In the use of folk tunes, Glinka was concerned with nothing more than stringing them together into frankly popular fantasias. Efforts of later composers to fuse these tunes into complicated musical organisms (sonata-form on the symphonic scale) failed, according to Abraham, (1) because folk songs are not suited to such treatment and (2) because these composers had a fundamentally wrong conception of Russian folk music as homophonic. The discovery of the polyphonic nature of a great deal of Russian folk-music came just too late to influence the development of Russian art music. The only successful symphonic handling of folk tunes was a matter of "good taste," being shown in the avoidance of virtuosity in the treatment of the material and in not making it an excuse for "talking about oneself." To absorb a great deal of the folk idiom (as Mussorgsky did) and invent original themes from that root was a more successful way to get around the implications of using an original folk tune.

Works: Borodin: Prince Igor (46); Tchaikovsky: String Quartet No. 1 (47), Symphony in F Minor (48f), 1812 Overture (48); Rimsky-Korsakov: Hundred Russian Folk-Songs, Op. 24 (47f), Overture on Russian Themes (48), Easter Festival Overture (54), Capriccio Espagnol (54), Sinfonietta, Op. 31 (55); Balakirev: Overture on Three Russian Themes in B Minor (48), A Thousand Years (52f.); Beethoven: String Quartet No. 8 in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (55); Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov (55).

Sources: Sidel Vanyz (47), Vo pole bereza stoyala (48), "Over the field creeps the mist" (56).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Among the Attaingnant publications between 1528 and 1530, there are several cases of borrowings and duplications of the following kinds: (1) In four pieces (out of approximately 350) duplication involves more than one part. (2) The borrowing of a single melodic line from a four-part chanson for use in another chanson à 4 is rare. (3) Cases in which three- and four-voice works share the same text have a musical connection: they mostly share the superius. That one chanson is modeled on another one is difficult to prove. But if two chansons employ similar melodic contours, use the same cadential note for each phrase, and duplicate a harmonic passage as well, then the argument for borrowing is good.

Works: Attaingnant: Or plaise a Dieu (533), En souspirant (534), Une pastourelle gentille (534), En regardant son gratieux maintien (535).

Sources: Attaingnant: En devisant (533), Si vostre couer (534), Quand vous vouderz faire une amye (534), En regardant son gratieux maintien (535), De toy me plaintz (536).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Cantus firmus is treated differently in several a cappella works by Ernst Pepping. All the pieces selected borrow from the sacred songs of the Bohemian Brothers.

Works: Works: Pepping: Deutsche Choralmesse für sechsstimmigen Chor (23), Spandauer Chorbuch (23), Liedmotetten nach Weisen der Böhmischen Brüder für Chor a capella (24ff.), Gesänge der Böhmischen Brüder in Variationen für Chor a cappella (31).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In the third movement of his Sinfonia, Berio uses collage on three levels. (1) The Scherzo ("Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt") from Mahler's Second Symphony, of which the proportions remain essentially the same, makes up the structural basis. The addition stresses the proportional importance of the fateful number eleven standing for imperfection, which in turn is related to the meaning of Mahler's scherzo. (2) In the course of the whole movement, Berio quotes composers from Bach through Stockhausen, and while we recognize some of the quotations immediately, others can hardly be perceived. (3) The text consists of passages from Beckett's novel The Unnamable interspersed with words by Joyce, expression marks, political slogans, and phonetic material. Mahler's music implies the quotations on the second level, be it tonally (Berio even changed some notes for tonal reasons), motivically (the minor second functions as a central motive), programmatically, or by instrumentation. Even the disposition of the text follows Mahler and it is often only through the text that we can identify musical quotations. This kind of collage therefore does not destroy but reinterprets the "Fischpredigt." The study includes some didactic suggestions.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2; Berio: Sinfonia.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The LoC manuscript (London Add. 30091) contains fourteen motets that may be divided into two equal halves of seven pieces representing two different styles. All the concordances are listed and each motet is placed in the historical position of the manuscript itself and in the repertory of the early motet (1200-1245). In contrast to the motets nos. 1-7, nos. 8-14 have no clausula source and do not go back to an earlier Latin motet or a version in the old conductus-style. They are contrafacta of bilingual motets, but in contrast to the first group they have hardly been reworked thereafter. From this and other stylistic features, it may be concluded that the second group must be at least twenty years younger than the first. No other manuscript shows the shift from bilingual to Latin contrafacta as clearly as LoC. Adam de la Halle's motet J'os bien a m'amie parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/(In) seculum may be modeled on the original Latin version of Eva quid deciperis/In seculum.

Works: Works: Anonymous motets including contrafacta: Salve salus hominum/O radians stella/Nostrum (161-62); O Maria, decus angelorum/Nostrum (161, 164); Tu decus es decoris/O Maria, beata genitrix/Nostrum (161, 164); Plus bele que/Quant revient/L'autr'ier jouer/Flos filius eius (165); Quant revient/L'autr'ier jouer/Flos filius eius (165); Candida virginitas/Flos filius eius (165-66); Castrum pudicitie/Virgo viget/Flos filius eius (165-66); Flos ascendit/Flos filius eius (167-68); Ne sai que je die/Johanne (170-71); Cecitas arpie fex/Johanne (170-71); Tedet intueri/Te decet (172-75); El mois d'avril/Al cor ai une/Et gaudebit (175); Ypocrite pseudopontifices/Velut stella/Et gaudebit (175-76); Virgo Virginum/Et gaudebit (175-76); Memor tui creatoris/Et gaudebit (175-76); O felix puerpera flos virginum/In seculum (180-81); Hac in die dulce melos/Cumque evigilasset (182); Hac in die dulce melos/Spes vite miseries/Cumque evigilasset (182-83); Balaam, prophetandi patuit/Balaam (183-84); Arbor nobilis/Crux forma penitentie/Sustinere (185-87); Cruci Domini/Crux forma penitentie/Sustinere (185-87); Eva quid deciperis/In seculum (187-88); Adam de la Halle: J'os bien a m'amie parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/(In) seculum (188-89).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although Stockhausen, Nono, and Henze approach the preexistent material differently, they all try to combine simple, tonal melodies with the complex structures of sound (Klangstrukturen) of the avantgarde around 1967. In his Hymnen, Stockhausen borrows different national anthems to represent internationality and disparities between nations. He develops, for example, the Internationale in a way that underlines the program of the composition, the struggle for a peaceful world, gradually synchronizing different layers of sound. Nono's Per Bastiana--Tai-Yang Cheng does not borrow the (communist) Chinese folk song The East Is Red in a traditional way. The pentatonic melody and its intervallic structure permeate the whole composition. "Tai-Yang Cheng," a textual quotation from the song, expresses Nono's hope for a "red shining life" of his daughter Bastiana under the banner of communism. Henze expresses the difficulties of our West-European world by attempting to write a symphony in 1969 with traditional techniques and dead (kaputt) musical material and his admiration for communist Cuba (the piece was written for Havana) by quoting Cuban folk songs and communist tunes (such as the song of the National Liberation Front in Vietnam, Stars of the Night).

Works: Stockhausen: Hymnen, Nono: Per Bastiana--Tai-Yang Cheng; Henze: Sinfonia No. 6 for two Chamber Orchestras (315-17).

Sources: Marseillaise (314-15), Internationale (314-15), The East is Red (315), Stars of the Night (316).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Halffter, Rihm, and Huber use quotations with different intentions. Halffter's Noche pasiva del sentido makes extensive use of a descending four-tone motive that not only associates the piece with Spanish folklore in general but also plays an important role in Ravel's Rhapsodie espagnole. Rihm modeled the fourth movement of his String Quartet No. 3 over long stretches on the "Cavatina" from Beethoven's String Quartet, Op. 130; some of the thematic material is derived from Beethoven and the movements show similar outlines. "Genesis," the first movement from Huber's Violin Concerto (Tempora) represents the emergence of sound from "primitive noises" (Urgeräusche), including in this process a structurally important quotation of the B-A-C-H motive. The third movement, "quod libet," displays its link to the classical tradition by including literal quotations, thus alluding to the contraction "quodlibet." In his ...inwendig voller figur..., Huber reuses material from the second ("De Natura") and last ("quod nescitur") movements of his Violin Concerto, relating Dürer's sketch Traumgesicht and texts of the apocalypse of John.

Works: Halffter: Noche pasiva del sentido (131-35); Rihm: In Innersten (String Quartet No. 3, 138-43); Huber: Tempora 143-50), . . . inwendig voller figur . . . (146, 149).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Four sources provide the basis for the study of Bartók's folk song arrangements, the Romanian Christmas Carols: (1) the transcriptions from the recordings he made on location; (2) notebook entries of melodies written down on-the-spot; (3) the versions of the carols as given in the preface to Bartók's Romanian Folk Music, vol. 4; and (4) the arrangement. Arauco especially examines changes between sources (2) and (3) and interprets them as a rapprochement to Western art music. Removal of incidental tones and ornaments, repositioning of barlines, and alteration of notes and rhythms clarify the harmonic and motivic phrase structures, which become easier to understand for listeners familiar with the tradition of Western art music and to some extent make up for the loss of the text originally comprising that function. Arauco argues that the change of elements incidental to the essence of the folk song not only adds structural clarity but, as a consequence, also reinforces the "inner emotive power."

Works: Bartók: Romanian Christmas Carols.

Sources: carols collected by Bartók in Transylvania, 1910-14 (193-95).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Toward the end of the 1770s, partially as a consequence of the controversy between the Ramistes and Gluckistes (the supporters of Rameau and Gluck respectively), the Académie Royale de Musique was in a state of crisis, which led to the appointment of a new director, Anne Pierre Jacques Devismes du Valgay. To mediate between the two parties, he not only scheduled pieces that would appeal to all tastes, but, to promote this program, also commissioned a new opera from André Ernest Modeste Grétry, a composer not directly involved in the controversy. The result was Les trois âges de l'opéra (libretto by Saint-Alphonse Devismes), a prologue opéra including extensive borrowings from Lully, Rameau and Gluck. In this opera, each of these composers is praised for his operatic contributions, Lully's "mastery of lyric declamation," Rameau's dances, and Gluck's recitative style and wide range of passions, and Grétry carefully underlines their strengths with appropriate quotations. The borrowed passages are basically unchanged; Grétry only changed the instrumentation in some places or interpolated a few extra measures to meet the requirements of the text. To correct the ahistorical view of the Ramistes and Gluckistes, Grétry related the borrowings to each other, showing the indebtedness of Rameau and Gluck to their predecessor, for example by quoting a "dramatically static chorus" from Gluck's Ifigénie, a chorus that according to some critics owed much to the French model. The libretto does much to give the impression that Gluck continued the Lully-Rameau lyric tradition.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

There are similarities between the requiems of Britten (WarRequiem) and Verdi. These primarily concern not melodic resemblances but similarities in texture, speed, rhythm, tonality, and the deployment of vocal and instrumental resources. The Verdi-like passages serve as terms of reference for the listener, helping to form a familiar background against which to contrast the tritone relationships in the music and the disruptive elements of the Owen verses. However, in emulating another composer, Britten tried to purge his musical style of certain traits (including some Verdian ones), which resulted sometimes in completely different forms of expression.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In mm. 63-64 of his Intermezzo, Op. 116, No. 2, Brahms quotes and at the same time distills mm. 33-40 from Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 2. Although both harmony and melody correspond only partially, this is a clear case of quotation, in which the two measures point to the complete model: Brahms used the motivic material in question at formally similar places as Chopin and also the key schemes correspond.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Contrafacta are songs of which the secular text has been replaced by a sacred one. While the melodies should at least closely relate, the textual connections may vary considerably. In some cases, the author of the sacred text translated the original text nearly literally with the exception of a few words providing the sacred meaning. In other cases, he preserved only the affections and/or the rhyme scheme of the secular poem. After 1600, the contrafactum could include changes of measure and melodic as well as harmonic progressions in order to achieve a better correspondence of text and music.

Works: Works: Gramann-Poliander: Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (92); Luther: Nun freut euch, lieben Christen gmein (92, 109); anonymous contrafacta: Freut euch, freut euch in dieser Zeit (92), Von Gott will ich nicht lassen (97); Speiser: Ach, wie ein süsser Name ist der Name Jesu Christ (106), Amor, amor hab ich zu Gott allein (106), Frisch her, ihr lieben Christen, zum Streit so lasst uns rüsten (106), Ich bin frölich im Herren, das kann mir niemand wehren (106), O du mein Herre Jesu Christ, der du für mich gestorben bist (106), O Tod mit deiner G'stalte, wie bist du mir gar so grimm (106), O Herr, ich schreie zu dir mit ganz herzlicher Begier (106), Der jüngst' Tag ist nit ferre (106), O Gott, mein Herre, Mein' Glauben mehre (107); Regnart: Venus, du und dein Kind (106); Lindemann: In dir ist Freude In allem Leide (107); Rist: O Göttinne zart (107-8, 112-13); Neukrantz: Eile, Gott, mich zu erretten (107-8, 112-13); Praetorius/Schultze: Das ist mir lieb, mein Gott und Herr (108-9).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The authorship of the parody motet O Jesu dulcissime, based on Giovanni Gabrieli's motet O Jesu Christe, has long been doubtful. The following features of the parody, however, suggest that Heinrich Schütz is very likely its author. (1) O Jesu dulcissime, which includes contrafactum, reworking of motives, and entirely new passages, is qualitatively equal to Gabrieli's model; (2) the composer often intensified the expression; and (3) the parody shows in several places the character of a study, which is typical for Schütz's concern with Italian music.

Works: Schütz: Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395 (24), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 470 (24), O Jesu süss, SWV 406 (24), Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356 (24), Psalm No. 11, SWV 34 (24), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (24).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Schütz rarely parodied his own works, first because he seldom reset a standard text, as did sixteenth-century composers with the Ordinarium Missae, and second because parody would only have loosened the close relation of music and text. In a few instances, however, Schütz reused either his own pieces or those by modern Italian composers. In the former case, he usually only translated the text in order to perform the composition under different circumstances, whereas the reworking of the Italian compositions served to deepen his skills in new styles, such as the madrigal, polychoral music, the stile concitato, thoroughbass, and ostinato.

Works: Schütz: "Gloria patri" for the 111th psalm from Psalmen Davids, SWV 34, Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356, from Symphoniae sacrae, part two (20), Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395, from Geistliche Chormusik (20), O Jesu süss, wer dein gedenkt, SWV 406, from Symphoniae sacrae, part three (20), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (20), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 440 (20).

Index Classifications: 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

There are many connections between Mahler and the Second Viennese School. At least one example of melodic resemblance exists, but more important is Webern's distinctive orientation to sound, for which Mahler is the predecessor. The flow of the movement is suspended in a number of episodes in Mahler's Tempo di Minuetto (Symphony No. 3) and Lied von der Erde. The extremely transparent orchestration and the equal importance of all the parts--often combined with ritardando--constitute "spaces of sound" (Klangräume), structuring the piece formally. The "space of sound" in Webern's fourth variation of the second movement of the Symphony Op. 21 becomes the axis of symmetry on which the whole work is constructed and to which all the other "sound-identical" spaces are structurally related. The comparisons between Webern's symphony and Mahler's Lied von der Erde seem to imply not only that Webern was influenced by Mahler but that the "spaces of sound" in Webern can be traced from specific episodes in Mahler's work.

Works: Webern: Langsamer Satz for String Quartet (165); Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 (170); Symphony, Op. 21 (172).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The source on which the cantus firmus of the Caput Masses by Dufay, Ockeghem, and Obrecht is based is the melodic variant of the melisma on the final word "caput" from the antiphon Venit ad Petrum of the Sarum use. English influence on the earliest Mass (still considered Dufay's) can be seen in its use of the Kyrie trope Deus creator omnium, a melody appearing almost invariably in troped Sarum Graduals. The fact that the Sarum Processionals have not been reprinted with their music may be the reason why the source of the caput melody has remained undiscovered for so long. It appears, however, in the facsimile edition of the Graduale Sarisburiense since 1894. Dufay's tenor corresponds to the caput melisma except for two notes and the arrangement of the ligatures. This is important for the comparison with Ockeghem's and Obrecht's Caput masses, since they take over not only the exact rhythmic layout of Dufay's cantus firmus, but often its major divisions by rests as well. Therefore Ockeghem and Obrecht must have used the mass of their predecessor as a model and springboard. Van den Borren's hypothesis that Ockeghem's mass might be the earliest one of the three cannot be true, since it omits the first part of the cantus firmus in the Christe and "since it is most unlikely that partial presentation should precede integral presentation." Ockeghem follows the model more closely than Obrecht. While the former borrows the arrangement of the ligatures and quotes the cantus firmus in the tenor voice only, Obrecht treats it more freely, shifting it to other voices and transposing it between the movements.

Works: Dufay: Missa Caput (256-66); Ockeghem: Missa Caput (263-69); Obrecht: Missa Caput (264-65, 269-71).

Sources: Antiphon: Venit ad Petrum (242-49); Dufay: Missa Caput (263-71).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

It has long been known that Charles Ives borrows from other composers and from himself. These borrowings have generally been labeled quotations. However, quotation is not the only technique Ives uses when he is alluding to other pieces. Others include modeling (emulation), paraphrasing, cumulative setting, and quodlibet. The emphasis of this article is on Ives's use of models since this has not yet been discussed. If a composer models his piece on another, he borrows the structure or reworks musical material to build the framework of the composition. The use of models is the most important factor to consider in tracing the compositional process. Motivic borrowings are only the most visible part of a deeper dependence on the sources, allusions that lead us to the pieces on which Ives modeled his compositions.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep, Slow March, Turn Ye, Turn Ye, Waltz, Study No. 20 for Piano, The One Way, Charlie Rutlage, Serenity, On the Counter, The Celestial Country, West London.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Most of the borrowings in Ives's Second Symphony are not quotations but paraphrases. They are not inserted into an existing framework but form the very basis of the piece. All of the themes paraphrase American vernacular tunes, and the themes in turn provide the material for developments and transitions. In each movement one or more transitional passages are paraphrased from episodes from music by Bach, Brahms, or Wagner. This connection is the first real synthesis of American and European musical traditions in Ives's oeuvre, uniting the sound of American melody with the forms and procedures of the European symphony.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The discovery of Beethoven's précis and analysis of the Kyrie fugue from Mozart's Requiem on a sketchleaf containing a draft for the Credo fugue Et vitam venturi of the Missa Solemnis on the reverse side raises the question, whether Beethoven used this piece as a model for his fugue. The following findings reinforce the assumption of a close connection: (1) Beethoven most probably made the Mozart copy during his work on the Credo and Gloria portions of the Mass. (2) The Gloria subject features similarities of gesture (with Mozart's countersubject) and presentation (with Mozart's subject, first in the bass). (3) Like the Mozart example, the Credo fugue is a double fugue. (4) The pairing of subject and countersubject in the Credo exposition involves the same voices. (5) Like Mozart, Beethoven makes extensive use of the compound 4/4 meter in his Gloria.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In 1904 or 1905, Frederick Delius composed his Mass of Life (with a text from Nietzsche's Also sprach Zarathustra), that is compared with several other works of that time, especially Mahler's Veni Creator and Bruckner's Te Deum. The article is the result of the author's "reminiscence hunting" and presents the findings as a series of personal reactions to Delius's work rather than in a systematic order. They concern "family resemblances" of content and style, including correspondeces of the dramatic layout.

Works: Delius: Mass of Life; Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra,Elektra; Bruckner: Te Deum; Mahler: Veni Creator, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 8, Das Lied von der Erde; Wagner: Tristan.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This very general article on Tchaikovsky's symphonies makes note of several instances of borrowing or modeling, especially in terms of quoted folk songs (first and last movement of the Second Symphony) and operatic influences. The latter concern mainly the last three symphonies, including distinctively operatic phrases, repeated climaxes mounting almost to hysteria, sudden brutal interruptions, and others. The finale of the Sixth Symphony may possibly be modeled on the last act of Verdi's Otello, emulating the atmosphere and orchestration of Otello's appearance.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4 (27, 42), Symphony No. 3 (32-33, 255), Symphony No. 2 (33, 35f.), Symphony No. 6 (40), Symphony No. 1 (40, 255).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (27); Folk song: Down by Mother Volga (32); Tchaikovsky: Undine (33, 39), Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Op. 80 (40).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Dale lists works (from Beethoven till present) that include quotations. They can be grouped into pieces (1) quoting Dies Irae, (2) quoting Beethoven, (3) by Wagner quoting other works, (4) by Borodin, Elgar, and Ives quoting other works, (5) in which Schumann was quoting, and (6) by other composers. The principle of quoting is clearly separate from parody, the stylistic imitation of an other composer, which is not included in this essay.

Works: Borodin: The Valiant Knights (626); Elgar: The Music Makers (626); Ives: An Elegy for Stephen Foster (626).

Index Classifications: General, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Schumann's Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17, contains both a direct quotation of and several allusions to "Nimm sie hin denn diese Lieder" from Beethoven's song cycle An die ferne Geliebte. The quotation fulfills several functions. First, it provides one of the thematic connections between the slow inserted section called "Im Legendenton" and the surrounding movement in sonata form. Second, the literal quotation in the coda can be seen as the climax toward which the whole movement develops. This view is supported not only by the increasing clarity of the quotation (from allusion in the exposition to clearer allusion in the section called "Im Legendenton" to literal quotation in the coda) but also by the fact that the Fantasy opens quasi in medias res on a dominant ninth chord. Rather than analyzing the Fantasy as developing from a theme, there is the option to analyze it as developing toward a theme. Other quotations in the Fantasy are mentioned only briefly.

Works: Schumann: Piano Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17 (151-53, 156-58).

Sources: Schubert: Die Gebüsche, D. 646 (151), Der Fluss, D. 693 (151); Beethoven: Wo die Berge so blau, Op. 98, no. 2 (151, 156-58).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Irony in Schumann is explained by comparing his compositional techniques with those found in Heinrich Heine and Jean Paul Richter. In Romantic literature, irony resulted from the principle that the author should hold a position above the work and himself; he should not unconsciously get lost in the creative process but control it by introducing a stage of consciousness, which is achieved by irony. Irony breaks up coherent units, as does quotation in a musical piece; it creates dialectical tension. For Schumann, quotation (irony) solved another problem: it imbued Classic rhetoric with new life, and at the same time freed him of the demand for "desperate independence" from his predecessors.

Works: Schumann: Carnaval (176, 186-87), Intermezzo, Op. 4, No. 2 (176), Symphony No. 2 (176, 179), Fantasy in C Major (176), Papillons (176), Faschingsschwank aus Wien (176), Die beiden Grenadiere (176), Davidsbündlertänze (176, 186-87), Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (178-79).

Sources: Schubert: Gretchen am Spinnrade (176); Schumann: Carnaval (176, 187), Papillons (176, 187); Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte (176,179); Grossvatertanz (176-77); Rouget de Lisle: Marseillaise (176-77).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Many of Mahler's motives and themes remind us of preexisting musical phrases. They sound familiar already at their first appearance. The musicologist makes it his task to locate these allusions. It is, however, impossible or at least misleading to attempt this. These seemingly borrowed excerpts are rather Mahler's attempt to evoke a "colloquial" sound (umgangssprachlicher Ton) or the impression of déjà vu. The use of military fanfares and posthorns should not be interpreted as quotation, even if Mahler consciously quoted one. What is important is the meaning of the fanfare or the posthorn according to the context in which it is found, not as a quotation but as an event. Eggebrecht, however, also discusses the obvious reuses of material such as "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" (from the Wunderhorn-Lieder) in the Second Symphony and "Oft denk' ich, sie sind nur ausgegangen" (from the Kindertotenlieder) in the Ninth. All three aspects are of importance for the interpretation and understanding of Mahler's works and enable the author to explain their meaning.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

After Tchaikovsky's death the famous choreographer Marius Petipa rearranged the numbers of the composer's ballet Swan Lake for a revival performance. He felt that some additional numbers were necessary and borrowed them from Tchaikovsky's Piano Pieces, Op. 72, namely "L'Espiègle" (no. 12), "Valse Bluette" (no. 11), and "Un poco di Chopin" (no. 15). These pieces were probably orchestrated by Riccardo Drigo, the conductor of the performances at the Marynsky Theater in 1894 (Act II only) and 1895.

Works: Tchaikovsky: Swan Lake (192f.).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Of all the refrains Friedrich Gennrich and Nico van den Boogaard label as centos only three "can reasonably be considered" as such: La bele m'ocit, Dieus!, Cele m'a s'amour donée, and Cis a cui je sui amie. These centos, however, fulfill completely different functions in the motets connected with them: La bele m'ocit appears as a motetus over the tenor fragment In seculum; Cele m'a s'amour donée appears as a motetus over an almost complete Alleluia and verse Alleluia: Hodie Maria virgo celos ascendit; and Cis a cui je sui amie functions itself as a tenor. For this reason the refrain cento is not to be considered a separate genre--comparable, for example, to the motet enté--but a technique, which can appear in various genres. Some examples of unequivocal intertextuality exist between La bele m'ocit, Dieus and a group of motets from the Montpellier manuscript, and between Cele m'a s'amour donée and the motet Nus ne sait mes maus/Regnat from F-Pn fr. 12615. From these unique examples of intertextuality may be deduced a "self-referential mode of composition."

Works: Works: Centos: Amoureusement mi tient li maus que j'ai,Tout leis enmi les prés,Ja pour longue demourée,La bele m'ocit, Dieus!,Brunete, a cui j'ai mon cuer doné,J'ai les biens d'Amours,Hé! cuer joli,Endurés, endurés les maus d'amer,Amors vaint tout fors,Ja ne mi marierai,Cele m'a s'amour doné,Renvoisiement i vois a mon ami,J'ai fait ami a mon chois,Nus ne sait mes maus s'il n'aime,A vous pens, bele, douce amie,Ne puet faillir a honour,Hé monnier, pourrai ja moudre?,Cis a cui je sui amie,Je l'avrai ou j'i morrai.

Sources: Motets: Hé, Amours, morrai je por celi/Omnes (179-80); En son service amourous/Tant est plaisant/In seculum (184); Nus ne sait mes maus/Regnat (185-86).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

György Ligeti includes in his opera Le Grand Macabre all the stylistic achievements of his earlier orchestral and chamber music works. Some passages that Ligeti himself calls reflections, not quotations allude to Monteverdi, Mozart, Stravinsky, Rossini, Verdi, or Beethoven. They are not inserted as collage-like citations, but represent a reflective retrospection on the operatic genre.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Bartolomeo di Bononia and Antonio Zacara da Teramo based some Mass movements on their ballate. Bartolomeo's ballata Vince con lena makes up the middle section of the corresponding Gloria. Since the composer of the Mass changed hardly anything in the source, which he incorporated as a whole, this is a case of contrafactum. Zacara, however, segmented and rearranged his ballate Rosetta che non cançi, Un fior gentil, and Deus deorum horizontally, using some of their melodic material also in the free sections. The contratenor (probably not by Zacara) may have been added later. Thus Zacara's technique denotes a transitional stage from contrafactum to the parody Masses of Ockeghem, Faugues, and Bedingham.

Works: Salve mater Jesu (45); Est illa (45); Dilectus meus misit (45); Virgo beata (45); "Kyrie" (Munich, Bayrische Staatsbibl., mus. 3232 a, fol. 58v-59) (46); motet Beatum incendium (46); Bartolomeo di Bononia: Et in terra (Oxford, Bodl. Can. misc. 213, no. 317) (47); Zacara: Et in terra Rosetta (Bologna, Conservatorio di Musica G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 56) (47), Et in terra Fior gentil (Bologna, Conservatorio G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 58) (47), Patrem Deus deorum (Bologna, conservatorio G. B. Martini, Q 15, no. 59) (47).

Index Classifications: 1300s, 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The final movement of Bruckner's Ninth Symphony is not "absolute music," since it contains religious symbols and allusions to the composer's approaching death. This conclusion is supported by taking into account not only sketches, structural analysis, and Bruckner's own hermeneutic statements, but also interpretations of borrowed material. In his opening theme, for example, Bruckner strongly alludes to his Fifth Symphony, the Sehnsuchtsmotiv from Wagner's Tristan, and the "Dresden Amen" from Parsifal. The following climax (or Klangfläche) quotes Liszt's "symbol of the cross" from the Graner Messe, and the second theme (letter C) presents and develops a motive ("miserere") taken from the D Minor Mass. Several other self-quotations (from the Benedictus of the Mass in F Minor and the Seventh and Eighth Symphonies) reinforce the impression of the look back suggested by Bruckner himself for the passage at letter B ("Abschied vom Leben," mm. 29-44).

Works: Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (90), Symphony No. 9, Mass in D Minor (90).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This book is the result of Floros's intensive study of Mahler, during which he found hitherto undiscovered clues to the interpretation of Brahms's and Bruckner's works. Most of the borrowings discussed confirm differences between the two composers in both ideologies and musical heritage. A comparison of the German Requiem by Brahms and the F Minor Mass by Bruckner shows that the corresponding excerpts from the Credo use different models. Brahms used Bach's cantata Wer weiss wie nahe mir mein Ende BWV 27, whereas Bruckner borrowed from Liszt's Graner Messe (41-51). The indebtedness of Brahms to Mendelssohn (64f.) and Schumann (124-143) and of Bruckner to Wagner (159f., 171-78 and 211-13) and Liszt (159f., 167-70) is underlined with many musical examples. That Bruckner modeled the second movement of his Fourth Symphony on Berlioz's March of the Pilgrims from Harold en Italie is the clue to his program (Lied, Gebeth, Ständchen), since the same sequence of sections is found in Berlioz's work. Movements or whole symphonies by Bruckner can beinterpreted by a comparison with Wagner's operas. Thematic concordances with the monologue of The Flying Dutchman (Act I, Scene II) lead to a psycho-programmatic interpretation of the Eighth Symphony, an interpretation that extends Bruckner's own vague explanations. Even if the two composers borrow from the same piece, they emphasize different aspects. Both of them emulated aspects of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Brahms's interest (First Symphony, last movement) lies in the Freudenmelodie and the recitative character of the introduction to the last movement, whereas Bruckner imitates the flash-backs, the rondo-like adagio and the original opening of the first movement (55-60).

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 1 (56f.), Symphony No. 4 (64f.), Schumann Variations, Op. 9 (124-51), Ein Deutsches Requiem (41-47); Bruckner: Symphony No. 3 (51, 159, 168-70), Symphony No. 4 (159, 178-81), Symphony No. 8 (159f., 186-88, 21113), Symphony No. 9 (51, 168-70), Mass in F Minor (41-44, 50), Mass in D Minor (44, 51), Mass in E Minor (168-70), Helgoland (168-70), Tota pulchra es (168-70).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros discusses three main elements of Mahler's music with the aim of a philosophical or programmatic interpretation: form and formal procedures; the use of specific genres such as chorale, pastorale, march, scherzo, and dancelike movements; and interpretation of symbols. All the elements are interpreted in the context of other composers, especially Berlioz, Liszt, and Bruckner. In interpreting the first two categories, Floros focuses on Mahler's position in the history of music. But in the third category, by locating the same musical symbols (e.g. the tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes in Liszt and Bruckner; see also Floros, Gustav Mahler III: Die Symphonien, 1985) in works of other composers where the meaning is clear, Floros can offer interpretations that would otherwise be impossible. Without the interpretation of symbols, no real progress in musicology is possible.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Floros's study of Mahler's music is an attempt to interpret it comprehensively, taking into account especially Mahler's intellectual background. In these semantic analyses, the author discusses borrowings and quotations of all sorts: (1) quotations of tunes and their integration into compositions (e.g. Bruder Martin in the First Symphony), (2) borrowings of complete sections (e.g. in the Second Symphony), (3) reuse of whole songs (e.g. Urlicht in the Second Symphony), and (4) quotation of short motives (such as the beginning of Dies irae or Liszt's tonisches Symbol des Kreuzes ["sounding" symbol of the cross]) to symbolize titles or programs. Decoding these borrowings is one of the most important steps in finding the program that is the basis even of the purely instrumental symphonies. Above all, some passages can be interpreted by comparison to similar passages from works by Richard Strauss where their meaning is clear. These comparisons may throw light on composition dates, for instance that of the Scherzo of the Sixth Symphony.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Frei traces a history of the cantus firmus from its beginnings in the ninth century through the early seventeenth century, adding a comparison of its contemporary application. The cantus firmus in sacred compositions of the early Middle Ages expresses belief in the absolute. Only through submission to its laws does man become free to participate in the essential. In secular motets, the tenor still stands for the primacy of the sacred reference, which increasingly loses its importance in the Renaissance (secular tenors) and experiences a short revival in the form of the German chorale. Contemporary composers may resort to sacred cantus firmi for two reasons, either a false escape from religious and musical insecurity or an expression of the consciousness of what we have lost.

Index Classifications: General

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Just as certain architectural styles are spread over several cultures, we find "international" melodies scattered in manuscripts all over Western Europe. They mostly originated in France and later were adapted musically (variants) and textually (variants and contrafacta) to their new surroundings. Gennrich discusses contrafacta of monophonic liturgical chants (such as the famous sequence Laetabundus exsultet fidelis chorus), of liturgical motets (O Maria, maris stella/Veritatem), sacred motets and conductus (Agmina milicie celestis omnia), and of Latin songs (Bulla fulminante sub judice tonante). Gennrich is not always able to clarify the priority of identical melodies with different text, but provides the music and its sources wherever possible.

Works: Allein Gott in der Höh (German Chorale 265-66); anonymous: Mei amic e mei fiel (267); O Maria, Deu maire, Deus t'es e fils e paire (267); Adam de St. Victor: O Maria, stella maris (267); anonymous: Glorieuse Deu amie, dame de pitié (268-72); Johannes Rodericus: O Maria, maris stella (268-72); anonymous contrafacta: Or hi parra (273-78); O Gras tondeus (274-78); Frölich erklingen (274-78); Gautier de Coinci: Hui enfantez Fuli fiz Dieu (273-78), L'amour dont sui espris (331-40); anonymous contrafacta: Fille de Dieu, ben as obras (280-81); Diable, guaras non tormentes (280-81); Auiatz, seinhors per qual razon (279-81); Philippe le Chancelier: Agmina milicie celestis omnia (281-96), Bulla fulminante (325-30); anonymous: De la virge Katerine chanterai (283-96); L'autr'ier cuidai avoir (283-96); Philippe le Chancelier: Li cuers se vait de l'ueil plaignant (322-24); anonymous contrafacta: Seyner, mil gracias ti rent (322-24); Veste nuptiali (235); Blondel de Nesle: L'amour dont sui espris (331-40); Ma joie me sement de chanter (is a contrafactum of Walter of Châtillon's Ver pacis aperit, or the other way round, 342-43); anonymous: Ar ne kuthe ich sorghe non (346-47).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Gennrich briefly discusses the relation between some French songs and their Latin contrafacta. While it is often difficult to decide whether the chanson (Kanzonentypus) or the Latin song is the contrafactum, the priority of the French version becomes obvious as soon as formes fixes (rondeaus, virelais) are involved. Some Latin poems did not come down with music. References to French refrains, however, indicate to which melody the poem belongs. These refrains appear with a certain consistency of time and place and thus help dating and localizing related pieces. Gennrich provides the music of the songs discussed and cites their appearances in the manuscripts.

Works: Anonymous: Crescens incredulitas (190); Adam de la Bassée: Olim in armonica (190); anonymous contrafacta: Flos preclusus sub torpore (192-95); Amis, quelx est li mieux vaillanz (192); Povre veillece m'assaut (192-95); Parit preter morem (196-201); Adam de la Bassée: Nobilitas ornata moribus (201); anonymous contrafacta: Veni, sancte spiritus spes omnium (201); Ecce nobilis (202-3); Nicholai sollempnio (203-4); Ille puerulus (205-6); Universorum origo (206).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Gennrich discusses not those refrains that are repeated after each couplet of a song (chansons à refrain), but those that exist sometimes as isolated very short pieces, sometimes interpolated in other works. They mostly have their own melodies and were created by the poets with a particular intention. Later these refrains were borrowed (with or without music) in chansons avec des refrains, long poems (such as the Cour d'Amour and the Roman de Renart le Nouvel), and motets, usually at the beginning and at the end. Sometimes they even adopt another text (contrafactum). According to Gennrich, refrains are neither folk songs nor parts of them. They were, however, originally conceived as refrains and not designated as such merely because they appear in several pieces. The end of the article includes a list of motet-refrains.

Works: Jacquemart Gielee: Renart le Nouvel (366); Mahius li Poiriers: Cour d'Amour (367); Messire Thibaut: Roman de la Poire (367); Anonymous: Salut d'Amour ((367-68); refrains "Qui aime Dieu et sa mere" (373); "Sache qui m'ot" (373); "Cui donderai je mes Amours, mere Dieu" (373); "Ne vous hastés mie, bele" (373); "Pitiés et Amours, pour mi" (373); "Amours ne se done, mais ele se vent" (374); Si come aloie/Deduisant/Portare (374); Haro! haro! je la voi la/Flos filius eius (377); Je quidai mes maus/In seculum (377); Je m'en vois/Tieus a mout/Omnes (378).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The motet enté emerged from the trope tradition. First, the motet was a poetic effort, underlaying preexisting clausulae with new text. Often poets took advantage of musical repetitions, supporting them with closely related texts that thus became suitable for quotation, i.e., they acquired refrain character. Later these motets served as models for the newly composed motet enté where refrains (text and melody) were taken as points of departure and textually and musically troped.

Works: Anonymous motets Ja n'amerai autrui que vous/Pro patribus (243-44); J'ai trouvé qui m'amera/Fiat (244-48); Hé! ha! que ferai?/Pro patribus (251-52); Li dous termines m'agrée/Balaam (253-54).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Gennrich discusses the reuse of popular songs in motets and of parts of motets as popular songs, providing transcriptions and including the variants. The features of the chanson largely determine the priority (chanson or motet): if the textual and musical structure of the chanson correspond, Gennrich assumes it to antedate the motet. The following list represents the author's view of priority.

Works: Richard de Fournival: Chascun qui de bien amer, borrowed from the motet Chascun qi de bien amer/Et florebit (13-16); motets Onques n'amai tant con je fui amée /Sancte and Onques n'amai tant con je fui amée/Sancte Germane borrow Richard de Fournival's chanson Qnques n'amai tant que jou fui amée (16-20); anonymous: En non Dieu, borrowed from the motet En non Dé, Dex/Ferens pondera (21-23); Ernoul le Viel: Por conforter mon corage, borrowed from the motet Por conforter mon corage/Go (24-29); Robert de Reims: Quant voi le douz tens venir, borrowed from the motets Quant voi le douz tens venir/Latus or En mai quant rose/Quant voi le dou tans venir/Latus (29-33); Robert de Reims: Main s'est levée Aelis, borrowed from the motet Main s'est levée Aelis/[Et tenuerunt] (34-35); Robert de Reims: Quant fueillissent li buison, borrowed from the motet Quant florissent li buisson/Domino (35-37); Jehan Erart: Mes cuers n'est mie a moi, borrowed from the motet Mes cuers n'est mie a moi (38-39, 76); motet Fine Amurs ki les siens tient/J'ai lonc tens Amurs servie/Orendroit plus c'onkes mais borrows the anonymous chanson Orendroit plus qu'onques mais sont li mal d'amer plaisant (67-69); motet Sans penseir folur aç servi tote ma vie/Quant la saisons desireie/Qui bien aime a tart oblie borrows the anonymous chanson Quant la saisons desirée (69-72); motets De mes Amours sui souvent repentis/L'autr'ier m'estuet venue volentés/Dehors Compigne l'autr'ier and Par une matinée/O clemencie fons/Dehors Compigne l'autr'ier borrow the anonymous chanson Dehors Compignes l'autr'ier (72-76); motet Boine Amours mi fait chanter/Uns maus savereus et dous/Portare borrows the anonymous chanson Uns maus savereus et dous.

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The distinction between quotation and allusion has long been problematic. Four conditions must be met for a quotation: (1) The pitch pattern corresponds to a preexisting pattern in the musical literature (rhythm does not have to reflect this correspondence); (2) the composer sets this pattern in relief; (3) it can be documented that the composer was familiar with the work or passage in question; and (4) the extramusical context of the composer's work is reflected by that of the quoted work. These four conditions may be applied to Elgar's Second Symphony, in which Wagner's "Preislied" from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg is either quoted or alluded to. The correspondence of Wagner and Elgar is literal and thus condition 1 is met. In fulfillment of condition 2, Elgar treats the motive in question extensively and separately from the two other principal ones. It can be documented that the composer was familiar with the work or passage in question, thus condition 3 is met. Finally, a quotation of the "Preislied" in the Second Symphony could have three possible extramusical meanings, as a symbol of artistic freedom, as "an homage to two departed Wagnerians," and as a love letter to Mrs. Stuart-Wortley, "a brilliant and deeply sympathetic woman with a fine understanding of artists." Since all four requirements are met, we have to speak of quotation in Elgar's Second Symphony.

Works: Elgar: Second Symphony (231, 237-40); "Enigma" Variations (232-33).

Sources: Wagner: "Preislied" from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (231, 233-40); Mendelssohn: Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (232); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (232-33).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Only the text of the Köthener Trauermusik has come down to us, and scholars (including Schering and Smend) have considered whether the Köthener Trauermusik is a parody of the St. Matthew Passion or the other way round. By comparing the texts and examining their application to the music of the arias and accompagnato recitatives of the St. Matthew Passion, it can be shown that the text of the Köthener Trauermusik displays great unity and conviction in terms of choice of words and rhetorical techniques, whereas in the text of the St. Matthew Passion corresponding passages seem forced or illogical and include grammatical inaccuracies, suggesting that it was adapted from the Trauermusik rather than the other way around. The two texts, however, most probably were written within a few weeks, which can be concluded from outside circumstances (p. 108). The fact that in adapting the Köthener Trauermusik to the St. Matthew Passion Bach may have made considerable changes to fit the new text makes tracing parody delicate. Thus a negative procedure is applied: if the musical versions of the St. Matthew Passion (the earlier one as found in the "Altnickol" Ms. and the later definitive version) antedate the Trauermusik, we should not find any passages in the passion that better fit the corresponding text of the Trauermusik. Several such passages may be found, however, especially in the "Altnickol" version. Furthermore, it is clear that Bach tried to collate text and music better in the definitive version of the St. Matthew Passion. All these findings make it possible to reconstruct a succession of numbers in the Köthener Trauermusik that makes sense in all respects.

Works: Bach: St. Matthew Passion.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Features of the isorhythmic motet hitherto believed to be typical for the ars nova already can be found in the ars antiqua. Harbinson gives evidence by showing how tenores were rhythmically and melodically transformed for use in the motet.

Works: Motets from the Montpellier Codex: Sans orgueil et sans envie/Iohanne (101); Traveillié du mau d'amour/Et confitebor (104-5); Je gart le bois/Et confitebor (102, 105); Liés et jolis/Je n'ai joie/In seculum (105); Douce dame sans pitié/Sustinere (106); Le premier jor de mai/Par un matin me le vai/Iustus (106).

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Henderson gives a survey of Ives's structural use of borrowed material and in some cases mentions its extramusical value. The following features are discussed and partially illustrated in figures: (1) Quotation in a rhapsodic/improvisatory style; (2) quotation in a chorale-oriented style (reminiscent of organ music); and quotations to create (3) a rondo form; (4) verse and refrain structures; (5) ternary forms; (6) arch-forms; and (7) cyclic forms. Several designs can be combined in one piece.

Works: Ives: Piano Sonata No. 1 (438), Symphony No. 3 (439), Symphony No. 4 (442), Central Park in the Dark (439), General William Booth Enters Into Heaven (439), Violin Sonata No. 3 (439), A Symphony: "New England Holidays" (440), "The 'St. Gaudens' in Boston Common" from Three Places in New England (441), Piano Sonata No. 2 ("Concord, Mass., 1840-1860") (443).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In his discussion of the composition process of thirteenth-century motets, Hofmann emphasizes the adaptation of the plainchant excerpt In seculum and its influence on the upper parts. He distinguishes two categories of notes, the ones in the chain of thirds including d-f-a-c'-etc. (U-class) and the ones of the chain c-e-g-h-etc. (Pu-class). Composers arranged the tenors in a rhythmic mode that would enable as many notes from the U-class to fall on a "locus impar" (Garlandia), i.e., for example, in the first mode on the first and third note of the rhythmic pattern. The upper voice is divided into the same classes of notes and organized according to similar melodic principles as the tenor. Thus not primarily rules concerning intervals but melodic features of the parts determine the consonances (Zusammenklänge) of the motet. Most vernacular motets borrow refrains, i.e., preexistent textual and musical entities that stand at the beginning of the compositional process. The tenor--hitherto believed to have been the unchangeable point of departure--undergoes changes to meet the requirements of consonance with the refrain and relationship of phrases. The composer, who most probably was also the poet, related the remainder of the motetus textually and musically to the refrain, which resulted in its optimal integration. The page numbers for the following motets are listed in the appendix of Hofmann's study (p. XV-XXII).

Works: Mout est fous qui s'entremet/Morrai je en atendant, amour/Omnes; Ma loiauté m'a nuisi/A la bele Ysabelet/Omnes; Salve, laborancium/Celi luminarium/Omnes; Chorus innocentium/In Bethleem Herodes iratus/In Bethleem; O Maria, decus angelorum/De virgula/Et confitebor; Ecclesie princeps/Et confitebor; In serena facie/In seculum; Si vere vis adherere Uti vere/Si vere vis adherere Vitis palmes/In seculum; Trop m'a amours/In seculum; Peto linis oculum/In seculum; Li douz maus/Trop ai lonc tens/Ma loiauté/In seculum; O felix puerpera/In seculum; Chascun dit/Sa j'ai amé folement/In seculum; Bien doit avoir joie/In seculum; Je cuidai mes maus celer/In seculum; Tout adés mi trouverés/In seculum; A une ajornée/Douce dame en cui dangier/In seculum; Cil brunés ne me meine mie/In seculum; Trop fu li regart amer/J'ai si mal/In seculum; La fille den Hue/In seculum; Ma loiaus pensée/In seculum; Ja n'avrés deduit de moi/In seculum; Se j'ai folloié d'amours/In seculum; Nus ne puet chanter/In seculum; Amours en boine volenté/In seculum; Lonc tens ai mon cuer/In seculum; La bele m'ocit/In seculum; J'ai trouvé qui me veut/In seculum; Ne m'a pas oublié/In seculum; Quant iver la bise/In seculum; Li maus amourous me tient/In seculum; Trop souvent me duel/Brunete, a cui j'ai mon cuer doné/In seculum; Salus virgini per quam/Hodie natus in Israhel/In seculum; Dieus! de chanter/Chant d'oisiaus/In seculum; Liés et jolis/Je n'ai joie/In seculum; Hé! trés douces amouretes/D'amours esloigniés/In seculum; L'autr'ier trouvai/L'autr'ier lés une espinete/In seculum; En son service amourous/Tant est plaisant/In seculum; La biauté ma dame/On doit fine amour/In seculum; J'ai les biens d'amours/Que ferai/In seculum; Se griés m'est au cors/A qui dirai/In seculum; Qu'ai je forfait ne mespris/Bons amis/Am in seculum; En nom Dieu, que que nus die, Trop/En nom Dieu, que que nus die, L'amour/Am in seculum; Mout me fu griés/In omni fratre tuo/In seculum; J'os bien m'amie a parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/In seculum; L'autre jour par un matin/Au tens pascour/In seculum; O felix puerpera, Flos virginum/In seculum; Eva, quid deciperis/In seculum; Amours en cui/En mon cuer/In seculum; Resurrexit hodie/In seculum; Quant se depart/He! cuer joli/In seculum; Puisqu'en amer/Quant li jolis/In seculum; In seculum aritfex/In seculum supra/In seculum; Ja n'amerai/Sire Dieus/In seculum; ...mpendia cujus natura/O homo de pulvere/In seculum; Que demandés vous/Latus; Ja de boine amour/Ne sai tant amours/Sustinere; Li maus amourous/Dieus! pour quoi/Virgo; Q pia capud hostis/Virgo; Au douz mai/Vigro; Li douz chans des oisellons/Virgo; M'ocirés vous/Audia filia; O homo, considera/O homo de pulvere/Filie Jherusalem; Je cuidai mes maus celer Et soustenir/[??].

Index Classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Some troubadour and trouvère songs are found in Latin contrafacta that show, in contrast to the French settings, an advanced rhythmic notation. By comparing the different versions, Husmann finds rhythmic solutions for the songs in the vernacular, for example the conclusion that not only in melismatic organa but also in syllabic monophonic songs frequent rhythmic changes are possible.

Works: Uns lais de nostre dame contre le lai Markiol (6); Vite perdite (6); Veris ad imperia (14-16); Legis in volumine (14-16); Philippe le Chancelier: Veritas, equitas (6).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Karp corrects misinterpretations in Hans Spanke's revised and enlarged edition of Reynaud's Bibliographie des altfranzösischen Liedes, Leiden, 1955. Spanke looked at too few sources and thus thought that the contrafactum Bon rois Thibaut, en chantant respondés was derived from the version of its model that is in the same manuscript (Chansonnier de l'Arsenal). Karp shows, however, that the contrafactum is based on the version of the model as it appears in the Manuscrit du Roi, which implies that in the Arsenal manuscript not the contrafactum but the model underwent changes. Such comparisons between both models and contrafacta from different manuscripts help to detect misreadings of copyists and to establish manuscript filiations. Trouvères drew on a large body of melodic formulas that may lead to the unjustified impression of borrowing. If, however, these formulas coincide over several verses and if the texts are structurally unrelated, we can be reasonably sure that one of the two melodies was borrowed.

Works: Thibaut de Navarre: Bon rois Thibaut, en chantant respondés (87-88, 90-91); Anonymous: Li chastelains de Couci ama tant (91-92); Hué de la Ferté: Je chantasse volentiers liement (92-93); Gautier d'Espinal or Châtelain de Coucy: Comencement de douce saison bele (93-94, 97); Blondel de Nesle: Bien doit chanter cui fine Amours adrece (96-97); Gace Brulé: Biaus m'est estés, quant retentist la breuille (96-97); Conon de Béthume: Ahi, Amours, con dure departie (97-99); Anonymous: Toi reclaim, vierge Marie (99); Anonymous: Ne chant pas que que nus die (99-100); Moniot d'Arras: Qui bien aime, a tart oublie (100); Châtelain de Coucy: La douce vois du rossignol salvage (100-1).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Like the Symphonie fantastique,Roméo et Juliette includes borrowings from earlier works. A passage of recitative in the Roméo "Introduction" resembles a motif in the "Méditation" from the 1829 Prix de Rome cantata Cléopâtre. Berlioz himself explained the inspiration behind the Cléopâtre music, indicating that he intended the "Méditation" for a Roméo et Juliette of some sort. A melody from the withdrawn Ballet des ombres, in particular from the section referring to an invitation to a dance, appears with the same meaning in "La Reine Mab," at the place where Mab is about to take the young girl to the ball. The Larghetto oboe melody and the dance theme from "Roméo seul" derive from the cantata Sardanapale (1830), with which Berlioz actually won the Prix de Rome. From this cantata survive only a fragment of the finale "Incendie" and Peter Bloom's reconstruction of the text. The fragment contains the two themes mentioned above, but the Larghetto melody likely also formed the basis of the "Cavatine" and the allegro theme the basis of the "Bacchanale" that preceded the "résumé-cum-coda" fragment. In both the cantata and "Roméo seul" the themes are associated with arousing and intensifying desire.

Works: Berlioz: Roméo et Juliette (53-59).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The authors raise questions about the textual and melodic adaptation of troubadour melodies by German Minnesingers. Hardly any German melodies survive, and since several texts seem to be based on Occitan models in terms of overall sense, scansion, rhyme scheme, and sound of the syllables (correspondances phonématiques), it may be assumed that the texts were sung to the corresponding melodies. However, the number of syllables does not always fit the number of notes, and it is often difficult to decide which of the musical variants should be chosen.

Works: Friedrich von Hausen: Si darf mich des zihen niet (19-21); Heinrich von Morungen: Lange bin ich geweset verdaht (26); Ulrich von Gutenberg: Ich horte ein merlikin wol singen (26-27); Bernger von Horheim: Nu enbeiz ich doch des trankes nie (27-28).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Farsed epistles are vernacular contrafacta of such famous tunes as the hymn Veni creator, commenting on the Latin epistles. Three factors might indicate an oral transmission: (1) variants in the contrafacta as compared to the original melody; (2) adaptation of the music by repetition of melodic formulas to changing lengths of verses; and (3) variants between the strophes. While the ornamental variants among contrafacta of the same tune indirectly suggest an oral tradition, the absence of such variants between strophes of the same piece seems to imply a written tradition.

Works: Farsed epistles of St. Stephen Sesta lesson (69-70); and St. John Evangelist Esta luson (68-70); Lament from the Jeu de sainte Agnès (68-70).

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In no other work did Handel borrow more material from his own and other pieces than in the oratorio Israel in Egypt (1738). With the example of the chorus "But the waters overwhelmed their enemies" based on the soprano aria "It is the Lord that ruleth the sea" from the Chandos Anthems, Leopold shows that this extensive borrowing does not result from Handel's "mental illness" in 1737, as has been stated repeatedly, but from his intention to find new possibilities with old material. The physical energy originating in the rhythmical opposition of voices and orchestra in "The waters" contrasts strongly with the purely rhetorical representation of water in "It is the Lord," where the soloist and the bass line flow in the same rhythm. Handel uses these two contrary musical styles to set suitably the two parts of Israel in Egypt: the first part with all the active elements of the exodus and the second part with the contemplative text (e.g. "And with the blast of thy nostrils"). The idea of contrasting the chorus and orchestra shows Handel developing an appropriate musical style for the oratorio by having the orchestra take over the role of the stage setting in the opera.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Josquin based his Missa Di Dadi on the tenor of Robert Morton's three-voice rondeau N'aray je jamais mieulx que j'ay. Not only this text but also the visual device of two dice indicating the degree of augmentation in the tenor are closely related to the fifteenth-century liturgical ritual of the Mass. The dice disappear at the beginning of the "Osanna," and it is at this same place that the chanson tenor is quoted beyond the first line ("N'aray je jamais mieulx que j'ay?"). Long interprets the sequence of dice arrangements as rolls of a popular French dice game, which ends after the "Sanctus" with the victory of the first player. The winning of the game corresponds to the "short-lived glimpse of the Redeemer" (a reward for the faithful) at the elevation of the host during the "Osanna." The first line of the chanson text, which is repeated seven times before the "Osanna," has a meaning that is both secular (relating to money) and sacred (relating to the search for salvation), and the answer is not given until that moment where the whole cantus firmus is quoted. The remainder of the article (p. 14-21) considers parallels between Josquin's Missa Di Dadi and the late Missa Pange lingua. The latter may have been in part a reworking of the former in order to eliminate the metaphor of the dice.

Works: Josquin: Stabat Mater (1-2), Missa Di Dadi (1-13, 20-21), Missa D'ung aultre amer (5); Pierre de la Rue: Missa de Sancta Anna (12-13); Josquin: Missa Pange lingua (14-21).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The musical material of Stravinsky's "Petit concert" from the Histoire du soldat consists only of quotations from the remaining movements of the piece. The beginning vertically combines two motives from the "Music to Scene 1" that are developed according to parameters inherent in the musical material, especially the major second or ninth. Stravinsky derived it from the space between the g and a strings of the violin that in the story is the actual reason for the "Petit concert." This development leads to new ideas that, once they are firmly established, turn out to be quotations themselves. Stravinsky quotes from movements with about the same tempo and uses consistent rhythmic patterns in order to achieve an optimal integration.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although most polyphonic lamentations of the sixteenth century are based on the Roman lamentation tone, we find a few examples (including some outside of Spain) that are based on the Spanish version. The latter is especially characterized by its initial formula for the Hebrew letter. This formula may be quoted literally, paraphrased in one or several voices, transposed, and even reused in the initium of the actual lamentation. There is even an example where both the Roman and Spanish tone are vertically combined. One should beware, however, of confusing quotation with accidental melodic concordances.

Works: Morales: Aleph. Quomodo sedet (for five parts; from Ms. Toledo, Catedral, Bibl. Capitular, Libros de facistol Ms. 21) (232-33); Fuenllana: Aleph. Quomodo sedet; Morales: Lamentation, arranged for voice and vihuela (233); Créquillon: Lamed. O vos omnes (234-35), Mem. De excelso misit ignem (234); Valera: Ya no quiero aver plaser (236).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although Stravinsky frequently emphasizes his familiarity with the sources of folk songs and the influence of folk music upon his works, he claims to have quoted only one folk tune (Ne veselaia da kampan'itsa) in his ballet Les Noces. What characterizes Les Noces as typically Russian is not the quotation of this song, however, but the use of melodic idioms, called popevki.Popevki playing an important role in Stravinsky's ballet are listed in the appendix of the essay. According to Stravinsky, Les Noces is also a product of the Russian church, which is shown with a passage entirely derived from the Fifth Tone (glas) of the Znamennyi Chant. The main point of the article is, however, that Stravinsky's ballet is strongly influenced by the Russian folk weddings in terms of "poly-layered texture," the function of rhythmic and melodic ostinato, the recurrences of certain melodic phrases, as well as conceptual and structural ideas.

Works: Kastalsky: Kartiny narodnykh prazdnovanii na Rusi (Scenes of Folk Festivals in Old Russia) (112-14); Stravinsky: Les Noces.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This essay lists and briefly discusses a number of sixteenth-century works, which incorporate borrowed material. Meier sometimes only indicates the origins of the borrowed material and sometimes also refers to its meaning. The examples are loosely grouped into two categories, those quoting Gregorian chant and those quoting other composers and Cypriano de Rore in particular. Composers do not borrow only from closely-related works or works in the same genre; a common word may be reason enough for quotation. The quoted passage can also be transposed to another mode, which changes the arrangement of the half and whole steps, but leaves the passage still recognizable. Quotation in the sixteenth century reflects the "learned" character of the music and shows in the case of the Gregorian melodies how familiar they still were.

Works: Josquin: Miserere mei Deus (1), Vultum tuum deprecabuntur (2); Senfl: Miserere mei Deus (1); Lassus: Psalmus Poenitentialis, No. 4 (1), Pater Abraham (2), Venite ad me (2), five-part Lamentations, No. 1 (2), Nunc gaudere licet (3), Fertur in conviviis/Vinus, vina, vinum (3), Donec malos angelos/Venientes cernant, /Cantantes his non fore/Requiem aeternam (3), Il estoit une religieuse (3), Octo beatitudines (8); Clemens non Papa: Nunc dimittis servum tuum Domine (1), Discite a me (2); Susato: Salve Antverpia, gemma, flos, venustas Europea (3); Rore: Concordes adhibete animos (3); Barbigant or Ockeghem: Au travail suis (3); Striggio: Anchor ch'io possa dire (4); Vespa: Anchor che la partita (4, 6); Caracciolo: Anchor che gran dolore (4); Ingegneri: Lasso che nel partire (4), Come la notte (7); Andrea Gabrieli: A caso un giorno (4); Portinaro: Vergine bella (4), Il dì s'appressa (4); Rossetto: Hor che'l ciel e la terra (5), Lasso che mal accorto (6); Chamaterï: Hor che'l ciel e la terra (5), Deh hor foss'io (7); de Monte: Fu forse un tempo (6); Animuccia: Alla dolc'ombra (6); Wert: Lasso che mal accorto (6); Merulo: Come la notte (7); Palestrina: Deh hor foss'io (7); Pordenon: Deh hor foss'io (7), Gravi pene (8); Paien: Gravi pene (8); Guami: Gravi pene (8), A la dolce ombra de la nobil pianta (10); Lechner: O Tod du bist ein bittre Gallen (8); Lupacchino: Onde tolse amor (8); Asola: Vergine bella (10), Vergine in cui (10).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Parody occurs if at least two voices from a polyphonic composition are borrowed simultaneously. Monte avoids exact quotation except at the beginning of a movement, treating the material with increasing freedom as the Mass unfolds. He reworks not only individual strands but the whole polyphonic complex, thus making it unrecognizable. The adjustments include a great variety of techniques. (1) A discrepancy in the number of syllables between model and Mass and the observation of correct accentuation may require rhythmic changes. (2) Monte simplifies a melody by omitting non-essential notes, or he elaborates it by introducing passing and auxiliary notes. (3) The composer often alters the polyphonic organization of his models, changing the number of imitative entries and rearranging them horizontally and vertically. (4) Encompassed under the label "development" are techniques such as the vertical combination of two subjects from the model, the borrowing of a polyphonic complex while adding a free part, and the construction of a longer imitative section based on an insignificant motive of the model. The fact that Monte borrows from composers such as Palestrina, Striggio, Wert, and Lassus shows a predominant interest in works of his contemporaries.

Works: Monte: Missa Cara la vita mia (49, 67, 78, 88, 141, 143), Missa Ancor che col partire (50, 63, 83, 101, 135, 154, 172), Missa Inclina cor meum (54, 89, 92, 103, 128, 154), Missa Quando lieta sperai (56, 66, 69, 75, 78, 96, 99, 115, 145, 154, 171), Missa Nasce la pena mia (58, 66, 69, 137, 151, 154), Missa Quam pulchra es (61), Missa Ultima miei sospiri (69), Missa La dolce vista (71, 85, 107, 147, 152), Missa Aspice domine (90, 109, 123, 139, 153), Missa Benedicta es coelorum regina (95), Missa Reviens vers moy (97, 107, 113, 153), Missa Cum sit omnipotens rector Olympi (107, 117, 146, 154), Missa O altitudo divitiarum (138, 140, 153, 155), Missa Ma cueur se recommande a vous (149), Missa Vestiva i colli (152, 155), Missa Confitebor tibi Domine (154).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Brumel's Mass is a parody Mass based on his own chanson Tous les regretz, of which two versions exist: (1) Florence, Conservatorio L. Cherubini, MS Basevi 2442, and (2) Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale, MS 11239. One rhythmic feature of the superius (a dotted semibreve followed by two fusa) only appears in the Florence MS and the Mass and it seems thus likely that the version in the Italian source was the actual model. Not only melodic but also harmonic elements are preserved. The first six harmonies of the homophonic chanson can be found either expanded or contracted in the predominantly homophonic Mass. Occasional imitative duo sections draw on motives from the chanson as well.

Works: Brumel: Missa Dringhs

Sources: Brumel: Tous les regretz

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

While some of Byrd's anthems are contrafacta of his Latin motets, two others are known to borrow from works by other composers. The opening of How long shall mine enemies shares melodic and organizational features with Tallis's I call and cry and Byrd models the conclusion ("But my trust is in thy mercy") on the corresponding section ("Forget my wickedness") of his predecessor, quoting the last three measures quite literally. Although the soprano and alto parts of William Hunnis's verse anthem Alack when I looke back are lost, it can still clearly be recognized as the model of Byrd's setting of the same text. Both compositions correspond in terms of form, melodic material, and techniques, such as quotation of the preexistent tune in an inner part at parallel places. Byrd, however, expands the choruses at the end of each verse and enhances the contrapuntal workmanship.

Works: Byrd: How long shall mine enemies (282-87), Alack, when I look back (295-99), All ye people clap your hands (302), Arise, O Lord, why sleepest thou (302), Behold I bring you glad tidings (302), Behold now praise the Lord (302), Be not wroth very sore (302), Blessed art thou, O Lord (302), Let not our prayers (303), Let not thy wrath (303), Let us arise (302), Lift up your heads (303), O Lord, give ear (303), O Lord turn thy wrath (303).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In his Memories and Commentaries (with Robert Craft), Stravinsky asserted having borrowed only one folk tune from a Lithuanian anthology for his opening bassoon melody of The Rite of Spring. An investigation of this Lithuanian source (Anton Juszkiewicz, Litauische Volks-Weisen, Cracow, 1900) reveals that Stravinsky, consciously or unconsciously, used many more folksongs (or significant sections thereof). The pitches usually correspond exactly, whereas rhythms are changed and grace-notes added. In all the examples cited, Stravinsky transposed the original and sometimes only raised or lowered a single note.

Works: Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring.

Sources: Anton Juszkiewicz, Litauische Volks-Weisen: Nos. 34, 113, 142, 157, 249, 271, 314, 359, 539, 641, 787, and 1785.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The phrases (Mottetenköpfe) opening each of the two sections of Palestrina's madrigal Vestiva i colli are both easily memorable melodies that also appear in old German and Dutch folksongs such as Es fur ein maidlein übern see (corresponding to part one of the madrigal) or Maudit soit and Ach herziges K. (both by Isaac, corresponding to part two). Thus they are very apt to structure Palestrina's Missa Vestiva i colli and appear at the beginning of significant sections of the Mass movements. Palestrina, however, does not restrict himself to the two opening phrases, but occasionally also draws upon inner sections. Several changes adjust the borrowings to the sacred character (Devotio christiana) of the Mass: slower tempo (mensuration), avoidance of leap, and simplification of the declamation. If Palestrina maintains leaps, they can be interpreted as expressions of joyful passages, as they occur in the "Gloria." Moser discusses six more Masses built on Palestrina's Vestiva i colli. While Giovanni Maria Nanino drew on both the Mass and the madrigal, Ruggiero Giovanelli used only the former. The madrigal furnishes the material for the remaining Masses (see list below). Moser believed that Felice Anerio also based his work on Vestiva i colli, an assumption the author had to correct two issues later (p. 376). Anerio's Mass borrows from Palestrina's eight-part motet Laudate dominum omnes gentes. Palestrina's madrigal influenced even completely different genres. Nikolaus Bleyer's Vestiva [i] colli del Palestrina: Modo di Passeggiar con diverse inventionj non regolati al Canto for violin (from around 1620, according to Moser) paraphrases especially the beginning of its model in a virtuosic way.

Works: Palestrina: Missa Vestiva i colli (132-37); Nanino: Missa Vestiva i colli (137-41); Giovanelli: Missa Vestiva i colli (137-41); Belli: Missa Vestiva i colli (141-42); Nucius: Missa super Vestiva i colli (143-44); Biondi (Cesena): Missa Vestiva i colli (144-47); Rudolph de Lasso: Missa Vestiva i colli (148-49); Anerio: Missa Laudate Dominum omnes gentes (149-52, 376); Bleyer: Vestiva [i] colli del Palestrina (152-54); Banchieri: La pazzia senile (376).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The author only considers those songs as contrafacta for which the original text is still clearly recogizable or indicated by a marginal note. Sacred contrafacta were intended to supplant their secular models: replacing their offensive texts while saving the melodies. The latter often deviate considerably from the originals, of which there may be several versions. These deviations include melodic variants, modulations to other keys in the second half of the song, and the elimination of phrases. Laufenberg: Ich weiss eine stolze maget vin, ein edle künegin (355f.); Es taget minnencliche die sünn der gnaden vol (356); Ich wölt daz ich do heime wer (356f.); Ein lerer ruoft vil lut us hohen sinnen (357); from the Hohenfurter Liederbuch: Wolauf, wir wollens wecken (358); Hätt ich die Gnad, so wollt ich mich aufschwingen (358); Ich sich den Morgensterne (358); Philippsen der Jüngere zu Winnenberg und Beilstein: Frisch auf in Gottes Namen, Du werde Teutsche Nation (360); Mir ist ein liebes Meidelein Gefalln in meinen Sinn (360); Wiewohl ich schwach und elend bin, So hab' ich doch ein' steten Sinn (360); So wünsch ich euch ein gute Nacht (360); from the collection of Louis Pinck (Verklingende Weisen): Der himmlische Jäger (361); Ich weiss ein schönes Himmelreich (363); from the collection of Bäumker (Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied in seinen Singweisen): Der geistlichen Meyen, Alt (363); Waris: Es scheint die Sonn am Himmel (365); Ich verlang ein Braut zu werden (366); Gute Meinung (367).

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The Czechs have always admired Mozart and Mozart maintained good relations with many musicians of that country. Thus whole operas or popular numbers from them were arranged for different forces or used as a basis for new songs. An example is Figaro's aria "Se vuol ballare signor contino," used in the Frühlingsliedchen (spring song) from the Sammlung einiger Lieder für die Jugend bei Industrialarbeiten mit den hiezu gehörigen Melodien, published by Franz Stiasny. Josef Mysliwetschek was one of those important friends, whose compositions Mozart liked. The theme from his D Major Symphony shows striking similarities with the opening of the Andante from Mozart's Symphony K. 95, which is also used in the Violin Sonata K. 9, and with the folksong Horela líp. Several Czech folksongs correspond with tunes from Mozart's operas, and Nettl assumes that it is more likely that the latter became folksongs than the other way round.

Works: Stiasny (publisher): Frühlingsliedchen (333); Mozart: Symphony K. 95 (337-38), Violin Sonata K. 9 (338); Mela jsem holoubka (folksong) (338); Já jsem chudej poustevník (folksong) (339); Skroup: Kde domov muj (339).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although the records of the council meetings in Leipzig confirm that Bach wrote a cantata for the town council election (Ratswechselkantate) in 1740, only its text has come down to us. In the original version of the Weimarer Jagdkantate, BWV 208, however, Bach underlaid the soprano part of the final chorus with some verses of the 1740 Ratswechselkantate. Since also other parts from the Jagdkantate could be adapted, Neumann mentions the possibility that Bach parodied several of its movements.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Neumann classifies Bach's works including parody by the following categories (directions of borrowing arias, choral movements, or recitatives): (1) Sacred to sacred; (2) secular to sacred; (3) secular to secular; (4) instrumental to vocal; (5) vocal to instrumental. Bach approached parody in two different ways: either he decided to re-use an existing composition and asked a poet to set a new text, or he adapted an old work to independently conceived poetry. If Bach decided to parody a whole cantata en bloc, the former method was applied, whereas parodies of single movements usually followed the latter procedure. If the text or music of either the original or the parody is missing and if further evidence is not extant, tracing parody becomes problematic, since corresponding prosody is neither a necessary nor a sufficient feature, as Neumann shows with several examples. Bach is not known to have re-used material from sacred works in secular ones. In cases evoking this impression, an even older secular composition exists (or existed) from which both later ones borrowed. Several theories have tried to explain this fact (Schering, Spitta, Rust), but Neumann refutes all these theories as unsound, providing a possible exception: the model of the secular cantata Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 was more likely the sacred cantata Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 than the textually unknown (secular) "Köthener Huldigungskantata" from which Bach re-used five instrumental parts in BWV 184. Therefore Neumann moderates the "rule" of the exclusive one-way parody to a hypothesis, of which the only reasonable explanation is Bach's wish to have his secular cantatas (usually written for a unique occasion) more frequently performed. Besides the complete list (64-71) the following works are mentioned.

Works: Bach: "Jesus soll mein erstes Wort," from Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (73); Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (75); "Domine Deus," from Mass in F Major, BWV 233 (75); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (76); Schwinget freudig euch empor, BWV 36c (76); Herrgott, Beherrscher aller Dinge, BWV 120a (78); Preise Jerusalem den Herrn, BWV 119 (80); Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 (84); Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 (84-85).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Many features of Schoenberg's music cannot be understood without Mahler. Schoenberg, however, usually goes beyond his predecessor. The clarity of each voice in the orchestral texture is clearly based on Mahler and the concept of beginning a piece tonally and ending atonally is derived from Mahler's way of starting a work in one key and finishing it in another.

Works: Schoenberg: String Quartet No. 2, Gurre-Lieder.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Nitschke's study looks at the cantus firmus primarily as a constructive element,not as an aspect of musical borrowing. Yet many comparisons between cantus firmus and original melody are made. In addition to Dufay's Mass cycles, Nitschke discusses secular pieces included in earlier Mass movements such as (1) the ballata Fior gentil in a Gloria setting and the ballata Deus deorum in a Credo setting by Antonio Zacara da Teramo and (2) the French folk song Tu m' a [sic] monté in the Gloria and the Italian folk song La Villanella non è bella in the Credo setting of the pair BL 33/34. Dufay's Mass Ecce ancilla is based on the two antiphons Ecce ancilla and Beata es Maria. No version of the former can be considered very close to Dufay's cantus firmus, which leads Nitschke to the suggestion that Dufay might have adjusted it to some melodic features of the antiphon Beata es Maria. The cantus firmus based on the latter shares some elements with the version from the Antiphonale Sarisburiense and some with the one from the Roman repertory. In isorhythmic sections, the cantus firmus follows the model exactly, whereas in others it may be paraphrased considerably. Dufay adapts the cantus firmus of the L'homme armé Mass in four different ways: (1) The tenor quotes the song exactly; (2) some features of the song are changed due to the canon instruction; (3) the song is paraphrased; or (4) Dufay creates his own version of the song and repeats it isorhythmically several times. As in the Mass Ecce ancilla, Nitschke could not yet locate the model for the cantus firmus of the Mass Ave regina caelorum. It shares elements with the version from Rouen and Salisbury and the printed ones as found in the Graduale Romanum and the Processionale Romanum. The Mass is also compared to the motet Ave regina caelorum, which is based on the same cantus firmus and was most probably written before the Mass. According to Nitschke it is very remarkable that the Mass borrows only two passages from the motet.

Works: Zacara da Teramo: Gloria Fior gentil (89-95), Credo Deus deorum (96-101); Dufay: Credo-Gloria BL 33/34, Missa Caput,Missa Se la face ay pale,Missa Ecce ancilla domini,Missa L'homme armé,Missa Ave regina caelorum,Missa La mort de Saint Gothardo.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

While Berio based his Recital I on selected fragments of Cathy Berberian's repertory, the Chemins are modeled on the Sequenzas for solo instruments, thus on complete self-sufficient works. The composer expanded the instrumental texture in order to create "sonic aggregates" that could obscure the original structure completely. The resulting piece in turn could become the basis for further extensions: Chemins IIb-IIc and Chemins III are based on Chemins II and thus ultimately on Sequenza VI. "Each new layer creates a new, though related surface, and each older layer assumes a new function as soon as it is covered" (Berio).

Works: Berio: Chemins I, Chemins II, Chemins IIb, Chemins IIc, Chemins III, Chemins IV, Sinfonia, third movement, Recital I.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Isaac based his Sustinuimus pacem et non invenimus, Domine on two cantus firmi, using a version of the well known Basque tune Una musque de Buscaya in the tenor and the superius of Josquin's chanson En l'ombre d'un buissonet tout au loing d'une rivière in the superius. The new textural context of the latter accounts for the few musical deviations.

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

It has long been unclear how much Hans Pfitzner borrowed from Palestrina in his opera (1917) named after this 16th-century composer. Only two borrowings have been identified, whereas four others have remained doubtful. In 1973, the Bayrische Staatsbibliothek received Pfitzner's copy of Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli. This manuscript proves that Pfitzner studied this work much more carefully than scholars hitherto have believed. It includes many marked passages with square brackets and Osthoff shows that these passages were intended to be used in the opera. Pfitzner, however, not only quoted from the Missa Papae Marcelli. In the sketches of his opera, he designated the melody in Act I on "patrem omnipotentem" (sung by the chorus of the angels) as a cantus firmus. Osthoff identifies it as a quotation from the Missa Aspice Domine (a parody mass) and not from the Missa Papae Marcelli as Albert Fleury claimed before. The markings also indicate that Pfitzner borrowed not only melodic and harmonic passages but also techniques, such as falsobordone, parallel tenths in outer parts, and sixteenth-century stereotyped figures including the cambiata and typical cadences. According to Osthoff, the technique of inserting small isolated elements into a new composition is significant for the structural thinking of twentieth-century composers.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This study is an excerpt from Pamer's Ph.D. dissertation (Vienna, 1922). In the first part, the author lists original folksongs Mahler reworked in his own songs (122-23) and discusses their melodic features (136-38). In the second part, Pamer discusses the influence of Mahler's early musical impressions (especially folksongs, military fanfares and marches) on his songs in terms of rhythm, meter and tempo changes, thematic construction, harmony, and tonality. On pp. 125-27 he mentions the re-use of some songs in Mahler's symphonies, giving a very rudimentary interpretation. The musical examples of this second part are mostly taken primarily from Mahler's works and seldom from the material that influenced him.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Pelnar shows that two separately notated parts in the Wolkenstein manuscript A (fols. 17r and 18r) belong together, constituting the song Frölichen so wel wir, which in turn is a contrafactum of the ballad Ay je cause destre lies et joyeux. In this and a second contrafactum (Frölich, zärtlich, lieplich based on the rondeau En tes doulz flans), Pelnar shows that in order to realize a better relation between the new text and the music, Oswald also made some melodic and rhythmic changes.

Works: Oswald von Wolkenstein: Frölichen so wel wir (26-30), Frölich, zärtlich, lieplich und klärlich, lustlich, stille, leise (31-32).

Index Classifications: 1400s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In his opera Palestrina, Hans Pfitzner uses three themes from Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli. While two of them (from the "Kyrie" and from the "Christe") are simple quotations, the one from the "Sanctus" is developed further until it exactly represents the characteristic scale motive from Josquin's well known instrumental piece La Bernardina, which Pfitzner, however, most probably did not know. This development covers the final section of the dramatically important "inspiration scene" from Act I. Rectanus explains the correspondence with a mysterious relationship between the composers concerned, with what he calls an unio mystica or Sternenfreundschaft.

Works: Palestrina: Missa Papae Marcelli,Missa Benedicta es (212-13); Pfitzner: Palestrina; Ghiselin-Verbonnet: L'Alfonsina (216-17); Josquin: Mi Larés vous (216-17); Monteverdi: Raggi, D'ovè il mio ben (216-17).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

This article locates Mahler's music historically and analyzes its expression. While the incorporation of his own songs into the symphonies could function as "signposts for the intellectual appreciation of the hidden programme," the handling of deliberately trivial melodies symbolizes "experiences of despair or of heartlacerating self-irony." The parody of Frère Jacques in the First and a melody of a Viennese military cortège in the Fifth Symphony belong to the latter category.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 8.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In his Fantasy on themes from Mozart's Don Giovanni, Liszt goes far beyond the potpourri. By careful selection of the melodic material, including scenes with the Commendatore ("Di rider finirai," "Ribaldo, audace," and "Tu m'invitasti a cena"), the duet "Là ci darem la mano," and Don Giovanni's aria "Fin ch'han dal vino," Liszt concentrates on only a few figures. In the transition from the duet to the final aria, he combines thematic material from music associated with the three characters, thus creating a "free symphonic development" that reinterprets the story: after the confrontation with the Commendatore, Don Giovanni triumphs over his opponent. Ten measures before the end, however, Liszt evokes once more the sphere of the Commendatore (Andante), which can be understood as an attempt to lead back cyclically to the beginning, skepticism about the positive interpretation of the ending, or both.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Chapter V of Roman's dissertation presents an examination of Mahler's songs in symphonies from the point of view of their constituent poetical as well as musical-echnical elements. As in the genre of the song itself, Mahler also sought for new means of expression in the symphony. Still in the tradition of Beethoven, he expands "the grand design of symphonic music" by the incorporation of a hitherto unexplored resource: the song. The result of his search for an ultimate "symbiosis of symphonic and vocal music" can be described as follows: (1) Mahler's music--even in his apparently purely instrumental symphonies--has to be viewed in connection with his interest in literature. (2) The new possibilities created by Mahler's expansion of the genre are reflected in the works of the following generation.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Das Lied von der Erde.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Since Girdlestone's article on Rameau's self-borrowings omitted most of them and contains many errors, a re-examination is necessary. Sadler discovers patterns in Rameau's borrowing habits according to the genre of the pieces quoted from. These include (1) harpsichord collections, (2) instrumental pieces from operas, and (3) vocal borrowings. The article, however, excludes borrowings "consisting of a single phrase or motive in mid-piece" and "items moved bodily from one self-contained entrée of an opera to another when a work was revived." Rameau's harpsichord pieces were well known and quotations from them were the only ones that the public seems to have identified. Rameau did not disguise them but rather placed them in prominent positions of his first group of operas. His usual practice was to change the formal structure of the original considerably, borrowing only the first one or two phrases or the refrain of a rondeau. With these quotations Rameau hoped to transfer some of the popular appeal to his early operas. Once the Lulliste-Ramiste controversy had resolved in his favor, these borrowings were handled much more freely. Rameaus's approach to borrowing from instrumental operatic pieces differs considerably from the one discussed above. From 1745-60 he quoted his lesser-known operas with little change, whereas during the last four years of his life, he extensively reworked parts from his most famous operas, such as Castor and Pollux,Zoroastre,Platée, and Zaïs. The reluctance of the French to re-use vocal numbers and to re-set existing libretti explains why Rameau usually altered the text of his vocal borrowings, a fact which makes it difficult to trace possible borrowings from operas of which the music is lost. Vocal borrowings make up the smallest category and it is thus difficult to draw any conclusions about their purpose. Rameau quotes from some of his most famous arias but here again may borrow only the opening measures, stimulating his imagination to continue freely.

Works: Rameau: La Princesse de Navarre (260, 270, 273), Les fêtes d'Hébé (262), Zoroastre (262, 264-65, 266, 272), Les Indes galantes (264), Pièces de clavecin en concerts (265), Dardanus (266), Les surprises de l'amour (268), Les fêtes de Polymnie (273), Io (273).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In his Kinderhymne (1950/51), Hanns Eisler borrows from both the German national anthem (Deutschland, Deutschland über alles) and the East-German national anthem (Auferstanden aus Ruinen), which Eisler composed in 1949. According to Schutte, the listener not only should know what pieces the composer is quoting, but also should be aware of their historical background, since both aspects determine the intentions of a composition. The first part of the Kinderhymne alludes to both anthems, of which the melodic similarities in the opening measures prevent a clear distinction. In the course of the composition the origins of the opening measures are revealed: a direct quotation from the East-German anthem is combined with "intended" (obvious although not exact) quotations from the German anthem. By applying this technique, Eisler refers to the German anthem as a tradition that is taken over by East-Germany not in its original from but as a basis to create something new. Schutte compares Eisler's Kinderhymne with Stockhausen's Hymnen (composed 1967), another work including national anthems. In the second "region" (movement), Stockhausen combines the German anthem with fragments of the Horst-Wessel-Lied (the Nazi anthem). Although these quotations are "disturbed" by noise and electronic sounds, they always remain clearly recognizable. According to Schutte, Stockhausen's Hymnen therefore lack any sense of consciousness of tradition, and the fact that he places hymns standing for historical progress on the same level as the Horst-Wessel-Lied characterizes him as a "helplessly unpolitical composer."

Works: Eisler: Kinderhymne; Stockhausen: Hymnen (214-16).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The aptitude of the B-A-C-H motive for infinite variation (unendliche Variation), its terseness and possibility to appear as part of a twelve-tone row led composers like Reger, Schoenberg, and Webern either to use it as a point of departure for or to integrate it into their composition. They thus refer to Bach, who used the motive himself and who especially in his later works also developed a great variety of forms from similarly limited material.

Works: Reger: Fantasy and Fugue Op. 46 (420-21); Schoenberg: Variations for Orchestra Op. 31 (421), Piano Suite Op. 25 (421), Moses und Aron (421); Webern: Cantata Op. 26 (421), Cantata Op. 29 (421), Quartet for Clarinet, Tenor Saxophone, Piano, and Violin Op. 22 (421), String Quartet Op. 28 (421).

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Not only the symphonies with actual voice parts but also many others borrow from Mahler's song cycles. Smith identifies the borrowings and emphasizes not only their importance for the interpretation, but also the key position of their musical material. The song elements appear as the pillars of the whole work.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, Symphony No. 7.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Ives's early works display a remarkable coexistence of pieces in conservative and radical styles. However, his interest in emulating and quoting European composers can be seen not only in the conservative works written for courses at Yale, such as the First Symphony, of which the scherzo is modeled on the corresponding movement from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, but also in those from before and after his formal study, such as the Slow March from 114 Songs where Ives quotes from Handel's Saul.

Works: Ives: Symphony No. 1 (76), Slow March (79).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Bruckner's influence led twice to a qualitative change in Mahler's career as a composer of symphonies, first in the Second and later in the Ninth Symphony. Stephan discusses correspondences of melody (remarkably similar thematic material), formal concepts (structure of the exposition, false reprise), use of chorale, and dispositions of sound. Stephan even raises the question whether the listener has to keep Bruckner's works in mind in order to understand Mahler adequately.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2 (Resurrection), Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 9.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

An analysis of Ives's Second Symphony reveals quotations both from the European Classical tradition and form American tunes. One of the latter, "Down in the cornfield," an excerpt from Stephen Foster's Massa's in de cold ground, appears more often than any other, and Sterne interprets it on four levels. First, it portrays an American landscape; second, it recalls memories of Ives's youth; third, this and all the other American tunes represent Ives setting himself apart from the European tradition and his teacher Horatio Parker in particular, symbolized by the European themes; finally, the text of Massa's in de cold ground tells us of Massa's death, which Sterne interprets as Ives declaring the death of the European symphonic tradition.

Index Classifications: 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Vill's book, originally a Ph.D. dissertation (Frankfurt am Main, 1974), emphasizes the texts of songs and their changes as compared to the original. In a second part the author gives programmatic interpretations of the first four symphonies, in which quotations from folk songs and from Mahler's own songs are of major importance, even if the texts are not quoted with the tunes. The meaning given to these tunes by the original words and various statements by Mahler together with formal procedures--including transformation of the quoted material--allow two kinds of conclusions: either they lead to a concrete interpretation or reflect some of the musical ambiguity.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 2, Symphony No. 3, Symphony No. 4.

Index Classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

The manuscript discovery of Schumann's revised C Major Fantasy sheds some light on the composer's reasons for revisions. The score, which was originally conceived as a tribute to Beethoven and which thus includes quotations from An die ferne Geliebte in both the first and last movements, in its new version received a dedication to Franz Liszt. Furthermore, Schumann crossed out the titles "Ruinen," "Siegesbogen," and "Sternbild" and deleted the above-mentioned Beethoven quotation that rounded off the final movement, replacing it with an arpeggio ending. Walker suggests that the Liszt dedication was Schumann's reaction to a favorable article Liszt wrote on Schumann's keyboard music in La revue et gazette musicale but also to Liszt's dedication of his newly composed Paganini Studies to Clara. Since Liszt was the driving force behind the plan to erect a statue in the honor of Beethoven, Schumann must have felt that his Fantasy would be the appropriate piece to show his gratitude.

Works: Schumann: Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

For the sixteenth-century composer, intabulation of motets, madrigals, and chansons was the key to the mastery of composition. Ward distinguishes three different procedures: (1) the strict intabulation, which may nonetheless include some ornamentation, especially at the beginning where the texture is still thin; (2) the glosa, a transformation "by means of continuous diminution"; and (3) the parody or "parody by means of paraphrase." While parody implies a mixture of faithfully borrowed and original sections (Mudarra), "parody by means of paraphrase" indicates paraphrase of the themes while preserving the voice structure (Cabezón).

Works: Mudarra: Glosa of Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" from the Missa Beata Virgine (93-94); Palero: Tiento on Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" (94); Cabezón: Glosa of Josquin's "Cum sancto spiritu" from the Missa Beata Virgine (91); Tiento sobre cum sancto spiritu (Josquin) (94); parody of Willaert's Qui la dira (95); parody of Malheur me bat (95); Cavazzoni: canzona on Josquin's Faulte d'argent (95); canzona on Passereau's Il est bel et bon (95); Severino: Parody on Susanna un jour (96); Bull: Two parodies of Palestrina's Vestiva i colli (96).

Index Classifications: 1500s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Satie does not borrow actual Gregorian tunes although there may be some direct quotations in the form of certain melodic steps and turns. He imitated ("paraphrased"), however, the style of the Gregorian tunes as they were arranged by Louis Niedermeyer, i.e., providing each note with a new harmony and preserving the (modal) cadential turns. What he heard from the Benedictines of Solesmes did not influence him at all.

Works: Satie: Ogives (232-35), Four Preludes (233-35), Sonneries de la Rose + Croix (233-35), Messe des pauvres (234-36), Danses gothiques (235).

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Zenck grounds her interpretation of the Scherzo from Mahler's Second Symphony on the content of the borrowed Wunderhorn song "Des Antonio von Padua Fischpredigt" and on an analysis of expressive elements. She divides the movement into four characteristic musical levels: (1) the section based on the Wunderhorn song, in which the constant reiteration of a melodic idea stands for the senseless and mechanical repetition of the same in daily life (mm. 1-189); (2) the stylized development of the previous material, standing for high art (mm. 190-211); (3) the fanfares, a code for "low music" (212-56); and (4) the "trio" representing calm and fulfillment of what the fanfares announced. The way Mahler treats these levels in the course of the movement symbolizes art (music) strongly linked with the repetitive course of the world suppressing simple music and any personal and human sphere.

Index Classifications: 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Handel based the overture to his oratorio Susanna on John Blow's ode Begin the Song for St. Cecilia's Day (1684). Although Handel included most of Blow's composition, he transformed it into a typically Handelian work. In the grave section, Handel changes the subject slightly and the countersubject substantially; however, he reworks the fugal allegro completely, borrowing only the opening motive. He also modernized his model: he simplified themes, thus making them more suited to effective contrapuntal treatment, and introduced polychoral effects, concerto-grosso-techniques, and new ornaments.

Works: Handel: Acis and Galatea (20), Overture to Susanna (20-29), Agrippina (23-24), Messiah (24), Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (24).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger