on Aristotelian rhetorical principles. In both instances, there are identical topoi, predicament, and species. The same musical-rhetorical gestures of Cantata 12 are thus appropriate to the Crucifixus as well. Thus Bach's choice of model for parody goes well beyond strictly musical or textual considerations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232: Crucifixus.

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12/1.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Poland experienced an awakening of interest in art and music in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In addition to the imported traditions of western Europe which accompanied an influx of Italian musicians to Poland, a body of music existed which, although not actual folk music, was the music of everyday life in Poland, the music which accompanied the rituals of church and social events. This music, which included the traditional dance forms of the mazurka and polonaise, provided the basic material for new works such as parody Masses. Other composers quoted popular melodies in various genres such as instrumental canzone and pastorals.

Works: Jan Fabrycy: Parody Mass on the motet In te Domine speravi by Waclaw of Szamotul (106); Gerwazy Gorczycki: Missa Paschalis (106); Marcin Leopolita: Missa Paschalis (106); Marcin Mielczewski: Missa super o glorioso (107); Bartlomiej Pekiel: Missa Paschalis (106).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten