Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

There are two kinds of self-referential aspects in Mozart's piano concertos: reminiscences of or allusions to specific works, and generic references to characteristic styles. It is easy to assume that Mozart frequently borrowed specifically from his opere buffe in his piano concertos, based on fortuitous similarities. However, the contribution of buffa in Mozart's piano concerto writing is mainly in its procedure, the most prominent effect being the achievement of closure. For example, the buffa gesture of repetitive cadences serves as a function of syntax when transposed to classical concerto style, reaffirming the tonic for a convincing closure and serving as a climax of rhythmic motive developing throughout the movement. Another "buffa echo" is the coda itself. The introduction of new materials, a quickened pulse and layering voices parallels the buffa finale. It is the interplay of solo and orchestra in the concerto that allows the dramatic operatic device to be incorporated.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 14 in E-flat Major, K. 449 (76-85), Piano Concerto No. 15 in B-flat Major, K. 450 (86, 88), Piano Concerto No. 19 in F Major, K. 459 (94-97), Piano Concerto No. 17 in G Major, K. 453 (98, 100), Piano Concerto No. 20 in D Major, K. 466 (99, 101).

Sources: Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro, "Terzetto" (II, 13) (76), "Susanna or via sortite" (78, 80-81), and "Aprite un po' quegli occhi" (86-89), Don Giovanni, "Ho, Capito" (89-93).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1700s

The development of the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet Op. 64, No. 3 shares several similarities with an extended harmonic pattern in Mozart's "Voi che sapete" from Le Nozze di Figaro. This may reveal that Mozart's arietta is a concealed model. Both the Mozart and Haydn excerpts can be analyzed using an interrupted Schenkerian Urlinie of 3-2 // 3-2-1 that begins on the dominant minor (F minor). A half cadence on C major is reached via an augmented sixth on D-flat, and this is followed by descending motion from C to A-flat major. Although Haydn emphasizes the tonal area of A-flat longer than Mozart, both excerpts move from A-flat to C minor and then cadence in G minor. The tonal complexity in "Voi che sapete" seems more sophisticated than the character singing the arietta (Cherubino), which may indicate that the music is aimed to appeal to musical connoisseurs. This target audience for the arietta, alongside Haydn's documented familiarity with Le Nozze di Figaro, strengthens the possibility that aspects of Mozart's arietta were incorporated into Haydn's quartet.

Works: Haydn: String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 64, No. 3.

Sources: Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro, "Voi che sapete."

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Current copyright laws do not adequately support the forms of musical borrowing prevalent in hip-hop. The use of pre-existing recordings in hip-hop samples simultaneously violates the protected rights of both the existing musical composition and the recording of that musical composition. Sampling continues to be viewed as theft rather than a source of innovation within music. Aesthetic values prevalent in hip-hop, such as oral tradition, textual emphasis, repetition, polyrhythm, and borrowing, need to be situated in a broader context of musical aesthetics and, consequently, legal treatment of borrowing practices. Treating hip-hop as theft or plagiarism robs it of its rightful place within the historical context of musical borrowing in many different kinds of music. Modifications to current copyright laws, such as payment structures and differentiation of different types of sampling, are necessary to address the legality of hip-hop sampling.

Works: Irving Gordon (songwriter), Natalie Cole (performer): Unforgettable (562); Beastie Boys: Pass the Mic (570-72); N.W.A.: 100 Miles and Runnin' (574-76); Biz Markie: Alone Again (580-81); Handel: Israel in Egypt (601-603, 610).

Sources: James Newton: Choir (570-72); George Clinton (songwriter), Funkadelic (performers): Get off Your Ass and Jam (574-76); Gilbert O'Sullivan: Alone Again (Naturally) (580-81); Dionigi Erba: Magnificat (601-603, 610).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s, Jazz

Contributed by: Amanda Sewell

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Although the authorship of the "Handel" Gloria has been disputed in past studies, an analysis of an overlooked borrowing shared between the Gloria and one of Handel's earliest-known compositions, Laudate pueri in F, supports the Handel attribution. Both are scored for solo soprano, two violins, and continuo, which is uncommon in other German and Italian mass and psalm settings of the period. The material shared between the works, a sixteenth-note melismatic progression through the circle of fifths, appears in the sixth movement of Laudate pueri in F on the text "Ut collocet eum" and in the Gloria in the "Cum Sancto Spirito" section. In the Gloria, the melisma occurs on "Amen," linking it with two of Handel's later works, Laudate pueri in D and Zadok the Priest, which both contain similar Amen flourishes. Accepting that the Laudate pueri in F was composed first, it is quite plausible and chronologically fits within the young composer's oeuvre that Handel composed the Gloria, expanded the melismatic embellishment from his earlier Laudate pueri, and used it as an Amen motif, a practice which he continued in his later Laudate pueri and Zadok the Priest. It is right to be circumspect about accepting a new work into Handel's output, but the attribution of the Gloria to Handel finds support in the earlier and later usages Handel made of material found within this piece.

Works: Handel(?): Gloria (75-90); Handel: Laudate pueri in D, HWV 237 (76-83, 86), Zadok the Priest, HWV 258 (77-83, 86).

Sources: Handel: Laudate pueri in F, HWV 236 (75-90); Handel(?): Gloria (76-78).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Mozart includes more revisions than usual in the autograph of his "Haydn" quartets, and this may indicate that he was trying to work out compositional problems that proved more difficult than he expected. To build upon Haydn's ideas of texture, extension, development, and innovation in his Op. 33, Mozart uses two specific types of modeling. First, he replicates certain elements of Haydn's Op. 33. In the finale of his String Quartet in C Major, K. 465, he includes the characteristic Haydn gestures of unexpected silence and a false reprise in the wrong key. Second, Mozart makes selective applications of Haydn's compositional practice. For example, in his String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2, Haydn grapples with how to introduce and continue thematic material. By transforming the function of the closing motive into that of an opening motive, Haydn provides a novel solution to his problem. Similarly, in his String Quartet in E-flat Major, K. 428, Mozart changes the function of the closing material to opening material; however, he also goes a step further than Haydn. When Mozart reaches the dominant key, he unexpectedly delays the second theme. Instead, he transforms another cadential figure into an opening figure, obscuring the usual pairing of the dominant with the secondary theme. Mozart also borrows more general features of Haydn's Op. 33, such as the placement of the scherzo before the slow movement and patterns of dialogues between instruments. Though modeling does exist between quartets of different keys, it is most easily seen when the Mozart and Haydn quartets are in the same key.

Works: Mozart: String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 (76, 83), String Quartet in E-flat Major, K. 428 (78, 80-3), String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (84-85), String Quintet in C Major, K. 515 (85), String Quartet in D Minor, K. 421 (87); Beethoven: String Quartet in F Major (Razumovsky) Op. 59, No. 1 (85).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 4 (76), String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2 (78, 80-81), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (83, 87) String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (83-84); Mozart: String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (85), String Quintet in C Major, K. 515 (85).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Toward the end of the 1770s, partially as a consequence of the controversy between the Ramistes and Gluckistes (the supporters of Rameau and Gluck respectively), the Académie Royale de Musique was in a state of crisis, which led to the appointment of a new director, Anne Pierre Jacques Devismes du Valgay. To mediate between the two parties, he not only scheduled pieces that would appeal to all tastes, but, to promote this program, also commissioned a new opera from André Ernest Modeste Grétry, a composer not directly involved in the controversy. The result was Les trois âges de l'opéra (libretto by Saint-Alphonse Devismes), a prologue opéra including extensive borrowings from Lully, Rameau and Gluck. In this opera, each of these composers is praised for his operatic contributions, Lully's "mastery of lyric declamation," Rameau's dances, and Gluck's recitative style and wide range of passions, and Grétry carefully underlines their strengths with appropriate quotations. The borrowed passages are basically unchanged; Grétry only changed the instrumentation in some places or interpolated a few extra measures to meet the requirements of the text. To correct the ahistorical view of the Ramistes and Gluckistes, Grétry related the borrowings to each other, showing the indebtedness of Rameau and Gluck to their predecessor, for example by quoting a "dramatically static chorus" from Gluck's Ifigénie, a chorus that according to some critics owed much to the French model. The libretto does much to give the impression that Gluck continued the Lully-Rameau lyric tradition.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

In 1736, Gottlieb Muffat copied out, by hand, two published works by Handel: the eight Suites de pièces (1720) and the Six Fugues or Voluntarys for the Organ or Harpsichord (1735). Muffat did this to illustrate his method of fingering and to specify a precise system of ornaments. Quite likely, Muffat had received these published editions directly from London, and in return dedicated his Componimenti musicali to Handel. The latter, in turn, borrowed from Muffat's work.

Works: Handel: Twelve Grand Concertos, Op. 6 (904), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (904), Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7 no. 2 (907).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (904, 906-7), Ricercare (907).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Handel's uses of themes from Muffat's Componimenti musicali fall into three categories: (1) the themes are taken as "mere suggestions" by Handel; (2) the ideas are adopted with little or any alteration; (3) the themes are freely treated to the point that they take on an independent life of their own. Examples of each type of usage may be found in Handel's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day and elsewhere. Unlike Giovanni Bononcini, who was discredited for claiming another's music as his own, Handel's musical borrowings were accepted because the materials he appropriated were so well known that there was no pretense to originality.

Works: Handel: Ode on St. Cecilia's Day (149-51), Joshua (151), Samson (151).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (149-51).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Niels Viggo Bentzon's Variationer for klaver, Op. 241, and Robert Muczynski's Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) participate in a long tradition of variations in general and variations on Paganini's Caprice No. 24, and their contributions to the latter tradition exhibit divergent approaches to variation technique. Bentzon obscures all melodic references to Paganini's theme and does not label variations, preferring instead to make subtle allusions to Paganini's harmonies and rhythms within the context of Bentzon's own language. Muczynski's Desperate Measures, on the other hand, is a work conceived of as entertainment, and references to Paganini's melody remain clear within a more traditional approach to variations and tonality, to which Muczynski adds modern dance idioms.

Works: J. S. Bach: Goldberg Variations (11-13); Mozart: Variations in F Major, "Salve tu Domine," K. 398; Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (14); Chopin: Twelve Concert Etudes, Op. 10 (18); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (28, 30-32, 101); Busoni: Paganini-Liszt Theme mit Variationen, Etüden, No. 6 (28-32); Lutosławski: Variations on a Theme of Paganini (28, 32); Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 35 (28, 32-33, 101); Rachmaninov: Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 43 (28, 32-33); Niels Viggo Bentzon: Variationer for Klaver, Op. 241 (29, 34, 37-62, 65, 98-101); Robert Muczynski: Desperate Measures (Paganini Variations) (29, 65-98, 100-102).

Sources: Anonymous: Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west (12), Kraut und Rüben (12); Paisiello: "Salve tu, domine" from I filosofi immaginarii (13); Anton Diabelli: Waltz (14); Paganini: 24 Caprices, Op. 1 (26-29); Liszt: Grandes études de Paganini, Op. 6 (30).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Self-quotation in the classical tradition is when a composer cites a melody or segment from an existing composition in a new work for some extramusical purpose or meaning. Although the technique is rarely found in Renaissance or Baroque music, it attained increased prominence in the late-Classical period and into the twentieth century, due to emerging aesthetics of originality and “absolute music.” The effectiveness of self-quotation, moreover, depends on the composer’s ability to present the existing material in a recognizable way, as well as the listener’s understanding of the origin and meaning of the original work.

Through self-quotation, a composer can create a diverse array of new presentations of older material ranging from commentary, illustration, humor, and either distancing or affirmation of the original material’s meaning. Mozart’s insertion of “Non piú andrai” from Le nozze di Figaro in the finale of Don Giovanni, for instance, momentarily dissolves the boundaries of operatic illusion and reality, invoking the plot of the former opera to foreshadow Don Giovanni’s impending doom. Beethoven utilizes a theme from his ballet Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus as the basis for the finale of his Eroica Symphony to invoke the image of Prometheus as the symbolic hero of the work, which is especially asserted in the coda. In his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Wagner quotes the “love motive” from Tristan und Isolde to draw a parallel between the love triangles of both operas. While the motive symbolized a tragic fate in Tristan und Isolde, however, in Die Meistersinger it reminds Hans Sachs of a tragedy to avoid, thus ensuring the opera’s happy ending. Anton Bruckner inserted quotations from many of his sacred works into his symphonies to give them a special character of reverence and piety. Richard Strauss practiced self-quotation frequently, but particularly fascinating is his symphonic poem Ein Heldenleben, which uses material from Guntram, Don Juan, and several other works to depict Strauss himself as the titular hero of Ein Heldenleben. Self-quotation’s continued relevance as a compositional technique can be seen in contemporary works, with Berg’s opera Lulu, Liebermann’s opera Leonore 40/45, and Zimmermann’s Ballet noir being notable examples.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni, K. 527 (21); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (Eroica) (21); Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (21-22); Bruckner: Symphony No. 0 in D Minor, WAB 100 (23), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor, WAB 102 (23), Symphony No. 3 in D Minor, WAB 103 (23), Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, WAB 109 (23), Symphony No. 7 in C-sharp Minor, WAB 107 (23); Richard Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (23-24), Feuersnot, Op. 50 (24), Der Bürger als Edelmann, Op. 60b (24), Eine Alpensinfonie, Op. 64 (24), Intermezzo, Op. 72 (24), Capriccio, Op. 85 (24), Vier letzte Lieder, Op. posth. (24); Alban Berg: Lulu (24); Rolf Liebermann: Leonore 40/45 (24); Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Ballet noir: Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (24).

Sources: Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro, K. 492 (21); Beethoven: Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 (21); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (21-22); Bruckner: Ave Maria, WAB 6 (23), Mass in F Minor, WAB 28 (23), Mass in D Minor, WAB 26 (23), Te Deum in C Major, WAB 45 (23); Richard Strauss: Guntram, Op. 25 (23-24), Macbeth, Op. 23 (23), Don Juan, Op. 20 (23), Tod und Verklärung, Op. 24 (23-24), Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche, Op. 28 (23), Also sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30 (23), Don Quixote, Op. 35 (23-24), Hymne an die Liebe, Op. 71, No. 1 (24), Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40 (24), Daphne, Op. 82 (24), Ariadne auf Naxos, Op. 60 (24); Alban Berg: Wozzeck (24); Rolf Liebermann: Sonate für Klavier (24).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

That Bach's Christmas Oratorio consists in part of parodied movements from secular cantatas has been problematic for the work's reception. However, Bach's parody technique can be justified on economic, stylistic, and aesthetic grounds. An examination of the Christmas Oratorio demonstrates that Bach carefully reworked his models to harmonize with the new text and the new occasion. Three main aspects of Bach's parody technique may be discerned in the Christmas Oratorio: first, movements are transposed to conform to the overall tonal structure of the work; second, movements may be reorchestrated in order to better correspond with the affect of the new text; and third, the re-texting of the music is carried out in a skillful fashion that is rhetorically appropriate in the new setting. The Christmas Oratorio is, therefore, a highly individual work which owes its success to Bach's careful consideration of the consequences of parody. In the new work the parodied movements are integrated structurally as well as meaningfully into the new setting.

Works: Bach: Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

For various reasons Bach's output of secular cantatas is not very well known. This is the case despite the very ambiguous demarcation between Bach's sacred and secular music as well as the evident passion and skill he exhibits in many of the secular compositions. As the secular cantatas provided Bach with a wealth of musical material to draw upon, the use of parody technique is a central concern to this repertory. Although the argument that parody was a direct result of Bach's need for economy is certainly relevant, there indeed exist cases where the transformation of an existing work into a new one is so advanced that one must consider other factors. The oratorio-type works that Bach composed later in his Leipzig years, for example, rely to a large extent on very skillful parodies of movements from pre-Leipzig secular cantatas. It is likely that as his career progressed, Bach made greater use of parody procedure as the fund of existing source material grew. An understanding of the relationship between original and parody must consider the possibility that Bach's music was so rich that it was readily adaptable to widely divergent texts.

Works: Bach: Weichet nur, betrübte Schatten, BWV 202 (191); Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet, BWV 212 (193); Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen, BWV 66 (194-5); Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (198-9, 201); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (200); Easter Oratorio, BWV 249 (201-2); St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (202-3); Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (203-4).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

It has long been recognized that Mozart's "Haydn" Quartets (K. 387, 421, 428, 458, 464, 465) are a response to Haydn's String Quartets, Opp. 20 and 33; however, K. 464 and 465 can also be understood as a pointed response to the string quartets of Ignaz Pleyel, Mozart's slightly younger contemporary. Pleyel, a student of Haydn, also modeled much of his String Quartets, Op. 1 on Haydn's Opp. 20 and 33. Though Pleyel rarely moves beyond surface similarities, and his music seems to suffer from abundant repetition, extensive homophony, and slow dramatic pacing, several critics applauded the quartets for their accessibility. Mozart even wrote to his father commending Pleyel's Op. 1 and encouraged him to obtain a copy. Yet when Pleyel published a second set of string quartets (Op. 2) in the same year and dedicated them to Haydn, Mozart quickly rose to claim his musical superiority. K. 464 and 465 simultaneously expand upon elements of Haydn's Opp. 20 and 33 and Pleyel's Op. 1; in fact, Mozart undercuts several of Pleyel's more innovative movements by exposing their inherent structural weaknesses. Mozart also uses the title page of his "Haydn" Quartets to assert his role as Haydn's successor. By using a design similar to Pleyel's Op. 2, and by openly naming as Haydn a friend and paternal figure, as opposed to a teacher, Mozart identifies himself as the greater composer.

Works: Pleyel: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (215-18), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 1, No. 3 (205, 207-9, 212-216), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 1, No. 6 (205-7); Mozart, String Quartet in D Minor, K. 421 (207), String Quartet in A Major, K. 464 (212-15), String Quartet in C Major, K. 465 (215-18).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in D Major, Op. 20, No. 4 (205-7), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 20, No. 6 (205, 207-9, 212-14), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (215-18), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (207); Pleyel: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (215-18), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 1, No. 3 (212-15).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

The influence of Haydn's quartets Opp. 20 and 33 on Mozart's "Haydn" quartets goes beyond imitation. When Mozart invokes a specific Haydn quartet he uses overt parallels to invite a comparison with Haydn, yet usually changes and transforms the model's form. An element ostensibly borrowed from Haydn is for Mozart a mere point of departure, the striking transformations of which reveal Mozart's rivalry with his model. Mozart's veiled intention, homage combined with confrontation, is also traceable in the rhetoric of his notorious letter of dedication to Haydn.

Works: Mozart: String Quartet in D Minor, K.421 (371-77), String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, K.465 (380-92), String Quartet in A Major, K.464 (392-405).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (371-77), String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 20, No. 5 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (380-92), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 20, No. 2 (392-405).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The question of priority in Bach's composition of the St. Matthew Passion and the Funeral Music for Prince Leopold remains open to debate. An examination of Bach's use of parody technique in works where one is known to have been a model for the other yields a picture of the types of adjustments Bach was likely to make. Brainard finds that only two factors will cause Bach to make significant changes in the music when setting the second text: the demands of proper declamation and the portrayal of the text with traditional rhetorical figures. Brainard concludes that the St. Matthew Passion was composed first, because the changes that would have been required in that work if the Funeral Music was the earlier composition are uncharacteristic of Bach's use of parody technique in similar situations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Cantata BWV 30 (246, 249), Cantata BWV 68 (248, 251), Cantata BWV 173 (245), Cantata BWV 197 (249), Cantata BWV 210 (247), Cantata BWV 248 (246-49).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: 1700s

Arrangements of instrumental works that change the original performing forces are a useful starting point to study Bach's compositional processes because he uses similar methods in the majority of his works. He adapts sections of Reincken's chamber work Hortus musicus for his keyboard compositions (BWV 954, 965, and 966) and retains the original keys of B-flat Major, A Minor, and C Major respectively. In some movements he retains the structure and musical substance of the work, but ornaments and condenses the material. In many of the fugal movements he only uses the subject of Reincken's work to create a new movement. In the rest of the movements, Bach balances the borrowed material with his own ideas by keeping the subject and structural elements of the original work. Bach also arranges concertos by Vivaldi and Johann Ernst for organ. He exploits the differences in capabilities between the original instrument and organ by adding counter themes to the solo lines. By comparing Bach's arrangements with literal transcriptions for organ of the original, his compositional process can be studied more carefully. Bach transcribed several of his concertos for violin and oboe into works for harpsichord in which he addresses several problems in the transcription process. In the harpsichord concerto BWV 1058, he adopts the written out version of the extemporizing process. Concertos based on works now lost show a varied order of composing the orchestral and solo lines. All of these arrangements and transcriptions show how carefully Bach handled the issue of instrumentation.

Works: J. S. Bach: Fugue in B-flat Major, BWV 954 (155, 158), Sonata in A Minor, BWV 965 (155), Sonata in C Major, BWV 966 (155, 157-58), Concerto for Organ in C Major, BWV 594 (161-62), Concerto for Organ in G Major, BWV 592 (161-63), Concerto for Harpsichord in G Minor, BWV 1058 (167), Concerto for Harpsichord in D Minor, BWV 1052 (168), Concerto for Harpsichord in E Major, BWV 1053 (168-69), Concerto for Harpsichord in F Major, BWV 1057 (169).

Sources: Johann Adam Reincken: Hortus musicus recentibus aliquot flosculis Sonaten, Allemanden, Couranten, Sarabanden, et Giguen (155-60); Vivaldi: Violin Concerto in D Major RV 208 (161-62); Johann Ernst of Saxe-Weimar: Concerto in G Major (161-63); J. S. Bach: Violin Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1041 (167), Brandenburg Concerto No. 4, BWV 1049 (169).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

The 1855 burlesque Pocahontas by John Brougham and James G. Maeder, although laden with humor, including extensive parody, exemplifies both a respect for masterpieces of the past and a newly-developed historical consciousness. Although this is most readily ascertainable through the text of the burlesque, as the music has been lost, reconstruction of the likely musical parodies reveals wit and rapid juxtapositions of high and low genres, intermixed with a sense of a false history. Includes an extensive table of probable sources for the songs in Pocahontas (33).

Works: John Brougham and James G. Maeder: Pocahontas (28, 31, 34, 35-36, 28-43).

Sources: Samuel Lover: Widow Machree (28); Anonymous: Rosin the Bow (31), Hot Corn (36), Wait for the Wagon (36); Bellini: La Sonnambula (34, 37); Verdi: Ernani (35, 38); Stephen Foster: Massa's in de Cold Ground (38, 43), Old Folks at Home (38, 43), Oh! Boys, Carry Me 'Long (38); William Vincent Wallace: Maritana (38, 44); Daniel D. Emmett: De Boatman Dance (38).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

The idea that Joseph Haydn was the predominant influence on Mozart's 1773 Viennese string quartets (K. 168-173) began with Otto Jahn and has been repeated and elaborated in much of the Mozart literature. Stylistic traits such as motivic development, irregular phrase length, contrapuntal texture, fugal finales, inversion of the subject, slow introductions, and so on are not specific to Haydn, but are either part of a broader Viennese tradition or have precedents in Mozart's earlier works. Nearly every observer of these quartets has noted the thematic similarity of the second movement of K. 168 with Haydn's Op. 20, No. 5, fourth movement. But a more convincing model is Ordonez's Quartet in C minor, Op. 1, No. 3, in which almost every parameter suggests a direct influence. The quartets K. 168-173 were intended for a specifically Viennese taste; many of the movements conform to a character reportedly favored by Joseph II, since Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart made the trip to Vienna in order to be in place if the Imperial Kapellmeister Florian Leopold Gassmann were to die. After they returned to Salzburg, Mozart wrote two symphonies, the first of which, the "Little" G minor Symphony, K. 182, has been linked with Mozart's supposed encounter with the "crise romantique" in Austrian music, as represented by Haydn and Vanhal among others. Yet the symphony is indebted to the music of Gassmann (his Quartet in G minor, Hill 476, No. 2 in particular) and to Mozart's knowledge of the repertoire in the "pathétique" style intended for Joseph II.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Haydn's late oratorios The Creation and The Seasons were performed all over Europe soon after their premieres and became immensely popular throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. Haydn borrowed from some previous traditions and predecessors, and the two oratorios were in turn sources of allusions, quotations, and models to many composers in the German-speaking lands, such as Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, providing many musical, textual, and rhetorical relationships. Haydn borrowed from specific works of Handel, Mozart, and himself, as well as from the general stylistic conventions of opera seria and the Singspiel. The famous representation of chaos leading to the appearance of light employed in The Creation was particularly influential for the next generation of composers, with Beethoven prominent among them. Further source materials were provided by the pastoral setting of both oratorios, spinning choruses, and general representations of nature such as storms and sunrises.

Works: Haydn: The Creation (28-30, 35-39), The Seasons (31-39); Beethoven: The Creatures of Prometheus (40), Fourth Symphony (41), Fifth Symphony (41, 50), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (42); King Stephan, Op 117 (42); Leonore Overture No. 3, Op 72 (44), Sixth Symphony (44-47, 50), Second Symphony (48-49), Fidelio (50), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (50), Ninth Symphony (50-51); Schubert: "Tragic" Symphony, No. 4, D. 417 (52), "Great" C-Major Symphony, D. 944 (50); Weber: Der Freischütz (52); Mendelssohn: Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

It is widely believed that C. P. E. Bach asserted great stylistic influence on Joseph Haydn, especially in his keyboard compositions. A large amount of the twentieth-century musicological literature on Haydn deals with the similarities and parallels found in the works of the two composers; however, many of the analytical conclusions are unconvincing. This ingrained view of influence is a result of the misrepresentation of a Bach-Haydn relationship in the earliest Haydn biography and journalistic documents, documents that were circulated during Haydn’s life time and soon after his death. Subsequently, these writings affected the interpretations of Haydn’s musical development by later historians and musicians. However, a careful reconstruction of the chronology of Haydn’s works and a close study of the historical evidence reveal that C. P. E. Bach’s influence is most pronounced through one work: Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen. In particular, Bach’s influence is seen in the instructions on how to write a “free fantasia.”

Works: Joseph Haydn: Capriccio in G Major “Acht Sauschneider müssen seyn,” Hob. XVII:1 (222-25), Capriccio from String Quartet in C Major, Op. 20, No. 2, Hob. III:32 (225), Capriccio from Symphony in D Major, Hob. I:86 (226), Fantasia in C Major, Hob. XVII:4 (226-27), Fantasia from String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 2, Hob. III:80 (228), “Chaos” from The Creation Hob. XXI:2 (228-29).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Carlo Francesco Badini's libretto Le pazzie d'Orlando was set by Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Nunziato Porta, and Franz Joseph Haydn. These settings include musical borrowing as well as textual borrowing from the original poem by Ariosto. Guglielmi's setting borrows from earlier operas through intertextuality and hypertextuality. By using part of Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice, Guglielmi enters into a tradition of mocking French styles. He also borrows French airs to mock not only French opera, but also other English theaters using these tunes. The parody had to be altered for different audiences on the continent by Nunziato Porta. It retained much of Guglielmi's music, including the Gluck borrowing, but altered Badini's text and incorporated other texts in the libretto. Haydn's setting, based on revisions of Porta, has plot themes similar to the other versions, but is less similar musically. It does not directly borrow musical material from the earlier versions. Mozart's Don Giovanni uses similar methods and reasons for borrowing as Le pazzie d'Orlando.

Works: Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi: Le Pazzie d'Orlando (584-94, 602); Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi/Nunziato Porta: Orlando paladino (592-96); Mozart: Don Giovanni (599-600).

Sources: Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice (587-93, 602); François André Danican Philidor: Tom Jones (589-91); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (600).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Christoph Willibald Gluck used a theme borrowed from the gigue of Bach's Partita No. 1 in B-flat major in three of his own operas. Of Gluck's biographers, only Anna Amalie Abert notes that Gluck used the first part of Bach's gigue. Gluck was probably attracted by the gigue's agitated character, its leaping melodic line, and its repeated dissonant appoggiaturas. In the three arias in which this theme is used, the characters are suffering from an emotional crisis. Gluck adds an ornamented upbeat to Bach's theme, and uses a section of the theme in the bass line. The extent of Gluck's adaptation makes this a true borrowing, rather than a "paraphrase" as Klaus Hortschansky argues.

Works: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride, "Je t'implore et je tremble" (188, 192-95, 198-203), Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (195-96), Antigono, "Perchè, se tanti siete" (189).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, BWV 625 (188, 189-91, 194); Christoph Willibald Gluck: Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (189, 195-96).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Handel relied more than most composers on reuse and reworking of existing material. However, the majority of these instances should not be classified as borrowings. The notion of constructive principles, or using models and common formulas, was essential to the Baroque style. Therefore scholars should exercise caution in labeling passages as "borrowings" based only on a melodic motive or measure of similarity. For example, the arias No. 22, "Cade il mondo," from Agrippina, and "Caddi, e ver" from La Resurrezione, are likely modeled on "Fällt ihr Mächtigen" from Keiser's opera Nebucadnezar. The similar harmonic sequence, as well as the common motive, provide convincing evidence that this is indeed a borrowing. On the other hand, the aria "Sperero," labeled by Bernd Baselt as a borrowing from Rodrigo, appears to be similar only in the opening motive of the voice part, and this evidence is not conclusive enough to classify the passage as a borrowing. Clarification of terminology will help to remedy these misunderstandings regarding Handel's borrowing techniques. "Parody" should be restricted to literal or almost literal reuses of material with a different text, where structure and musical substance remains intact. Literal repetition of the same piece, including the text, should be termed "reuse." "Reworking" defines a musical idea that has been modified, and "new work" describes those works which use brief motives or themes to form a new piece. Also, Handel frequently does not match new texts with similar Affections in his use of preexistent material in Agrippina. An appendix summarizes the sources for Agrippina and the ways Handel uses them.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Johann Mattheson, in his Vollkommener Capellmeister, suggests that a composer have at his disposal a number of what are called "moduli." These consist of "modulations, little turns, clever motives, pleasing figures" and the like, that the composer can apply to his own melodic invention. The origins of these "moduli" are not as important as their usage, because even great ideas poorly used will amount to nothing. Handel used the "moduli" often as an integral part of his compositional process. Three different melodic figures are given, with numerous examples of how Handel developed these into themes.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The view that originality is the main force in the creative process grew out of the extended period of influence that humanism held over the arts in England and the rest of Europe. During this time, imitation of ancient authors was an accepted and even required practice. The reaction of those concerned with the excesses and questionable morality of artists who copied literally from other sources led to a considerable literature on imitation and plagiarism. It is in the middle of the eighteenth century, and first in England, that the concepts of both originality and plagiarism became significant elements in critical writings. To be unoriginal could only mean a lack of genius. This foundation of new ideas made possible much of the further development of aesthetic criticism and artistic achievement in all the arts in the nineteenth century.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

The issue of musical borrowing in Handel's music has contributed to an atmosphere of ignorance and suspicion in the 200-year history of Handel scholarship. This has resulted from a failure to recognize the importance of craftsmanship and rhetorical imitation as important aspects of Handel's compositional technique. While writings on Handel in the early eighteenth century are generally uncritical of Handel's borrowing procedure (to the extent that Handel significantly improves on his models), a certain uneasiness about the composer's borrowings is manifested in writings from the late eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, especially in English scholarship. Writings on Handel in the nineteenth century are generally characterized by disapproval of Handel's procedure as lacking originality and even suggesting immorality. This attitude has changed only slowly in the twentieth century, and only in the past twenty years has scholarship begun to approach a more balanced view of Handel's borrowing technique and its significance to his style. In order to achieve this balance it is necessary to develop more useful tools, such as catalogues of Handel's borrowings and self-borrowings and a bibliographical survey of relevant literature, as well as clearer terminology to describe types of musical borrowing in Handel.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

[With contributions by Bernd Baselt, George J. Buelow, Hans Dieter Clausen, John Walter Hill, Christine Ickstadt, and Hans Joachim Marx.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

A benefit performance for Handel on March 28, 1738, contained a composition advertised solely as An Oratorio. The mixture of English and Italian texts in this work continues Handel's practice in the preceding years of using texts in the native language of whatever singers happened to be available. Although Handel routinely assembled self-pasticcio operas in the 1730s, the 1738 Oratorio seems to be the only occasion in which he did this in oratorio form. Handel's pasticcio operas are listed in the appendix to HWV as A1 to A14, and A15 is used for instrumental minuets derived from opera arias; the 1738 Oratorio is worthy of inclusion as A16.

Works: Handel: An Oratorio (1738) (passim), Israel in Egypt (18, 33-24, 36), Esther (23, 37), Athalia, HWV 52 (27).

Sources: Handel: Chapel Royal Anthem, HWV 251c (17, 33), Athalia, HWV 52 (17-18, 21, 33, 35), Deborah, HWV 51 (22, 29, 34-37), My heart is inditing (22-24), Esther, HWV 50 (23-24, 33-34, 36-37), Silete Venti, HWV 242/3 (33-34), Cecilia volgi un sguardo, HWV 89 (37), Carco sempre di Gloria, HWV 87 (37), Coronation Anthem, HWV 258 (37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Analysis of the first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in D major Op. 18, No. 3 (1798-1800) reveals an intriguing use of a VII# chord at the end of the development and its interaction with, and impact on, other passages in this and in the third movement. Haydn also utilized VII# or a VII#-V progression at the end of developments in more than a dozen sonata-form and sonata-rondo-form movements, including his Piano Trio No. 16 in D major. Haydn's relatively prominent use of VII#, notably in movements in D major, anticipated and influenced Beethoven's Op. 18, No. 3. Both Haydn's and Beethoven's exploitation of that device serves dramatic purposes at similar locations in the piece and exploits related chromatic motives.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in D Major, Op. 18, No. 3 (295-301, 308-10).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 66 in B flat Major (302), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 54, No. 1 (303), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 1 (303), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, Hob. XVI:25 (303), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (303), Piano Trio in F Major, Hob. XV:6 (304), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 20, No. 4 (304), Symphony No. 93 in D Major, (305, 306), Piano Trio in E Minor, Hob. XV:12 (305, 307), Trio for Piano, Flute (or Violin) and Strings in D Major, Hob. XV:16 (307-9).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

The long-standing appeal of the Fulget dies refrain in twelfth- and thirteenth-century hymns, through the Counter-Reformation, and into nineteenth-century Catholic hymnals is linked to its association with liturgical time and relationship with multiple feasts, seasons, offices, and chants. The Fulget dies refrain originated sometime in the twelfth century within a family of contrafact tropes on Benedicamus Domino, each related to a different feast. By 1220, the refrain was found in hymns as well, as illustrated by its appearance in at least five hymns found in the Worcester Antiphonal. By 1300, the refrain had made its way to Hungary, Spain, Norman Sicily, France, and England. While Fulget dies appears in a variety of musical and liturgical contexts, it generally functions as a marker of festivity. Even after many office and mass tropes fell out of favor, Fulget dies lived on as a refrain in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century hymnals. The Feast of Corpus Christi hymn O salutaris hostia and the Marian hymn Matrem per integerrimam illustrate its continued association with important feasts and the ways in which the text and melody of Fulget dies gradually changed over time. In sources from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the refrain was transmitted only in ordinals which did not contain notated music, just text. Here, Fulget dies became primarily associated with the Christmas season. Two sources, the thirteenth-century Worcester Antiphonal and a sixteenth-century Hungarian ordinal, document the erasure of the Fulget dies refrain from hymn transmission. Through the sixteenth century, Fulget dies had a degree of stability attached to three Christmas hymns, most often to Fit porta Christi pervia, with both the text and music demonstrating a high degree of similarity. Accounting for its longevity as a refrain, the text of Fulget dies (the day shines forth . . . this day shines forth) exhibits both poetic brevity and flexibility to engage with any number of theological cycles from daily rituals to the cycles of seasons.

Works: Anonymous: Iam lucis orto sidere (91-97, 114-16, 120-23, 138, 141-42), A solis ortus cardine (107-11, 120, 126-27, 133-25, 142), Nunc sancta nobis spiritus (107-11), O salutaris hostia (117-20, 125), Matrem per integerrimam (117-20), Ordinarius Stringoniensis (122), Deus tuorum militum (125-26), Enixa est puerpera (126-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (126-32), Venez vos gens chantez Noé (132); Willaert: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32, 142-43); Orlando di Lasso: Enixa est puerpera (131-32), Fit porta Christi pervia (131-32)

Sources: Anonymous: Fulget dies from tropes on Benedicamus Domino (91-144), A solis ortus cardine (126)

Index Classifications: Monophony to 1300, 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The three pasticci that debuted at the Theater nächst der Burg in Vienna in 1750, Andromeda liberata, Euridice, and Armida placata, were created as a result of complex interactions among librettists, performers, and many composers who borrowed and adapted music from Vienna and beyond. These three works were the only pasticci to appear at the Theater under the direction of Rocco Lo Presti during a short-lived resurgence of opera seria in Vienna. Between them, there are twenty-three borrowed arias composed between 1734 and 1750 (twenty of which have been identified). Local composer Georg Christoph Wagenseil probably coordinated the music in all three pasticci with various local librettists providing new text. Many of the borrowed arias were included by way of the singers who had performed them in other theaters, were associated with the original productions, or had access to prints of the arias. Two of Johann Adolph Hasse’s arias borrowed in Euridice show no connection to the local singers, but instead come from older operas that had been adapted and staged in Vienna decades prior. Andromeda liberata contains the highest proportion of borrowed arias, with some arias even appearing without any text changes. As a rule, however, the texts were rewritten, preserving the verse structure but changing the content, sometimes quite drastically. The musical changes are by comparison more difficult to ascertain, as complete scores for some sources exist in multiple versions or are missing entirely. In most cases, arias are unchanged if they are associated with a particular singer. Some arias were transposed or melodically adjusted to fit the range of the new singer. Arias by Girolamo Abos sung by Maria Masucci were recomposed to emphasize her apparent technical ability, with repeated coloratura passages and longer ritornellos. These pasticci were created as a result of historically contingent and pragmatic decisions dependent on the music and musicians available to Lo Presti’s theater.

Works: Georg Chrisoph Wagenseil (music coordinator): Andromeda liberata (11-13, 16-17, 19-21), Euridice (15, 17, 19-21), Armida placata (11, 13, 18, 21-22)

Sources: Baldassare Galuppi: Evergete (11, 13, 20); Georg Christoph Wagenseil: La clemenza di Tito (11); Johann Adolph Hasse: Arminio (12), Semiramide riconosciuta (13), Il natal di Giove (12, 16, 19-20), Attilio Regolo (12, 17-18), Il Sesostrate (15), Gerone tiranno di Siracusa (15); Niccolò Jommelli: Ezio (13, 18, 21), Merope (13, 19-21); Domenico Sarro: Ezio (13); Andrea Bernasconi: Bajazet (13); George Frideric Handel: Arianna in Creta (13, 20); Girolamo Abos: Pelopida (13, 21-22), Arianne e Teseo (13, 17)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

The practice in Leipzig of interpolating Laudes into the Magnificat at Christmas extends from the early 17th through the first quarter of the 18th century. The so-called "Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest" of early 18th-century Leipzig provenance actually consists of four Laudes , whose surviving parts indicate they were available for interpolation into Magnificat settings in two keys. Because an anonymous early 18th-century Leipzig Magnificat and Bach's Magnificat in E-flat call for interpolation of four Laudes to the same text as those in the "Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest," it was perhaps customary in Leipzig at this time to interpolate Laudes to these texts into the Magnificat at Christmas.

Works: Johann Andreas Kuhnau: Cantate zum Weihnachtsfest (82-87, 92, 93); Anonymous: Magnificat à 4 in D major (87-89); Johann Sebastian Bach: Magnificat à 5 in E-flat major (89-93).

Sources: Martin Luther: Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her; Anonymous: Freut euch und jubiliert, Gloria in excelsis Deo; Paul Eber [attrib.]: Virga Jesse floruit.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Borrowing and adapting were cornerstones of Bach's compositional process. He not only borrowed music and ideas from other composers but also revisited his own works, using them in different contexts. Borrowings from different media and simple revisions or re-workings, especially in the keyboard works, are two distinct practices. An intentional re-use of an existing phrase, theme, section, movement, or work constitutes a borrowing; unintentional quotations or accidental allusions should be considered mere resemblances. Extensive tables with commentary consider borrowings arranged by media: keyboard to keyboard, keyboard to cantata, chamber music to cantata, and the like. Part I of the book covers self-borrowings, while Part II consists of borrowings from others. The datings used are those of Schmieder and Besseler. Dürr and Dadelsen's work on chronology is noted when it is significantly different from Schmieder, thus affecting the source-borrowing relationship.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

The exclusive right of the artist to the benefits that accrue from his or her intellectual property is a characteristic of modern culture. Borrowing is a common phenomenon, and exists in three types: (1) self-borrowing, or use of themes from one piece in another; (2) borrowing which is done as an obvious tribute or burlesque of the original, and (3) unacknowledged borrowing. Modern sensitivities consider this latter type of borrowing to be outright theft. The eighteenth century acknowledged but did not condemn this type of borrowing.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

C. P. E. Bach’s final composition, C. P. E. Bachs Empfindungen, a chamber sonata arrangement of his Free Fantasia in F-sharp Minor, Wq. 67/H. 200, can be understood through the philosophies of sympathy posed by Bach’s contemporaries. This reading emphasizes the added violin as an integral figure in the work: the sympathetic reader. Across disciplines, notions of sympathy can be described as a “common thought pattern” in eighteenth-century Germany, and Bach’s own writings suggest he was at least familiar with these ideas as they related to his music. While Bach’s solo fantasias had the character of intimate diary entries, the accompanied sonata was a genre that favored sociability. This can be seen musically in how the violin interacts with the keyboard in Empfindungen. The keyboard part remains basically unchanged from the solo Fantasia for the majority of Empfindungen while the violin sympathetically reinforces the harmonic motion and motives, never duplicating the keyboard part. Empfindungen proceeds to adapt another Bach sonata for its conclusion, the unpublished Sonata in B-flat, Wq. 65.45/H. 212. Throughout the work, Bach demands a great deal of attention and sympathetic listening between performers, exemplifying his ideas on musical performance expressed in Versuch. The relationship between composer, performers, and audience modeled in Empfindungen not only mirrors ideas of literary sympathy, but also suggests a change in the way composers relate to their public.

Works: Carl Philip Emanuel Bach: C. P. E. Bachs Empfindungen, Wq. 80/H. 536 (22-31)

Sources: Carl Philip Emanuel Bach: Free Fantasia in F-sharp Minor, Wq. 67/H. 300 (22-26), Andenken an den Tod (24-26), Keyboard Sonata in B-flat Major, Wq. 65.45/H. 212 (26-28)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

Haydn quotes a particular melody on numerous occasions. The melody is found in many sources from central and eastern Europe and is often called "Der Nachtwächter" or "Hajnal." The melody is often quoted by eighteenth-century composers and often appears in Christmas pastorellas as well. Haydn quotes it in Symphony No. 60; Divertimento a nove (Hoboken II/17); Sextet for Horns and Strings in Eb (original versions of H.II/21); the canonic setting of Hagedorn's Wunsch (H.XVIIb/13), Baryton Trio No. 35 (H.XI/35), Piano Sonata in C# minor (H.XVI/36), and Baryton Duo No. 19 (H.XII/19). Other passages in which the melody is quoted by Haydn may well exist. Haydn's characteristic use of folk material is well demonstrated in these works. Eleven versions of the melody as it appears in the sources are given in examples and all the known sources are listed in the appendix.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Mozart’s quotations of three opera buffa melodies in the Tafelmusik scene of Don Giovanni are generally understood to be jokes for his audience and colleagues. However, if the quotations are treated seriously as sources of intertextual meaning, they might serve a greater dramatic purpose than simply giving listeners the delight of recognition. The first quotation comes from Vincente Martin y Soler’s Una cosa rara, an opera with superficial plot similarities to Don Giovanni. Specifically, Mozart quotes the chorus from the Act I finale of Cosa rara, which depicts a falsely joyful conclusion, mirroring Don Giovanni’s premature dinner celebration. The next quotation comes from Giuseppe Sarti’s Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode, a farcical story of three men vying for the affection of a serving-maid. The quoted aria, “Come un agnello,” comes from one of the suitors (prematurely) boasting about winning the hand of his beloved, much like the ever-cocky Don Giovanni. The opening line of the quoted aria, “Like a lamb which goes to the slaughter,” has been interpreted by previous scholars as referring to Don Giovanni’s conquests, Don Giovanni himself, or (as Steffen Lösel argues) as an allusion to the Last Supper. The final quotation, from Mozart’s own The Marriage of Figaro, comes from Figaro’s aria “Non più andrai,” in which Figaro tells Cherubino his days as an “amorous philanderer” are over, foreshadowing Don Giovanni’s fate. Mozart’s choice to quote his own opera—and to have Leporello recognize the tune—creates what John Kirby describes as a “double rhetorical situation,” inserting Mozart’s compositional persona (if not the man himself) into readings of the opera text. As a unit, the quick transitions between the Tafelmusik quotations reflect Don Giovanni’s shifting musical (and social) identity. They also ironically affirm the opera buffa conventionality before Mozart subverts convention in the next scene. One final function of the Tafelmusik quotations is to blur the line between the world of the opera and the world of the audience, welcoming the audience to engage with the characters and lessons of Don Giovanni on a more personal level.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (8-29)

Sources: Vincente Martin y Soler: Una cosa rara (8-16, 16-19, 25-29); Giuseppe Sarti: Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode (8-16, 19-21 25-29); Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro (8-16, 21-25, 25-29)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

All twelve surviving opera texts that Haydn set to music for Esterházy existed in previous versions by other composers, but La fedeltà premiata (1780) is the only one whose earlier setting, with the title L'infideltà fedele (1779) by Domenico Cimarosa, Haydn apparently knew before attempting to write his own work. Haydn's debt to Cimarosa is not great, apart from sharing the almost identical libretto. An intertextual approach reveals the incorporation of elements of the pastoral genre of the later sixteenth-century, while an unsuspected connection between the "coro di furie" from Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) and the second-act finale of La fedeltà premiata proves to be much more significant. Haydn uses the tonality, the chromaticism, and the sarabande rhythm articulated by Gluck's furies, while also evoking the austerity of the scene. This parody of Gluck's Orfeo is contrasted with an interpolated section employing Gypsy music or the "style hongrois," which provides a clash between the buffa and seria opera styles. This clash is further reflected in the second-act finale's almost tragic character within the pastoral and opera buffa world of La fedeltà premiata. By quoting from Gluck's famous opera, which would certainly be recognized by his knowledgeable audience at Esterházy, Haydn provides a commentary between texts, and through the juxtaposition of different styles he reveals the comic character behind this apparently serious finale.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Although there are many documents attesting to the first performance of Bach's Cantata No. 21, BWV 215, there is conflicting evidence about how it was composed. Bach had three days notice of the visit of the elector of Saxony to compose this work. Because of this short time frame for composition, many scholars have argued for Bach's need to borrow from his previous works. However, the majority of earlier scholars have disagreed as to which parts are borrowed and from which compositions. Several types of evidence demonstrate that there is in fact very little borrowing in this cantata. In other pieces with proven cases of borrowing, Bach's handwriting is neat in passages of parody because melodies are simply copied. In certain passages of BWV 215, Bach's handwriting is of the same character as other known first drafts of works, and there are continuation sketches, which do not appear in borrowed movements. Changes from the autograph score to the final version of BWV 215 reveal that the autograph written for the Elector's visit was an initial stage in the composition process. The formative changes made between these two versions are found in both instrumental and vocal lines. In most cases of Bach's parodies, the majority of corrections are in the vocal lines because they are being reworked to fit new words. Considering how quickly other cantatas had to be composed early in Bach's first few years in Leipzig, one should not be surprised at how quickly he was able to compose the new material in BWV 215.

Works: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (137-38, 152, 159-60), Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (138), Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (139-51).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 16, Es lebe der König, der Vater im Lande, BWV Anh. 11 (138), Cantata No. 21, Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, BWV 215 (139).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Borrowing in eighteenth-century opera is so common that these works can be defined by individual performances, not a written score. However, by analyzing these works in written form as they compare to their sources of music and libretti, much can be learned about the compositional process of adapting materials. Vivaldi's Tamerlano is an excellent example of this. There are many related libretti on this story from the early eighteenth century. Certain adaptations of these libretti share large structural features. Handel's Tamerlano preserves the distribution of arias between characters found in Gasparini's Il Bajazet. Shared performers between works sometimes cause the choices of borrowed and retexted sections in arias. Vivaldi's Tamerlano has additional text because of his self-borrowing of a chorus from Farnace. He also adds different text to the music of arias from his earlier operas. By changing rhyme schemes and only keeping key words, he adapts the aria to a completely different scene and affect. This process also changes where important melismas are placed and therefore which parts of the music are emphasized. Vivaldi also repeats this process with arias by other composers, but in these cases misses the subtle harmonic relationships with the text used by the original composer.

Works: Vivaldi: Tamerlano (276-79, 283-311); Handel: Tamerlano (277, 281-82), Cantone (291, 294); Francesco Gasparini: Il Bajazet (277, 281).

Sources: Francesco Gasparini: Tamerlano (277-79), Il Bajazet (277); Vivaldi: Farnace (284, 288-89, 294, 305), L'Olimpiade (286-88), Giustino (288-94), Orlando finto pazzo (309); Hasse: Siroe re di Persia (297-301); Geminiano Giacomelli: Merope (301-5).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Vivaldi lived in an age in which plagiarism was openly condoned, so it is not surprising that borrowing of material should represent an important aspect of his output. This practice was largely provoked by the incessant demand for novelty in the opera house and also accounts, at least partly, for the legendary speed at which he composed. Vivaldi compiled several operas from arias by composers such as Hasse, Giacomelli, Leo, Handel, Pergolesi, and Vinci, linking them with newly composed sections of recitative. Occasionally, as in Rosamira of 1738, he claimed the composition as his own. Vivaldi's constant re-use in his operas of material from his own compositions is perhaps most obvious in his introductory sinfonias and concertos. Instrumental and vocal works frequently share the same ritornello material, although it is often impossible to tell which was written first. The most common type of borrowing is the revival of earlier operatic material. Usually it is restricted to individual arias and excludes the preceding recitative. Although in many cases arias are re-used without alteration, except perhaps for new words, in other instances the musical text itself is changed. Sometimes a borrowed aria appears in a similar dramatic context, but in many cases the contexts are different, and often it seems to be one particular idea in the text that suggests the borrowing. Occasionally, ensembles are also adapted for re-use.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Chamber pieces in the eighteenth century were often arranged for two keyboard instruments (whether two pianos, or a piano/harpsichord combination). These arrangements were prized for their ability to create sympathetic connections between family members or between teachers and students through mutual understanding, shared sentiment, and common experience. The concepts of “original” and “arrangement” were very flexible at this time, and it was common for a single piece to exist in different versions for different instrumental combinations. It was often easier in a domestic or teaching situation to find two keyboardists rather than a larger number of other players. The practice originated in players simply reading different parts from the original score, or writing out their own keyboard arrangements. Players also combined various keyboard instruments including forte-piano, harpsichord, clavichord, and others to create new timbres and contrasts. Sympathy was fostered between student and teacher and between family members playing keyboard duos by performing the same physical gestures, and by arranging the keyboards toward each other so that they could see each other’s facial expressions.

Works: Anonymous: Keyboard-duo arrangement of Johann Sebastian Bach, Trio Sonata in E-flat Major, BWV 525 (189-92, 208), Keyboard-duo arrangement of Johann Christian Bach, Quintets, Op. 11 (192-99).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Trio Sonata in E-flat Major, BWV 525 (189-92); Johann Christian Bach: Quintets, Op. 11 (192-99).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

The "problematic" nature of Bach's parody technique has been extensively commented upon in the last century. Recent discussions have focused on the role of musical figures and word-to-tone relationships in assessing the effectiveness of parody compositions, although the work of Werner Neumann, Werner Braun, and others have begun to alter this picture. Bach's four Lutheran Masses, which consist of twelve arias and choruses borrowed from four different cantatas, exhibit the means by which the borrowed musical substance may be applied to texts of highly divergent meaning. Although there are indeed incongruities between the music and text on the level of the individual word, the general affect of the new setting is effective enough that these problems are of little consequence. Musical figures carry denotative significance only with respect to an underlaid word; a re-texting of a piece, then, involves a wholesale transformation of the composition's meaning. A proper performance, therefore, should strive to adapt the inherently versatile music to the ideas of the new text.

Works: Bach: Mass in A Major, BWV 234 (54-55), Mass in G Major, BWV 236 (55-57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Work on the Neue Bach Ausgabe stimulated research into J. S. Bach's copies and arrangements of other composers' works. The Acroma missale by Giovanni Battista Bassani, published 1709, is a collection of six four-voice settings of the Ordinary with instrumental accompaniment, contained in sixteen part-books. Bach's arrangement differs from the original in two important points: (1) it is written as an eight-part score and (2) only the first four sections of the Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus with Osanna I) are present. Bach includes in his settings the intonation words of the Credo (which were omitted by Bassani, except in Mass No. 3), and in the case of Mass No. 5 this is a lengthy setting that could be regarded as a separate little (thus far unknown) composition. Analysis of watermarks and handwriting establishes Bach's son Gottfried Heinrich as the copyist and dates the different pieces to the period between 1735 and 1747. However, questions about the reason and purpose of Bach's copying of this unoriginal work remain largely unanswered.

Works: J. S. Bach: Sechs Messen von Bassani (Mus. ms. 1160).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

Index Classifications: 1700s

Bach's Sanctus BWV 241 is a reworking of the Sanctus from Johann Caspar Kerll's Missa Superba. Kerll designed the mass for ten concerted parts, with some doubling instruments: 2 sopranos, 2 altos, 2 basses, 2 violins, 4 trombones, organ, and violone. Bach added two oboes d'amore to double the soprano parts, replaced the trombones with violas, omitted the violone and organ, and added a new continuo line with cello, violone grosso, cembalo, and organ. Kerll's Sanctus is built in three separate sections: Bach kept the first two sections essentially intact, only quickening the rhythm in spots. The faster rhythm led Bach to abandon his model entirely in the third section, introducing a lively new motive in steady sixteenth-note motion.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Index Classifications: 1700s

While Johann Joseph Fux's treatise Gradus ad Parnassum recommends Palestrina as a model of the contrapuntal style, it does not include any music by Palestrina. Fux's own Missa di San Carlo (also known as the Missa Canonica) was long considered a masterpiece of the old style. Palestrina's Missa ad Fugam, which was known to Fux, most likely served as a model for this work. Scarlatti and Albrechtsberger also wrote canonic masses. These eighteenth-century compositions reflect the composers' knowledge of the Palestrina style as observed from his Missa ad Fugam.

Works: Johann Joseph Fux: Missa di San Carlo (463-65); Alessandro Scarlatti: Messe e Credo a 4 ad Canones (465, 467); Johann Georg Albrechtsberger: Missa Canonica (465, 468-69).

Sources: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Missa ad Fugam (passim).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Reinhard Keiser's opera Die römische Unruhe, oder Die edelmüthige Octavia (1705) has long been recognized as a source of material for Handel in the first decade of the eighteenth century. However, further study reveals that music from Keiser's opera was used by Handel in various compositions for some fifty years, from Aminta e Fillide (1708) to The Triumph of Time and Truth (1758). These examples reflect Handel's typical borrowing procedure: a characteristic motive or phrase is appropriated and subjected to elaboration and development, sometimes in a vastly different context, which far surpasses the original parameters of the model. As such Handel repaid his debt to Keiser throughout his life.

Works: Handel: Ariodante (74-75), Orlando (75-76), Aminta e Fillide (76-77), Agrippina (76-78), Rodelinda (78), Berenice (79), Solomon (79), The Triumph of Time and Truth (79-80).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

The performance history of Handel's opera Sosarme, completed in 1732, is complicated because of the changes made before the first performances and for the 1734 revival. The setting and character names had to be changed during the initial composition process for political reasons. Cuts to the music and libretto also made at this time caused the plot's coherence to suffer greatly. This led to negative reactions to the drama, but the music was still well received. Many arias in the 1732 version resemble many of Handel's earlier works in general stylistic traits, but several are specific reworkings of previous material. Handel had to make many additional changes for his 1734 revival in order to accommodate the differences in voice ranges and talent of the two completely different casts. In addition to transposing much of the opera into alternate keys and cutting arias, Handel made changes to showcase the great skill of Carlo Scalzi in the role of Argone. He inserted the arias "Corro per ubbidirvi" and "Quell'orror delle procelle" from Riccardo Primo specifically for Scalzi's voice, reworking them slightly to fit the plot.

Works: Handel: Sosarme (125, 132-33, 144-45).

Sources: Handel: Riccardo Primo (125), Admeto (132-3), Giulio Cesare (133), La Bianca Rosa (133), Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (144-45).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

A number of compositional procedures in the three Op. 2 piano sonatas by Beethoven appear to be derived from two 18th-century theoretical treatises, which were known to both Haydn and Beethoven. The demonstrations in Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister of creating a new melody from pre-existing isolated fragments in different keys and meters apply to Beethoven's integration and transformation of material from Haydn, to whom the sonatas are dedicated. Two songs by Haydn provide motives for the first movement of Op. 2, No. 1. Examples show that Beethoven's sonata is closely allied with material from Haydn, not only in the Matthesonian recombination of fragments but on larger-scale harmonic and melodic levels as well. [Table of musical data from Haydn found in Beethoven's Op. 2. in Appendix 1]

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1 (164), Piano Quartet in C major WoO (164).

Sources: Haydn: "The Spirit's Song," Hob. XXVI a:30 (160-62), "Fidelity," Hob. XXVI a:40 (160-62), "The Wanderer" Hob. XXVI a:32 (164), Piano Trio in E major, Hob. XV:28 (164).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David Oliver

Handel's borrowings result from rhythmic and motivic similarities between the borrowed piece and the new composition. Handel was able to draw upon a large number of musical materials chosen on a musical rather than a textual basis. The transformation of these materials was a conscious application of musical craft. This method of recall is termed the "theory of resonances." In addition to borrowing similar melodic and rhythmic motives, Handel also takes portions of Telemann's work and restructures them in a craftsmanlike manner, joining blocks of musical material to produce a more integrated whole. Handel's use of Telemann's work is, therefore, not the result of "licentious whimsy," but the direct result of musical materials that Handel found attractive and amenible to further development.

Works: Handel: Solomon (117-44), Siroe (118), La Resurrezione (120-24), Belshazzar (133-36), Lotario (139-40, 144), Ezio (141-42), Ariodante (144), 12 Concerti Grossi, Op. 6 (144), Messiah (144-45), Semele (145), Joseph and His Brethren (145-46), Hercules (146), Joshua (146), Theodora (146), Jeptha (146).

Sources: Telemann: Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst (118-44); Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (120-24); Handel: Belshazzar (124), Parnasso in Festa (125-27).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Susan Richardson, Will Sadler

In nine of his piano concertos, K. 271, 413 (387a), 415 (387b), 450, 466, 467, 482, 491, and 503, Mozart used the vocal device "fermata sospesa" for the piano entrance after the first ritornello. Mozart was acquainted with this device in 1768 through J. C. Bach's aria "Cara, la dolce fiamma" in the opera Adriano in Siria, as well as various treatises of Agricola, Tosi, and C. P. E. Bach. Evidences show that before 1777, Mozart had written different elaborations on the opening "fermata sospesa" of J. C. Bach's aria as exercises. Examining the details of the "fermata sospesa" in these nine concertos illuminates the process of evolution in the usage of this device and the deviations from its vocal practice. These deviations and this development involve matters of length, harmonic design, treatment of the orchestra, and the recurrence of thematic elements from the "fermata sospesa" at other places in the piece. Mozart's "fermata sospesa" in K. 413, 415, 450 and 466 involve borrowing of musical materials from C. P. E. Bach and J. C. Bach; K. 467, 482 and 503 involve self-borrowing from his other piano concertos.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat Major, K. 271 (157-58, 160), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (157-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 13 in C Major, K. 415 (158-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 15 in B-flat Major, K. 450 (157-58, 160), Piano Concerto No. 20 in D Minor, K. 466 (158-59, 160), Piano Concerto No. 21 in C Major, K. 467 (158, 161), Piano Concerto No. 22 in E flat Major, K. 482 (159, 161), Piano Concerto No. 24 in C Minor, K. 491 (158-59, 161), Piano Concerto No. 25 in C Major, K. 503 (159-61).

Sources: C. P. E. Bach: Trio in B-flat Major, H. 584/ii (160); J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in C Major, Op. 1 No. 5/i (160), "Cara, la dolce fiamma" from Adriano in Siria (160), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 13 No. 2/iii (161); Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 22 in E-flat Major, K. 482/i (161), Piano Concerto No. 16 in D Major, K. 451/i (161).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Musical “invention,” a term borrowed from classical rhetoric, signifies a mental process that precedes the act of composing. It entails the “invention of ideas” (die Erfindung der Gedanken). The concept and application of such an invention are best perceived in the process of the ritornello principle, in which the initial idea plays a prominent role in the elaboration of the work as a whole. J. S. Bach’s ritornellos from the Allegro movements of his concertos are modeled after Vivaldi’s, especially those of Op. 3. However, Bach elaborated certain procedures of his model and made his ritornellos into a system for working out his “inventions.” Most characteristically, Bach’s ritornello falls into three sections: the Vordersatz (opening statement), the Fortspinnung (spinning out), and the Epilog (ending phrase). His ritornello procedure does not rely on tutti-solo contrast; rather, it is characterized by rearranging and transforming these three distinct sections from discrete sets of motives into thematic material with specific harmonic functions.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Violin Concerto in E Major, BWV 1042 (331-36), Oboe Concerto in D Minor, BWV 1059R (336-42), Concerto for Four Harpsichords in A Minor, BWV 1065 (343-36), Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F Major, BWV 1047 (346-50), “Overture in the French Style,” BWV 831, from Clavier-Übung II (350-56).

Sources: Vivaldi: Concerto for Four Violins in B Minor, Op. 3, No. 10 (343-46).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Luther's Ein feste Burg resembles the B-A-C-H motive in that it signifies something outside of its musical character. In addition, Ein feste Burg begins with four memorable notes, comparable not only to the four notes of B-A-C-H but also to the striking four-note opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Insofar as Ein feste Burg has a broader function outside of its musical characteristics, it epitomizes the powerful and energetic voice of evangelical Christianity, in a tradition began by Luther. Bach felt deeply moved by the religious sentiments of the tune and set it in a cantata with eight movements. Meyerbeer altered the tune more than Bach did and subjected it to various musical treatments, including theme and variations as well as parody, in Les Huguenots. The Romantic generation in particular responded to the tune in various compositional manners, especially by means of reinstrumentation and paraphrase technique, including settings by Mendelssohn, Nicolai, and many others. Wagner set the tune in his Kaisermarsch in order to evoke the sense of driving away the enemy. All of these settings discussed seek to maintain the spirit of the tune. The prolific uses of the tune reinforce the religious connotations that Luther intended. Although the B-A-C-H motive is not specifically associated with a source, many composers, including Schumann, Rimsky-Korsakov, Liszt, and others incorporate it in various ways into their works.

Works: J. S. Bach: Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (7); Beethoven: Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (7); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (8); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (9-10); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Heinrich Karl Breidenstein: Grosse Variationen über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel (10); Friedrich Lux: "Ein feste Burg" Konzertfantasie für Orgel (10); H. Schellenberg: Fantasie über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl Stern: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" (10); Karl August Fischer: Präludium und Fuge über "Ein feste Burg" für Orgel mit Blasinstrumenten (10); Wagner: Kaisermarsch (11); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op. 127 (11-12); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier (12); Heinrich Schulz-Beuthen: Reformationssinfonie (12); Richard Bartmuss: Liturgischen Feiern No. 5, Reformation (13); Heinrich Pfannschmidt: Reformationsfestspeil (13); Hans Fährmann: Fantasie und Doppelfuge für Orgel über "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott," Op. 28 (13); Reger: Chorale fantasia "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (14), Schumann: Sechs Fugen über den Namen Bach, Op. 60 (16-17); Rimsky-Korsakov: Sechs Stücker über BACH, Op. 10 (17-18); Liszt: Präludium und Fuge über Bach (18-19); Wilhelm Middelschultes: Kanonische Fantasie über BACH und Fugue über vier Themen von J. S. Bach (19); Hans Fährmann: Orgelsonata in B moll, Op. 17 (19-20), Vorspiel und Doppelfuge für Orgel (20); Georg Schumann: Passacaglia und Finale für Orgel, Op. 39 (20).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (7-8).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Mozart did not create music wholly anew for every work, but in some cases reused material in various genres. Die Zauberflöte is especially marked by affinities with the works of Mozart's own past. Pamina's aria, "Ach, ich fühl's," is related to the Trennungslied, K. 519, the String Quintet in G Minor K. 516, and the Piano Concerto K. 466. The melody in the Adagio introduction to Act II Scene 28 and its variant in the final chorus (Act II Scene 30) are related to some seventeen other works by Mozart. The two complexes of related melodies are most likely the result of Mozart's conscious practice of "the technique of composing and arranging melodic units with formular intent."

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

[Notes thematic resemblances between works. Challenged by Jan LaRue, "Significant and Coincidental Resemblance Between Classical Themes," Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (Summer 1961): 224-34.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Mozart's concertos-pastiches K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, and K. 41 were viewed as original compositions until 1908 when Wyzewa and Saint-Foix discovered that they borrowed from sonatas by "Parisian" clavichordists such as Raupach, Schobert, Hannauer, Eckard, and C. P. E. Bach. Since then they have been excluded from the canon of Mozart's original works. The notion of plagiarism in the eighteenth century was not clearly based on the ownership of a text, and composers shared the same musical language and style. Mozart's imitations are a natural procedure during his apprenticeship years, and a gradual development from straight arrangement, through more elaborate reworking, and finally to relative autonomy is exemplified in the three sets of piano concertos examined.

Works: Mozart: 3 Piano Concertos K. 107 (118-121), Piano Concertos K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, K. 41 (121-32), Piano Concerto K. 175 (132-38).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Deliberate reuse of earlier material is rare in Haydn. Similarities of later works to his earlier compositions do occur but they are apparently due to unconscious borrowing or to different realizations of the same musical idea. Some similarities are better explained as usage of the common archetypal musical vocabulary rather than as plain quotations. Self-borrowing in Haydn usually goes beyond mere repetition of the borrowed material, involving a transformation of the borrowed material or an elucidation of its expressive meaning.

Works: Haydn: Chorus "Su cantiamo" (186), L'Anima del Filosofo (186), Piano Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI:39 (187), The Creation (187, 192-93), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI:10 (187), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:125 (188), L'Isola Disabitata (188), Symphony No. 100 in G Major (188-90), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:102 (189-90), Armida (189, 192-93), Baryton Trio in G Major Hob. XI:124, (190), Symphony No. 85 in B flat Major (191-92), Symphony No. 45 in F sharp Minor (192), Cello Concerto in C Major, Hob. VIIb:1 (193), Seven Last Words (194).

Sources: Haydn: Orlando Paladino (186), Piano Sonata in C sharp Minor, Hob. XVI:36 (187), Concerto for Lira, Hob. VIIh:2 (187), Piano Sonata Hob. XVII:D1 (187), Baryton Trio in G Major, Hob. XI:123 (188), Hymnus de Venerabili, No. 4 (188), Symphony No. 61 in G Major (188-90), Baryton Trio in D Major, Hob. XI:91 (189-90), Symphony No. 75 in D Major (189), String Quartet in D Minor, Hob. III:22 (190), Symphony No. 45 in F sharp Minor (191-92), Symphony No. 60 in C Major (192), Symphony No. 68 in B flat Major (192-93), Cantata Destatevi (193), Il Ritorno di Tobia (194).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

J. S. Bach's arrangement of Palestrina's Missa sine nomine reflects many of the practices of the eighteenth century. Instruments were added, playing colla parte, and a basso continuo realized for the lowest part. Sometimes a new basso continuo part was created, independent of the voice parts. The use of the breve as tactus was not understood. The original notation was not halved to retain the tactus; rather, the measures themselves were cut in half. Text underlay was altered to keep melismas to a minimum and to make declamation conform to the meter, especially in the bass. The use of accidentals and leading tones emphasized tonality but destroyed the cross-relations and major-minor shifts characteristic of 16th-century music. Bach, however, did not always alter the older model, but tried as much as he could to internalize the old Palestrina style.

Works: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, arr. Johann Sebastian Bach: Missa sine nomine.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Ottavio Durante's Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare are unique examples of what may be called a "parody cantata." These pieces use Alessandro Scarlatti's solo cantatas as models, but use only the recitatives, not the arias. Durante composed extended introductions, and added a number of devices (including imitation, echo, transpositions, modulations, sequences, variations, and original interpolations) to the original. The version of Durante's Duetti da Camera preserved in Rome, Academy of Santa Cecilia, G. Mss. 302, contains written-out vocal embellishments and figured bass realizations that give a good picture of the performance practices of the day.

Works: Ottavio Durante: Duetti da Camera per imperare a cantare

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Nicholas Racot de Grandval (c. 1676-1753) wrote two cantatas parodying the successful cantatas of Louis-Nicholas Clérambault, Orphée and Léandre et Héro. A third cantata by Grandval, Rien du tout, is a pasticcio on arias by Clerambault and others. Grandval wrote his own texts, quoting and paraphrasing parts of Clerambault's texts for comic effect. (Allez, Orphée, allez, allez becomes Allez, Orphée, allez au Diable.) Grandval incorporated two brief musical quotations from Clérambault in each parody. He used popular tunes of the time as additional musical material.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

The finale to the second act of Don Giovanni includes the famous (and identified) quotations of Martin y Soler's Una cosa rara ("O quanto un si bel giubilo," from the last part of the finale of Act I), Giuseppe Sarti's Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode ("Come un' agnello," from Act I, scene 7), and Mozart's own Figaro "Non più andrai"). These quotations are from the operatic "smash hits" of the 1780's. The overall scene is modelled upon the analogous scene in the Gazzaniga-Bertasi version of Don Giovanni. The use of a wind octet (with cello), combined with the quotations, alludes to the common practice of arranging popular operas for wind ensembles. The melody of "Non più andrai" returns in the last year of Mozart's life in the first contra-dance of K. 609. The practice of quotation and self-quotation is as old as composition itself although each age uses the borrowed material to its own ends.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1700s

Members of the Bach family copied out each others music and also borrowed musical ideas from one another in their compositions. Several instances of the latter practice are noted. Instances include the similar treatment of a hymn tune and the direct borrowing of musical ideas.

Works: Johann Bernhard Bach: Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend (366), Suite for Solo Violin and Strings in G Minor (366); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (366); Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach: Einchöriges Heilig in C Major (369); Johann Sebastian Bach: Organ Concerto in D Minor (370); Johann Christoph Friedmann Bach: Die Kindheit Jesu (372), Wachet auf ruft uns die Stimme (372); Johann Christian Bach: Violin Sonata in B flat, Op. 10, No. 1 (372); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mit fried' und Freud' ich fahr dahin (372).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Index Classifications: 1700s

Folk songs most accurately reflect the spirit of a people, and art music is an extension of the spirit of the folk song. Three ways composers use folk songs are: "(1) verbatim, as a musical germ from which to develop a composition; (2) verbatim, but having no particular relation to the musical structure; (3) as suggestion--toward the composition of folk-like themes expressive of the folk spirit."

Works: Haydn: Symphony in D Major (583); Weber: Der Freischütz (584); Schumann: Rheinweinlied (585); Brahms: Academische Festoverture (585); Grieg: Humoreske Op. 6, No. 2 (586), No. 1 of Aus dem Volksleben Op. 19 (586), Ballade Op. 24 (586), Improvisata Op. 29 (586), Norwegian Dances Op. 35 (586); Glinka: Life to the Czar (587); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 2 (587), String Quartet Op. 11 (587), Piano Concerto in B flat Minor, Op. 23 (587), Marche Slav (587); Borodin: Prince Igor (588), Steppenskizze (588); Rimsky-Korsakov: Fantasie, Op. 6 (589), La Pskovitaine (589), Antar (589), Sinfonietta, Op. 31 (589), La Grand Paque Russe (589); Stravinsky: Firebird (589), Petrouchka (589); Smetana: Die Brandenburger in Böhmen (589), Das Geheimniss (589), Aus meinem Leben (590), Tábor (590), Aus Böhmens Flur und Hain (590); Dvořák: Slavonic Dances (590), Hussitska Overture (590); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsodies (590), Mazeppa (590), The Battle of the Huns (590), Hungarian Coronation Mass (590), St. Elizabeth (590); Pedrell: Los Pirineos (591); Bizet: L'arlesienne (592).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

Index Classifications: 1700s

[See chapter 7, "Borrowed Material."]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Although there are few examples in Jean-Philippe Rameau's vocal Oeuvre of self-borrowing, there do exist numerous instances of this technique in his operatic symphonies. There are two primary sources for borrowed material: pieces that he had already published for solo harpsichord, with or without other instruments; and symphonies from earlier operas. Borrowing of material for symphonies was especially prominent during revivals of existing operas. Rameau's technique of self-borrowing is fundamentally different from that of Bach and Handel in that the original and new work tend to serve similar functions.

Works: Rameau: Les Fêtes de Ramire (54-55), Les Fêtes d'Hébé (55), Les Indes galantes (55).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1700s

It has long been established that Mozart borrowed melodies and other musical procedures from Handel’s works. The borrowings found in Mozart’s Requiem are of particular note, as scholars have debated several possible pieces by Handel and other composers as Mozart’s sources. A closer musical analysis suggests that specific movements from Handel’s Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline, HWV 264, Joseph and his Brethren, HWV 59, and possibly Samson, HWV 57, served as Mozart’s templates for several parts of his Requiem. Handel’s influence may also be present in other late Mozart works, a possibility which thus far has been largely unexplored in music scholarship. In Die Zauberflöte, one can trace echoes of Handel’s Funeral Anthem and “The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba” from Solomon. Mozart may have taken inspiration from Jephtha when composing Don Giovanni, although there are also striking resemblances between the opera’s Act II finale and Mozart’s own incidental music to Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345. Finally, while scholarship has frequently highlighted the influence of Bach’s counterpoint on Mozart’s “Jupiter” Symphony, the final chorus from Alexander’s Feast might have been a direct model for the coda in the symphony’s fourth movement. Both works utilize a distinctive procedure of stringing several fugue subjects in succession before presenting them together in counterpoint, and there are noticeable parallels in the two movements’ thematic materials. As important as it is to acknowledge Mozart’s musical debt to Handel, scholars must nevertheless resist the temptation to make value judgments or qualitative comparisons between their works that imply the superiority of one composer over the other .

Works: Mozart: Requiem in D Minor, K. 626 (219-29, 241-42), Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 (229-34), Don Giovanni, K. 527 (234-36), Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551 (“Jupiter”) (236-40).

Sources: Handel: Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline, HWV 264 (219-26, 228-33, 241-43), Joseph and his Brethren, HWV 59 (226-28), Samson, HWV 57 (227-28), Solomon, HWV 67 (233-34), Jephtha, HWV 70 (236); Mozart: Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345 (236); Handel: Alexander’s Feast or The Power of Musick, HWV 75 (237-40).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Only the text of the Köthener Trauermusik has come down to us, and scholars (including Schering and Smend) have considered whether the Köthener Trauermusik is a parody of the St. Matthew Passion or the other way round. By comparing the texts and examining their application to the music of the arias and accompagnato recitatives of the St. Matthew Passion, it can be shown that the text of the Köthener Trauermusik displays great unity and conviction in terms of choice of words and rhetorical techniques, whereas in the text of the St. Matthew Passion corresponding passages seem forced or illogical and include grammatical inaccuracies, suggesting that it was adapted from the Trauermusik rather than the other way around. The two texts, however, most probably were written within a few weeks, which can be concluded from outside circumstances (p. 108). The fact that in adapting the Köthener Trauermusik to the St. Matthew Passion Bach may have made considerable changes to fit the new text makes tracing parody delicate. Thus a negative procedure is applied: if the musical versions of the St. Matthew Passion (the earlier one as found in the "Altnickol" Ms. and the later definitive version) antedate the Trauermusik, we should not find any passages in the passion that better fit the corresponding text of the Trauermusik. Several such passages may be found, however, especially in the "Altnickol" version. Furthermore, it is clear that Bach tried to collate text and music better in the definitive version of the St. Matthew Passion. All these findings make it possible to reconstruct a succession of numbers in the Köthener Trauermusik that makes sense in all respects.

Works: Bach: St. Matthew Passion.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

To both exemplify contemporary musical practice and expose the limitations of older music, Abbé Vogler presents a Verbesserung, or revised version, of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater in his analytical and critical commentary Betrachtungen der Mannheimer Tonschule (1778-81). Though Pergolesi's Stabat Mater had received favorable reviews throughout the 1750s, negative criticism began to emerge around 1774. Taking advantage of this reversal of opinion, Vogler revises Pergolesi's work to show the "enlightened" musical idioms of his day. Vogler's revisions are based on a system of scientific laws explained in his Tonwissenschaft und Tonsetzkunst (1776), a handbook which discusses consonances and dissonances, intervals, chords, scales, and rules for composition. Noting errors in Pergolesi's treatment of harmony, key, and rhythm, Vogler offers several corrections. Pergolesi's irregular patterns and displaced rhythms are exchanged for more regular and periodic writing. Textures are modified by giving the accompanimental parts more varied and individual roles. In opening and closing ritornellos, Vogler often omits repetitions of motives and sharpens the contrast between themes. Although the overall shapes of movements and phrases can undergo significant changes, Vogler usually keeps the original vocal line intact. Overall, Vogler's revisions provide more regular phrasing and a slower-moving bass and allow for more interchange between the inner parts. These alterations, alongside a thicker texture, richer harmonic support, and stronger cadential progressions, transform the style of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater into music of a modern idiom. This, in turn, provides a tangible link between the musical theory and practice of Vogler's time.

Works: Georg Joseph (Abbé) Vogler: Revision of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater, found in Betrachtungen der Mannheimer Tonschule.

Sources: Pergolesi: Stabat Mater.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: General, 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Handel's last two compositions, the Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3, and the oratorio Jephtha, were both written in 1751 before he became blind, and both borrow from Franz Joseph Habermann's six masses, Op. 1. These borrowings and his sketches demonstrate Handel's compositional process in two of his prolific genres. Although some of these borrowings were identified in earlier editions of these works, Handel's borrowings in these two works are much more in depth than previously thought. Handel expands Habermann's themes for use as his own themes in this organ concerto, both in the early version of the work and his revision, which creates an equal dialogue between organ and orchestra unusual for his concerti. In Jephtha, Handel uses Habermann's themes to create his own fugue themes in the finale, as well as for many aria melodies. This work represents a more traditional and conservative use of borrowed materials in using borrowed melodies for contrapuntal elaboration. Handel used some of the contrapuntal techniques that Habermann had tried to use for the melodies. Since Handel thought Habermann's efforts were unsuccessful, he attempted to improve upon them in Jephtha. An appendix of the contents of sketches related to Jephtha is included.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 3 (22:61-69, 23:27), Jephtha (22:61-62, 23:27-43).

Sources: Franz Joseph Habermann: Mass, Op.1, No. 5 (22:62-64, 23:29, 33), Mass, Op. 1, No. 2 (22:66-67, 23:37, 39-40), Mass, Op. 1, No. 3 (22:68-69, 23:37-39), Mass, Op. 1, No. 6 (23:29-32), Mass, Op. 1, No. 4 (23:29-34, 41), Mass, Op. 1, No. 1 (23:31, 37).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

During his studies with Zachow, Handel is known to have copied works by the Viennese organist and composer Johann Caspar Kerll. Handel's sketches for Messiah reveal that the double counterpoint at the opening of the fugue "Let all the angels of God" was derived from a canzona by Kerll (no. 14 of the modern edition). Considering this borrowing along with the self-borrowings from the Italian duets that have already been identified in Messiah may shed light on how Handel was able to compose the work so quickly.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Distinctive similarities suggest that the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata, K.457 was an inspiration for Beethoven's Opus 10, No. 1. Although no documentation proves Beethoven knew Mozart's Sonata, distinct parallels between the works, including their moods pathos and dramatic intensity, overall shape of primary themes, large-scale structure, and tonal planning suggest he not only knew the work of his predecessor, but also had a profound understnding of it.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 10, No. 1; Mozart: K.309, K.311, K.576 (95).

Sources: Mozart: Piano Sonata, K.457.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

The organ works of Johann Ludwig Krebs borrow pervasively but subtly from his organ teacher, J. S. Bach. The resemblance between the free organ works of Krebs and their Bach models is readily apparent and commented upon by editors of their critical editions. Krebs borrows fugue subjects, pedal work, and other figurations from Bach, although Krebs’s prelude and fugue pairs typically use different models. In the case of Krebs’s Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, the choice of Bach elements that are left out is also notable; Bach’s stylus fantasticus sections are absent from Krebs’s work. Despite Krebs’s reliance on Bach models, he does differ from the style of his teacher on several fronts, most notably in his treatment of counterpoint. While Krebs’s borrowing of Bach’s music has played a role in limiting his own influence, there is still much to enjoy in performing the works of J. L. Krebs.

Works: Johann Ludwig Krebs: Praeludium und Doppelfuge in F Minor (28), Double Fugue in D Minor (29), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (28), Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (28-29), Fugue in A Minor, BWV Anh. 181 (29)

Sources: J. S. Bach: Prelude in B Minor, BWV 544 (28), Prelude and Fugue in E Minor “The Wedge,” BWV 548 (28-29), Passacaglia in C Minor, BWV 582 (28), Toccata and Fugue in F Major, BWV 540 (28), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 549 (28), Fugue on a Theme of Legrenzi, BWV 574 (28), Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 546 (29)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

A letter written in response to a previous correspondence by Frank Hill on Shostakovich's borrowings (Oct. 1983 Gramophone). Hall wants to clarify that over 115 composers have used the tune of the British National Anthem in their compositions, in over 125 works of all types. No specific works are mentioned, but the list of composers includes J. C. Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Liszt, Verdi, Brahms, Ives, and Stockhausen.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Handel scholars have criticized or sought to justify Handel's borrowing practices based on issues external to the composing process, such as illness, time-constraints, and lack of talent. Handelians must accept the fact of Handel's borrowing and acknowledge the integrity of Handel's compositional methods by focusing on compositional intent and searching for semantic meanings of the borrowings. Compositional intent is vital to distinguishing between "borrowing" or related benevolent practices, and "plagiarism," which suggests intent to deceive. Performance practice involves elements of improvisation that affect our appreciation of a work, but integrity belongs to the composer and the compositional process. Handel scholars may learn from the methodologies of analysis used by scholars in other areas. For example, Geoffrey Bullough, in his work on Shakespeare's borrowings, does not entertain notions of plagiarism, but argues that Shakespeare drew inspiration from the source and molded it into something new. In his book Painting as an Art, Richard Wollheim argues that it is the intention of the artist while painting that determines whether a work is art. Scholars such as Peter Burkholder and Christopher Ballantine have dealt with the semantic connotations of Ives's borrowing. Evidence of semantic connotations in Handel's borrowings emerge in Israel in Egypt; he pairs related Old Testament and New Testament material from Erba's Magnificat, which suggests he is reinterpreting the texts.

Works: Bach: Fugue in E Major BWV 878 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (308); Handel, Israel in Egypt.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Brian Phillips

Index Classifications: 1700s

By drawing on elements of existing folk music instead of creating music that simply sounded "different," Haydn often departed from eighteenth-century conventions of exoticism. For instance, eighteenth-century composers would often represent Turkish culture through the use of bass drum, cymbals, and triangles. Although Haydn does follow this procedure in L'incontro improvviso (1775), largely to provide cultural critique and musical farce, he does not use it in Lo speziale (1768). In the latter opera, the aria "Salamelica" draws upon a type of Hungarian popular dance, the Törökös, which features a duple meter and melodic lines centered on the first and third scale-degrees. In his Piano Trio in G Major, Hob:XV 25, Haydn follows a similar procedure by drawing in elements of the Verbunkos for the rondo theme. Haydn's settings of Scottish melodies also exhibit a respect toward folk music. His accompaniments to these songs follow the progression of the melody, providing modern harmonic support to enhance, but not overwhelm, the original material. Haydn also keeps the accompaniment simple, so as not to compete with the rhythmic vitality of the folk tune. In this way, Haydn does not present folk melodies as exotic curiosities, but as music in its own right.

Works: Haydn: Lo speziale (77-79), Symphony No. 103 in A Major (79), A Selection of Original Scots Songs in Three Parts, The Harmony by Haydn, Vol. II, No. 16, "O'ver Bogie" (87-89), Piano Trio in G Major, Hob:XV 25 (89-90).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Haydn's opera Acide e Galatea, composed for the wedding of Prince Esterzahy's son, was inspired by two earlier works, Gluck's Tetide, and Hasse's Alcide al Bivio, both written for the festivities surrounding the wedding of Archduke Joseph. Aware of the immense popularity of the two former works, Haydn felt obliged to create an opera that captured the same dramatic intensity and standard of magnificence. He accomplished this goal by borrowing elements of their musical style. From Alcide al Bivio he borrowed features of the melodic construction, and from Tetie the treatment of dissonance and conjunction of three contrasting ideas within a single number.

Works: Mozart: Entführung aus dem Serail (335), Idomeneo (338); Gluck: L'Invrogne Corrigi (335); Haydn: Neuer krummer Teufel (336), Symphony No. 6 ("Le Matin"), Symphony No. 7 ("Le Midi"), Symphony No. 8 ("Le Soir") (336); Gluck: Diable a Quatre (336).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

While Mozart was in Vienna, he faithfully attended the operatic performances of his Italian contemporaries, carefully observing the novelties and fashions that most pleased Viennese audiences. He would then incorporate several of these elements into his own compositions. For example, Paisiello's pastoral opera Nina, which was well received all over Italy, was produced in Vienna in the fall of 1790. Several parallels can be seen between it and Mozart's last Italian opera, La clemenza di Tito. For his protagonist's final aria, Mozart draws on Paisiello's unornamented melodic style. This contrasts greatly with the ornamental elaboration commonly found in other contemporary Italian operas. Mozart also uses Paisiello's "economical" type of orchestration, which features a thin texture and certain accompanimental figures. Similarities are also found in both composers' use of heightened rhythmic drive for climactic effect.

Works: Mozart: La clemenza di Tito (287-93).

Sources: Paisiello: Nina (287-92).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Mozart's overtures were usually the last part of his operas to be written, since they required only a run-through by the orchestra, while the other sections had to be in the hands of performers ahead of time for study and rehearsal. However Mozart's overtures since Idomeneo are extremely important, because they present with economy of means the emotional and intellectual content of the drama. Among Mozart's overtures, the one to La clemenza di Tito uses the greatest number of musical ideas from the body of the opera. A possible reason for this fact is that Mozart had a very limited amount of time to compose it. The overture to Titus reproduces the harmonic scheme of the opera as a whole, and the sequence of tonalities of different numbers of the opera is also reflected in some of the cadential progressions such as IV-V-I. The music of two of the main characters also plays a major role in the overture, preparing us for the heroism of Sextus and the fiery and scheming Vitellia.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

Vaudeville comedies of the eighteenth century continued to use antiquated sixteenth-century dances as well as more contemporary contredanses within the same work. In the early history of fair entertainment in France, dialogues and monologues were banned. Verse was set to popular vaudeville tunes in order to get around this rule. Alain-René Lesage's comedies were among the first to be mostly sung. Lesage chooses songs that the audience will recognize and provides text which acts as commentary on the original meaning of the songs. He refers back to earlier parts of his work by using the same popular vaudeville tune in several places. He also ties his comedies to works being performed at the opera houses by using similar situations for scenes, but changing the character of them through borrowed popular tune accompaniment instead of the newly composed music at the opera. Some of these source songs such as Du Cap de Bonne Espérance also allude to older dance styles of La Folia, the gavotte, or many of the branle types. In Les Couplets en process, Lesage takes advantage of these dance associations to string together tunes to create larger dance numbers. This is also Lesage's first work to use songs referring to both older and newer styles of dance music.

Works: Alain-René Lesage: Arlequin roi de Sérendib (139-46), Les Couplets en process (146-58).

Sources: Anonymous: Je laisse à la fortune Matelots, Galions (140), Quand le peril est agreeable (140), Grimaudin (140-48), Menuet de M. de Granval (141), Je ne suis pas si diable (141), Du Cap de Bonne Espérance (141), Ne m'entendez-vous pas (141), Le fameaux Diogenes (142), Reveillez-vous, belle Endormie (142, 153), Quel plaisir de voir Claudine (142), Folies d'Espagne (143-44), Ma Mére, mariez-moi (143), Ah! Vraiment, je m'y connois bien (144), Faire l'amour la nuit et le jour (144), Monsieur Lapalisse est mort (145), Joconde (145, 155), Flon, flon, larira dondaine (147), Oüida, ma Comère (147), Le Mitron de Gonesse (147), Marotte Mignonne (147), Pierre Bagnolet (147), La Belle Diguedon (147), Le Traquenard Grisellidis (147), Mon père, je vien devant vous (148), Je ne suis né, ni Roi, ni Prince (148), Lucas se plaint que sa (149), En tapinois, quand les nuits sont brunes (149), Les Cordons-bleus (149-50), Le son de la clochette (149-50), Je suis malheureuse en Amant (150), Allons à la Guinguette, allons (150), Qu'elle est belle? (150-51, 155), Et pourquoi donc dessus l'herbette (151), Les sept sauts (152), Je vais toujours le même train (152-53), Il étoit un Avocat (153-54), De l'Horoscope accompli (153), Je ferai mon devoir (154), Robin, turelure lure (154), Quand on a prononcé ce malheureaux oui (155), N'aurai-je jamais un Amant? (155), Or écoutez petits &Grands (155), Oüistan-voire (155), Hé bon, bon, bon! Je t'en répond (156), Voulez-vous sçavoir qui des deux (157), Un certain je ne sçai quoi (157), Toque mon Tambourinet (157); Lully: "Les Trembleurs" from Isis (142); André Cardinal Destouches: "Coulez, hâtez-vous de couler" from Callihoé (144); Jean-Claude Gillier: La ceinture de Vénus (153), Vive Michel Nostradamus (157); Alain-René Lesage: Télémaque (156).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Perhaps the quintessential Lutheran hymn, Ein feste Burg embodies Martin Luther's faith and had lasting musical effects, not only on his own generation but also on generations of composers to come. The verse structure of Psalm 46 appealed to Luther most strongly in the last line, which stands on its own in the rhyme scheme and makes the text more powerful, as though one could reduce the psalm to a simple statement of faith. Further, Luther's musical setting, with three repeated notes to begin the tune, made a lasting impression on future composers. Some composers, such as J. S. Bach and Mendelssohn, use the tune in order to let it emerge from a complex texture, reinforcing its victorious and ultimately religious connotations. Others, including Meyerbeer, use the tune for programmatic rather than religious purposes, as the tune accompanies "undressing girls." The diversity of uses, whether religious or not, reflects the lasting power of Luther's original.

Works: J. S. Bach: "Ein feste Burg" from In Festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (166); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (167); Reinecke: Zur Reformationsfeier, Op. 191 (167); Wagner: Huldigungsmarsch (167); Nicolai: Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über "Ein feste Burg" (167); Raff: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Op.127 (167); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (167-68).

Sources: Martin Luther: Ein feste Burg (159-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

A list of twenty-nine works using B-A-C-H, the majority of which are by German composers.

Works: Joseph Ahrens: Triptichon; Johann Albrechtsberger: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. C. Bach: Organ Fugue in G Minor; J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue on the name BACH, Art of Fugue; Otto Barblan: Chaconne, Op. 10, Passacaglia, Variations, and Triple Fugue, Op. 24; Ludwig van Beethoven: 2 sketches for an Overture and Canon, 10th Symphony; Heinrich Bellerman: Organ Prelude and Fugue, Op. 8; Johannes Brahms: Cadenza to Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major; Alfred Herbert Brewer: Meditation; Ferruccio Busoni: Fantasia Contrappuntistica; Alfredo Casella: Due Ricercari sul nome di Bach; Cyril S. Christopher: Soliloquy on B-A-C-H and the Chorale "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein; Hanns Eisler: Piano Trio on the 12-tone Scale; Wolfgang Fortner: Fantasia; Vincent d'Indy: "Beuron," No. 11 from Tableaux de Voyage, Op. 33; Sigfrid Karg-Elert: Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 150, Basso Ostinato, Op. 58, repeated in one of his two Op. 142, Sempre Semplice; Johann Ludwig Krebs: Organ Fugue in B-flat Major; Franz Liszt: Prelude and Fugue for Organ, Fantasia and Fugue for Piano; Felix Mendelssohn: 6 Fugues; Wilhelm Middelschulte: Canonical Fantasia; Riccardo Nielsen: Ricercare, Chorale and Toccata; Ernst Pepping: Three Fugues; Walter Piston: Chromatic Fantasy; Max Reger: Organ Fantasia and Fugue, Op. 46; Josef Rheinberger: Organ Fughetta, Op. 123a No. 3; Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: Six Variations, Op. 1; Robert Schumann: 6 Fugues, Op. 60; Georg Andreas Sorge: 3 Fugues.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1700s

Originality is considered among the most essential qualities in the age of Enlightenment. It is especially difficult to attain in music, an entirely imitative art, and music plagiarism is seen in both young composers struggling to pass mediocrity as well as great composers. The measure of their offenses often increases in proportion with their experience and reputation. There are composers guilty of "musical felony" such as Corelli and Handel. Handel's adaptations of pre-existing music have been noted by historians, but none have accused Handel of plagiarism. Boyce, Mozart, Clementi, and Rossini have all committed different degrees of "petty larcenies." The act of musical plagiarism must be brought to light in order to warn young composers and encourage them to create styles of their own.

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1700s

[Reviewed by Margery Stomne Selden, Journal of the American Musicological Society 29 (Spring 1976): 148-51.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Handel composed four works in the summer of 1743: Semele, Dettingen Te Deum, Dettingen Anthem, and Joseph and his Brethren. The methods of borrowing Handel uses in these works encompass all of his parody techniques as identified by Bernd Baselt. The pages that still remain of the first (unused) version of "Bless the glad earth" from Semele closely match "Zaphnath Egypt's Fate" from Joseph. The layout of the manuscripts further supports this borrowing claim. Handel's compositional process can be analyzed to find when the first version was replaced by the final version of "Bless the glad earth." The final version has a seemingly uncertain chronology with "And why? Because of the King" from the Anthem because of their similar composition dates. However, by examining Handel's composition process and changes in drafts of the Anthem, it can be argued that "Bless the glad earth" (final version) was written earlier. The use of this borrowed material can be traced in his sketching process. This is seen in Handel's adaptation of small sections of the "Bless the glad earth" (final version) to create the solo introduction to "And why? Because of the King."

Works: Handel: Joseph and his Brethren (174-75, 178-80), Dettingen Anthem (175, 180-91).

Sources: Handel: Semele (175, 178-91).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Examining works of Handel in which he reused earlier pieces with new texts or media reveals that he did not wish to aesthetically improve upon the works from which he borrowed. He sought to adapt the old piece to the new words or instrumentation, not to upgrade it. Yet altering musical detail, such as elucidating or reinforcing harmony (in Agrippina) and enhancing interrelations between elements (in Ode for St. Cecilia's Day), did often result in aesthetic improvement.

Works: Handel: Alexander Balus, "Fair virtue shall charm me" (2), Rinaldo, "Lascia ch'io pianga" (3), Saul, "In sweetest harmony" (3), Agrippina, "E un foco" (4-5), Laudate pueri Dominum, 1707 (5), The Triumph of Time, "Sharp thorns despising" (6), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (7-10).

Sources: Handel: Apollo e Dafne, "Deh, lascia addolcire" (2), Il Tronfo del Tempo, "Lascia la spina cogl la rosa" (3), Imeneo, "Pieno il core" (3), Arresta il passo, "E un foco" (4-5), Laudate pueri Dominum, ca. 1706 (5), Terpsicore, "Hai tanto" (6); Gottlieb Muffat: Componimenti Musicali per il Cembalo (7-10).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Index Classifications: 1700s

Luther's hymn Ein feste Burg falls into a category of many tunes with a revolutionary cause, from La Marseillaise to John Brown's Body, because it signifies the German Reformation and the religious triumph of Lutheranism. Indeed, Luther's hymn emerges from a vernacular tradition, not only in the translation of the Bible into German, but also in the poetic and musical union meant to appeal to the people in the entire congregation rather than to specific members of the choir and clergy. J. S. Bach, inspired by many Lutheran chorales, chose to exhibit this piece for a Festival of 1730, marking the Bicentenary of the Confession of Augsburg in which the Protestants declared the aims of the Lutheran church. Bach entitled his setting In Festo Reformationis, and he meant for it to represent his piety. Some movements, including the soprano and bass duet as well as the bass recitative, feature the relatively unembellished tune to evoke its military and unifying purposes. In a more complex setting, the chorale fantasia on verse one, Bach uses the tune as a cantus firmus embedded within a set of variations. In addition, later composers such as Mendelssohn and Roderick-Jones, like Bach, use the tune to invoke powerful religious sentiment, whereas Meyerbeer strips it of its religious content and uses it to accompany a ceremonial march.

Works: J. S. Bach: In Festo Reformationis, BWV 80 (16-47); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (46); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (46); Richard Roderick-Jones: Chanticleer (46).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (9-15).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

[Cited in Falck 1979; letter discusses a "parody" (i.e., retexting) of a cantata.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

The years 1794-1795 represent a period of particularly intense growth in Beethoven's early compositional style. His encounter and subsequent training with Haydn was an important factor in this, and Beethoven's compositional development at this time can partly be explained as an attempt to absorb the impact of Haydn's London symphonies in particular, while at the same time establishing his own independence. Beethoven's use and reinterpretation of Haydn's style can be seen in three major areas: (1) the enrichment of texture through polyphony, (2) the coherent assimilation of remote tonal relationships into the tonal language, and (3) the substitution of organic procedures for mechanical ones. In order to illustrate this relationship, a detailed comparison is made between Haydn's Symphony No. 95 in C Minor and Beethoven's Trio Op. 1, No. 3 in the same key.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: J. Sterling Lambert

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

The four-note motive found in the opening of the Jupiter Symphony (1, 7, 4, 3) is also present in several of Mozart's earlier works, including, the Credo of the F Major Missa Brevis, K.192, the Sanctus of the C Major Mass, K.257, The Bb Major Symphony, K.319, and the Divertimento, K.439b/4. Most importantly, this motive is found in the second movement of the G Minor Symphony, which was composed simultaneously alongside the Jupiter. A voice reduction reveals that the opening eight-bar period is actually an elaboration of the opening of the Jupiter. Mozart employs a similar style of borrowing in the Piano Quintet in G Minor, K.478.

Works: Mozart: Missa Brevis, K.192, C Major Mass, K.257, Bb Major Symphony, K.319, Divertimento, K.439b/4 (25), K.550 (25-26), K.551 (26), K.478 (28); Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (29); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde, Die Meistersinger (29); Mahler: Fifth Symphony (29); Brahms: C Minor Quartet, Op. 51/1, A Minor Quartet, Op. 51/2 (30).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Dana Gorzelany-Mostak

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Mozart borrowed the opening theme of Boccherini's String Quartet in C several times. The most extensive borrowing occurs in the last movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in D major, K. 576, where he uses the Boccherini sequence as the incipit and basis of the principal subject. The sequence itself offers numerous possibilities for treatment. Other references are present in the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in C minor, K. 457, the finale of his Piano Concerto in E flat major, K. 449, and the finale of the Sonata for Violin and Piano in D major, K. 306. Mozart was immeasurably more original in "stealing" Boccherini's theme than Boccherini was in inventing it, producing some of his greatest works while using a mediocre model.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mirna Polzovic

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Beethoven was first influenced by Bach during his Bonn years, and that influence grew and became more profound in his late works. In several instances a specific piece by Bach is intimated as Beethoven's model, yet that influence rarely amounts to straightforward borrowing. For instance, the C minor episode in the finale of Beethoven's "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 recalls Bach's Prelude in C minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. This stylistic allusion, which involves a relentless ostinato that stresses turn figures, is incorporated by Beethoven as a dramatic element. The finale of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54, refers to Bach's Fugue in E Minor from WTC I. Both sonatas evoke the toccata-like idiom of the Bach works, yet the model is transformed by Beethoven and assimilated into his dramatic framework. Beethoven's Diabelli Variations (notably Nos. 29 and 31) include textural and melodic resemblances to Bach's Goldberg Variations, and are best construed as an homage to Bach.

Works: Beethoven: "Grande Sonate" in E flat Major, Op. 7 (85-87), Cello Sonata in A Major, Op. 69 (88), Piano Sonata in A flat Major, Op. 110 (88, 97), Diabelli Variations, Op. 120 (101-3).

Sources: Bach: Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in C Minor (85-87), "Es ist vollbracht" from St. John Passion (88), Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude in E flat Minor (97, 101), Goldberg Variations (101-3).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

Mozart's Die Zauberflöte is related to earlier compositions by Mozart himself and to those by other composers. The opera may be considered as a "pot-pourri." The examples of the "melodic sources and affinities" are virtually endless. An explanation for the extent to which the opera presents a synthesis of musical ideas may involve consideration of the processes of musical creation and musical psychology. Such a consideration can only be speculative as of yet, but it may be noted that Mozart, like Brahms, was steeped in tradition. Furthermore, Mozart possessed an extremely retentive musical memory. Most of the borrowings were probably unconscious. Evidence in the string quartet autographs indicates that Mozart sometimes found it necessary to refer to earlier works as he began a new one; this habit of drawing on earlier works may have become subconscious. Die Zauberflöte is drawn from "the pool of memory and experience" and demonstrates the unity of life and art in the creative genius.

Works: Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Sources: Mozart: König Thamos (242, 249, 254), Idomeneo (243-46, 249, 251, 254), Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K. 504, Prague (243), Allegro for Piano, K. 498a (243), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, K. 570 (243), Le nozze di Figaro (244, 251, 254) Violin Sonata in F Major, K. 377 (244), String Quintet in G Minor, K. 516 (244), Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 279 (244); Haydn: Mondo della Luna (244, 252), Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Hob. XVI:42 (244); Gluck: Die frühen Gräber (244); Gassmann: I Viaggiatori ridicoli (245); Benda: Ariadne (245); Wranitzky: Oberon (245, 249); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (245, 248) String Quintet in E flat Major, K. 614 (246), German Dances, K. 602 (246), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (246); Gluck: Alceste (246); Philidor: Bucheron (246); Mozart: Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425 (247); Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht (247); Mozart: Divertimento in E flat Major, K. 252 (248), Piano Sonata in A Minor, K. 310 (248), La Finta semplice (248), Don Giovanni (248), Sonata in F Major for Two Pianos, K.497 (249), Concerto in E flat Major for Two Pianos, K. 365 (249), Serenade in E flat Major, K. 375 (249), Als Luise, K. 520 (249), Violin Sonata in E flat Major, K. 481 (249); Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride (249); Haydn: Symphony in B flat Major, Hob. I:85, La Reine (250); Mozart: Piano Concerto in E flat Major, K. 271 (251), Violin Concerto in A Major, K. 219 (251), String Trio in E flat Major, K. 563 (251), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 281 (251), Clarinet Quintet in A Major, K. 581 (252), Die Maurerfreude, K. 471 (253), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, K. 282 (254), Divertimento in F Major, K. 253 (254).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

The fundamental change in the style of the ricercar can be explained by considering analogies to rhetorical literature; the early improvisatory ricercar fits Aristotle's description of a proem while the late "motetic" ricercar follows the plan of the exordium described by Cicero. Early ricercars resemble Aristotle's proem in their preludial function, how they establish the mode of a following motet or madrigal, and how they are used for the tuning of the instrument (as an orator would "tune" the soul of his listeners by attracting their attention). Late ricercars, on the other hand, seem to be modeled after Cicero's exordium, which is divided into the principium and the insinuatio. The plain and direct principium makes the listener attentive while the more subtle insinuatio steals into the listener's mind indirectly. The musical implications of Cicero's principium and insinuatio are realized in ricercars by Andrea Gabrieli and Girolamo Cavazzoni featuring intonazioni which begin with full and plain chords, and imitative ricercars consisting of voices creeping in quietly one by one while imperceptibly increasing the number of voices. In this light, the two ricercars in J. S. Bach's Musical Offering can be seen as being modeled after Cicero's twofold distinction as well as Frescobaldi's toccata (principium) and ricercar (insinuatio) in his Fiori musicali.

Works: Andrea Gabrieli: Intonazione del primo tono (26); Girolamo Cavazzoni: Ricercar primo (26-27); Hieronimo Parabosco: Ricercar XVIII (27); J. S. Bach: Musical Offering (39-40).

Sources: Frescobaldi: Fiori musicali (41).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

A group of fugue arrangements for string trios and quartets, known as K. 405 and K. 404a by Mozart, and the anonymous arrangements of the Berea/"Kaisersammlung" manuscript are based on the fugues from J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. The authorship of these arrangements, along with some of their anonymous slow introductions, has always been in question. A historical investigation indicates that Mozart is the most probable author. Around 1782, Mozart regularly attended Baron Gottfried Van Swieten's Sunday chamber music sessions, in which only Handel's and Bach's music were performed. Mozart arranged Bach's fugues for these events. It was also around that time that Mozart studied Bach's fugues with enthusiasm. Mozart is also known for adding slow introductions to arrangements of his own compositions; examples include the piano fugue K. 426, later arranged for strings (K. 546), and many other works. Further studies of the manuscript copy, musical style, texture, and harmonic language make even a stronger case for Mozart's authorship. Mozart's involvement in these pieces cannot be denied until another composer is proven to be the author.

Works: Mozart: Five Fugues K. 405 (44, 46-47, 50-53), Four Preludes for String Trios K. 404a (44, 46-57, 62-65), Berea/"Kaisersammlung" manuscript (47-57, 60-63).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Fugues from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II, in C Minor (44, 47), D Major (44, 46, 51), E flat Major (44, 46, 52, 53), D sharp Minor (44, 50, 51), and E Major (44, 52).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

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[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

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Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

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A consideration of hermeneutics compounds Lissa's list of methods of citation by proposing the necessity of composer intent in order to defend a possible quotation. The character of the citation is defined by the connection between the composer and the listener, not between the composer and the quoted material. Reasons for parody are found in Bach and Schubert examples, "contrast citation" in Debussy, Beethoven, and Bartók examples, and self quotation in Wagner, Strauss, and Mozart examples. Contemporary composers, such as Cage and Stockhausen, show their affinity for the character of earlier works through citation, even while they vocally reject such styles.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Bradley Jon Tucker

[On themes in the String Quartet in D Major, K. 499, borrowed from La nozze di Figaro, composed earlier the same year.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

[On the use in the String Quartet in B flat Major, K. 458, of themes from Die Entführung aus dem Serail.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

In the closing movement of his B Minor Mass, Bach parodies the "Gratias agimus tibi" from earlier in the work, instead of drawing on the Kyrie material, as was the more common practice. Friedrich Smend criticized Bach for expressing the final prayer with music from the Gloria, arguing that the Kyrie music would have been more appropriate. Yet Bach's approach is highly convincing. For Bach, the final "Dona nobis pacem" is not a prayer for peace calling for Kyrie material, but an expression of gratitude, "a thanksgiving not only for the completion of his opus ultimum but beyond that for his entire oeuvre." Bach did not borrow here to save time. Contrary to Schering's conclusion that the "strangely unsettled" "Benedictus" originally must have belonged to another text, Bach probably sketched the movement in lighter ink and then traced it with darker ink, which would indicate a careful conception rather than a parody.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Luciano Berio's well-justified and innovative use of the third movement of Mahler's Second Symphony in the middle movement of his Sinfonia has given rise to other uses of borrowed music which are neither innovative or justified. Many more recent pieces using the technique of collage, like George Rochberg's Music for a Magic Theater, are not destined to survive because they do not represent a significant contribution by the composer.

Works: Mozart: Don Giovanni (36); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (36); Berio: Sinfonia (36); Ian Hamilton: Alastor (38); Offenbach: Tales of Hoffmann (36); Rochberg: Music for a Magic Theater (38); Richard Strauss: Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (36); Stravinsky: Le Baiser de la Fée (38), Jeux de Cartes (38), Pulcinella (38); Tippett: Symphony No. 3 (38); Wagner: Die Meistersinger (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Writers addressing the question of Bach's self-parodies have stressed practical concerns, such as the validity of the music to a new text, time pressure, or work economy. Bach's re-use of three movements from the cantata Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208, involves a considerable amount of recomposition. In most cases, the metrical and rhyme scheme of the new texts are completely different, and in the case of Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149, the affect of the text changes from one of pastoral sweetness to a joyful celebration of victory in battle. Although Bach found creative solutions for the problems posed by these self-borrowings, he did not use borrowing as a matter of convenience. Rather, the urge to elaborate all possibilities within a given musical idea was central to Bach's compositional process.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (39-52), Trio, BWV 1040 (48-49), Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (52, 56-57).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208 (38-57), Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (48).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

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[Cited in Schroeder 1982.]

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Haydn's Symphony No. 26 in D minor--the Sinfonia Lamentatione--was not composed for the Nativity, as a title given later, the "Christmas Symphony," falsely indicates. The title 'Passio et Lamentatio' on the oldest manuscript (at the Abbey of Herzogenburg) shows that the work was composed for the Easter week of 1766. For the first movement, Haydn took as a model an old drama of Passion music whose "Christus" motif is in turn based on an ancient Lamentation chant. This "Christus" melody from Passion music occurs in the second subject of the first movement exposition, given to the second violin and the first oboe. The second movement is thematically linked to the first by using the same "Christus" Lamentation chant, also in the second violin and the first oboe, this time as the principal subject in the form of a chorale prelude. The Passion music that Haydn used in this symphony was well known to his audience, and the purpose of the symphony must have been apparent.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 26 in D Minor, Sinfonia Lamentatione (287-93).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Paul Wranitzky is one of the only eighteenth-century symphonists to compose a symphony based on Haydn's concept of diminishing returns in his "Farewell" symphony. His Symphony in D not only includes Haydn's concept in the final movement, but also presents its reverse, starting the first movement by bringing players in one at a time. Wranitzky's symphony is even more exceptional because of its third movement, subtitled "Ein Quodlibet." This movement borrows from eleven melodies, which are all named in the score. Many are treated as a theme for variations. Wranitzky uses folk songs commonly used as themes for variations by composers of his generation. Most of the melodies are from popular opera arias performed frequently at that time. He often keeps much of the orchestration of the original aria, while changing the vocal line to an instrument. Occasionally he changes instrumentation to be ironic.

Works: Paul Wranitzky: Symphony in D Major (250, 252-58).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp Minor ("Farewell") (250, 257); Anonymous: A Schlüsserl und a Reindl (253-54), Mama mia non mi gridate (254); Giovanni Paisiello: "Nel cor piu non mi sento" from La Molinara (255); Mozart: "Non piu andra" from Le Nozze di Figaro (255), Die Zauberflöte (255-56); André Ernest Modeste Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (255); Antonio Salieri: Palmira (256); Joseph Weigl: "Pria ch'io l'impegno" from L?amor marinaro (256); Simon Mayr: "Contento il cor nel seno" from Lodoiska (256); Jakob Heibel: Le nozze disturbate (256-57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

The stylistic homogeneity of 18th-century music poses difficulties when one tries to assert resemblances between themes. Unless we can demonstrate that the composer expressly intended for there to be a specific thematic connection between his music and another piece, our claims of a definite resemblance between two Classical themes are usually greeted with considerable skepticism. When faced with a lack of concrete biographical evidence, we should therefore subject the themes to a rigorous screening process before we can reasonably assert that one theme consciously resembles another. The first criterion is statistical background: while the resemblance between two themes A and B might be striking, if it can be shown that there are also several other themes that equally resemble A and B then the significance of the original relationship is greatly reduced. The second criterion is structural similarity, which must consider at least three aspects: (1) melodic contour; (2) rhythmic function; and (3) tonal and harmonic background. This screening process is put to the test in works by J. S. Bach, J. C. Bach and Haydn, proving that seeming thematic resemblances between works or between movements of the same work are coincidental. The article concludes with examples from two symphonies--one by Rosetti (DTB XII/I) and Haydn's Symphony No. 103--in which a thematic resemblance between a slow introduction and the following fast movement is strong enough to assert a definite intent on the part of the composer.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 103 (234); Francesco Antonio Rosetti: Sinfonia in Dis (234).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mark S. Spicer

Index Classifications: 1700s

In no other work did Handel borrow more material from his own and other pieces than in the oratorio Israel in Egypt (1738). With the example of the chorus "But the waters overwhelmed their enemies" based on the soprano aria "It is the Lord that ruleth the sea" from the Chandos Anthems, Leopold shows that this extensive borrowing does not result from Handel's "mental illness" in 1737, as has been stated repeatedly, but from his intention to find new possibilities with old material. The physical energy originating in the rhythmical opposition of voices and orchestra in "The waters" contrasts strongly with the purely rhetorical representation of water in "It is the Lord," where the soloist and the bass line flow in the same rhythm. Handel uses these two contrary musical styles to set suitably the two parts of Israel in Egypt: the first part with all the active elements of the exodus and the second part with the contemplative text (e.g. "And with the blast of thy nostrils"). The idea of contrasting the chorus and orchestra shows Handel developing an appropriate musical style for the oratorio by having the orchestra take over the role of the stage setting in the opera.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

Song parodies published in American newspapers were integral to American political culture from the 1790s through the 1810s as they exposed political “truth” in the first party system (Federalists versus Republicans) through mimesis, structural manipulation, and high degrees of intertextuality. Regardless of topic, word play with a model song’s lyrics was a core component of these political parodies. Some parodists just mocked their political opponents, as in Theodore Dwight’s Moll Carey, a parody of Isaac Watt’s psalm Ye Tribes of Adam Join. Others additionally mocked the model song, as in the anonymous Parody of a Federal Song, a parody of the Federalist song Friends to Order—Rise. In both cases, the model was readily apparent and the parodists made additional intertextual references to get their points across. Chains (a parody of a parody) and clusters (multiple parodies of one model) of song parodies demonstrate an even greater level of intertextual references and relationships. The chain of parodies based on Henry Mellen’s The Embargo exemplifies the way partisans on both sides of an issue argued back-and-forth through song parodies. A particularly large set of parodies on Thomas Campbell’s Ye Mariners of England appeared in 1812 debating the prospect of war with Britain. Parodies justifying or opposing the war were met with others serving non-political functions, including John Richard Desborus Huggins’s Ye Shavers of Columbia, a satirical advertisement for his barber services. The tradition of song parodies in early American political culture demonstrates the long-standing efficacy of political rhetoric delivered in an entertaining form.

Works: Anonymous: Parody of a Federal Song (39-42), A Parody Parodied or a New England Aristocratic Song, stripped of its fallacy, &dressed in the becoming garb of ‘native truth and unaffected simplicity (47-48), The Parody on Henry Miller (48-51), A Parody (55-56); Theodore Dwight: Moll Carey (42-46); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (46-47); Unus Plebis: Poetry (48-51); Simon Pepperpot, The Younger: The Embargo Parodied (48-51); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (51-53); Alexander Lucas: Ye Members of Congress (53); John Richard Desborus Huggins: Ye Shavers of Columbia. A Barber-ous Ode (54-55); A Citizen of Monmouth: To the Soldiers of America (55).

Sources: Anonymous: Friends to Order—Rise (39-42); Isaac Watts: Ye Tribes of Adam Join (42-46); John Brown Williamson: The Hobbies (46-48); Jonathan Mitchell Sewall: Hobbies, Parodied (47-48); Henry Mellen: The Embargo (48-51); Thomas Campbell: Ye Mariners of England (51-56); Henry Stanley: Ye Freemen of Columbia (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, Popular

More than one third of Beethoven's compositions make use of his pre-existing music. These reworkings are frequently extensive and serve as an alternative way to access his compositional method in addition to his sketchbooks. His self-borrowings have both musical and practical explanations: (1) to correct, improve, and perfect the quality of a previously finished composition; (2) to enable him to indulge his penchant for variation, development, and invention; (3) to respond to compositional challenges; (4) to express feelings of friendship and debts of gratitude; (5) to make a composition available to a wider spectrum of the music buying public in order to earn extra money. The re-uses can be classified in four categories: (1) amelioration; (2) arrangement; (3) single composition or movement reuses; and (4) thematic or motivic reuses.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (1), Piano Sonata in C# minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (5), Piano Sonata in C major, Op. 2, No. 3 (10), Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No. 1 (13), Feuerfarb', Op. 52, No. 2 (14), O welch ein Leben!, WoO 91, No. 1 (17), Fidelio, Op. 72 (21), Sonatina in G Major, Op. 79 (28), String Quintet in Eb Major, Op. 4 (32), String Trio in Eb Major, Op. 3 (49), String Quintet in C minor, Op. 104 (69), Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 (78), Der freie Mann, WoO 117 (102), Piano Concerto No. 2 in Bb Major, Op. 19 (106), Rondo in Bb Major for Piano and Orchestra, WoO 6 (110), Quartet in Eb Major for Piano and Strings (116), Septet in E Major for Violin, Viola, Clarinet, Horn, Basson, Violoncello, and Contrabass, Op. 20 (124), Trio in Eb Major for Piano, Clarinet or Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 38 (124), Opferlied (130), Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 (151), Piano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2 (156), String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 (156), Sonata in G Major for Piano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3 (156), Piano Trio in E Major Op. 70, No. 2 (156), Piano Sonata in Ab Major, Op. 110 (156), Adagio in Eb Major for Mandolin and Harpsichord, Hess-44b (164), Allegretto in C minor for Piano, Hess-66 (176), Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 (179), String Quartet in F, Hess-34 (184), String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 (200), Septet in Eb Major, Op. 20, arranged as Trio, Op. 38 (210), Fragment of an Arrangement for Military Band of Septet in Eb major, Op. 20 (225), Piano Sonata in Bb Major, Op. 22 (228), German Dance or Allemande in A Major for Orchestra, WoO 13 (231), Trio in G Major for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, Op. 1, No. 2 (231), String Quartet in A minor, Op. 132 (231), Fifteen Variations in Eb major with a Fugue for Piano, Op. 35 (248), Symphony No. 3 in Eb major, Op. 55 (248), Music for Friedrich Duncker's Drama Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 (260), Arrangement for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello of Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 (263), Busslied, Op. 48, No. 6 (269), Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 (270), Overture III to Leonore (1806) (273), Concerto in D for Violin, Op. 61 (287), March in Bb Major for Six Wind Instruments, WoO 29 (313), Music for August von Kotzebue's Festspiel (Nachspiel) Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113 (318), Introduction to Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (327), Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1 (337), Hoffnung, Op. 82, No. 1 (339), March and Chorus from Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 114 (346), An die Geliebte, WoO 140 (351), Canon An Mälzel, WoO 162 (353), Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 (361), Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria for Orchestra, Op. 91 (367), Hochzeitslied, WoO 105 (370), Puzzle Canon Gott ist eine feste Burg, WoO 188 (378), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (381).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Luiz Fernando Lopes

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The multidimensionality of Bach's borrowing technique defies efforts to characterize it with terms such as "parody" or "transcription." The derogatory associations that these terms carry obscure the variety of Bach's techniques, such as reorchestration, intensification of counterpoint or melodic material, and even "reminiscence" of material from a different location in the same work. For example, the Triple Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1044, is not a simple transcription of the concertino from the Fifth Brandenburg Concerto, but a reworking that results in a far greater complexity of texture, while the opening of the Gloria from the Mass in A Major, BWV 234, is a parody of the last movement of Cantata 67 yet resembles the Kyrie from the same Mass, for which no model can be found. The idea of "transcription" is clearly too narrow to describe some works whose relationships extend beyond the ostensible model to other compositions. Bach's parody technique should be regarded as an elaboration of pre-existing works into new compositions, as well as a manifestation of his power of invention.

Works: Bach: Triple Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1044 (115-16), Cantata, BWV 146, Wir müssen durch viel Trübsal (117), Harpsichord Concerto in D Minor, BWV 1052, Mass in A Major, BWV 234 (117-19), Mass in F Major, BWV 233 (117-22), Prelude, Fugue, and Allegro in E-flat Major, BWV 998 (122-23).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher, Sergio Bezerra

The term "self borrowing" is not only grammatically contradictory (what one owns, one needs not borrow), it also tends to obscure the compositional process. Composers such as Bach and Handel did not stop thinking about musical material once it was committed to paper; rather, they continued to revise and expand on it. In Handel's case, expansion and elaboration of a theme can be seen in manuscript sketches.

Works: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Trio in E-flat, K. 498 (147-48), Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Act II, "Welche Wonne, welche lust" (147, 149); Anonymous, attributed to Handel: St. John Passion (150); George Frideric Handel: Organ Concerto, Op. 7, No. 4 (150-52), Nel dolce dell' oblio (150, 153), composition studies for Princess Anne (157-59), Sixth Chandos Anthem (159-63); Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232, "Patrem omnipotentem" (155-56).

Sources: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Quartet in G minor, K. 478 (147-48), Flute Concerto, K. 314 (147, 149); Georg Philipp Telemann: Musique de table, second set (150, 153); Johann Sebastian Bach: Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (155-56); George Frideric Handel: Utrecht Te Deum (159).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

In his youth, Handel became acquainted with contemporary Italian opera during his travels to Berlin, Weißenfelser, and elsewhere, so he was already well-versed in the genre by the time he arrived in Hamburg, aged 18, to work at the Gänsemarkt Opera under Reinhard Keiser. During his two-year apprenticeship as both a performer and composer, he further familiarized himself with the art form’s inner workings, and he gained valuable formative experience from the musicians, the extensive archive of operatic repertory, and the overall quality of the theater’s productions. Handel also gained much from Keiser himself, learning the importance of a good libretto, sensitivity to text, and careful dramatic pacing in operatic composition. Keiser’s influence can be witnessed in some of Handel’s early works, as Handel incorporates a number of melodic passages from Keiser’s operas in his cantata Arresta il passo HWV 83 and his opera Teseo HWV 9. Notably, though, rather than simply copying Keiser’s melodies, Handel combines disparate melodic segments into completely new passages while making several alterations to the rhythm, meter, tempo, and musical structure of the source material. This procedure, “varied borrowing” (“verändernde Übernahme”), was a common compositional technique for budding composers in Handel’s day and reflects the practice of “moduli” as described in Johann Mattheson’s Vollkommene Capellmeister. A table outlining Handel’s complete borrowings from Keiser is included.

Works: Handel: Arresta il passo HWV 83 (42-43), Teseo HWV 9 (43-44).

Sources: Reinhard Keiser: Octavia (32-39, 42), Du schöne Morgenröthe (42-43), La forza della virtù (43).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

James Ralph's (1695-1762) The Fashionable Lady (1730) should be considered the first opera by an American, not Anthony Aston's The Fool's Opera (as cited by Sonneck in his Early Opera in America). Ralph, foremost a writer, travelled with Benjamin Franklin to England beginning in 1724, and moved in circles of notable friends such as John Gay, Alexander Pope and William Hogarth. The Fashionable Lady fits into the scheme of English ballad opera of the period. Specific numbers in this opera are lifted most often from John Gay's The Beggar's Opera and Polly, but also from Charles Johnson's The Village Opera and Thomas Walker's The Quaker's Opera. Only one number in Ralph's work, "The Queen's Old Courtier" (Air no. 56), could possibly have been composed by Ralph; in this rare instance, the music suits Ralph's text.

Works: James Ralph: The Fashionable Lady.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: John Andrew Johnson

Those who today perform and listen to the passions by J. S. Bach engage with these pieces in a context that is very different from their original setting. The compositions known as the St. John Passion and the St. Mark Passion, for instance, are not definitive works as we sometimes suppose. Rather, they are pastiches formed by Bach’s use of various types of musical borrowing and reworking. He adapted existing pieces by other composers, created updated versions of his own compositions, added or subtracted arias, and parodied his own works. Tables summarize Bach’s versions of these two passions and the parody models for the corresponding movements within them.

Works: J. S. Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (68-77), St. Mark Passion, BWV 247 (84-94).

Sources: J. S. Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (68-77); Anonymous: St. Mark Passion (80-91); Handel: Brockes Passion (91-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Jaime Carini

Pachelbel combined traits of the Catholic and Protestant schools of organ playing, assimilating polyphonic and homophonic elements in the development of the prelude form. His chorale preludes can be grouped into two types: chorale fugue and setting of the complete chorale as a cantus firmus. A third type uses a combination of these two, with the fugue leading into the full cantus firmus statement. In setting the chorale as a cantus firmus, Pachelbel is innovative, treating the cantus firmus imitatively while also presenting it in two-, three-, or fourfold augmentation. The cantus firmus is often paired with either a figurative accompaniment or with a purely harmonic accompaniment in which the voices move independently. In Pachelbel's chorale preludes he reveals a desire to achieve harmonic clarity and to showcase the melody.

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

J. C. Bach was one of the very few composers Mozart greatly admired. His keyboard concertos opp. 1, 7, and 13 influenced Mozart's piano concertos in the following areas: structural principles of the first movement including the use and expansion of ritornellos and solo sections; the use of wind instruments; the cantabile melodic style of the slow movement; and the use of Minuet or dance, Rondo, or Variation forms in the last movement. Op. 7 particularly sets a model for the newly developed concerto form.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No.6 in B-flat Major, K. 238 (62, 64), Piano Concerto No. 8 in C Major, K. 246 (62-63), Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat Major, K. 271 (61-65, 71-72), Piano Concerto No. 11 in F Major, K. 413 (64), Piano Concerto No. 17 in G Major, K. 453 (66), Piano Concerto No. 24 in C Minor, K. 491 (66).

Sources: J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in G Major, Op. 1, No. 4 (60-61), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 1, No. 6 (60-61, 64, 73), Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, Op. 7, No. 5 (62-66, 70-72), Keyboard Concerto in D Major, Op. 13, No. 2 (67, 70-71, 73), Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 13, No. 4 (67, 72-73), Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, Op. 13, No. 6 (66, 73).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1400s, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Even after Neo-Gallican reforms revised and suppressed traditional liturgical melodies, plainchant was still sung in almost all parishes as well as the Chapelle Royale of Louis XIV and Louis XV in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France. At this time, plainchants were still employed to enhance the solemnity of the service and provide a way in which composers of secular music could create sacred-sounding music. Plainchants were incorporated into polyphonic music in several ways, including the use of psalm tone intonations, Gregorian intonations, short quotations from chant to emphasize key words, and cantus firmus. Often, plainchants could be anticipated in orchestral introductions. These practices may have been influenced by the chant sur le livre, a French convention of improvising around a plainchant. Aside from emphasizing the sacred aspect of a composition, quotations from popular chants could convey the meaning of the text to those who did not speak Latin, or certain chants could be utilized for political allegory in order to reflect the grandeur of the King.

Works: Jean-Baptiste Lully: Dies Irae (116-18); Henri Madin: Dixit Dominus (130-31); Antoine Blanchard: Jubilate Deo (130-35).

Sources: Dies Irae (116-18); Graduale romanum (Sanctus) (121-35).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Randy Goldberg

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Variations, which often use borrowed material, fall into the following seven historical categories: (1) Renaissance and Baroque variations on secular songs, dances, and arias; (2) Renaissance and Baroque variations on plainchant and chorales; (3) the Baroque basso ostinato variation; (4) the ornamental variation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; (5) the nineteenth-century character variation; (6) the nineteenth-century basso ostinato variation; and (7) the free variation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Variations also fall into two basic plans, structural and free. Variations in categories (1) through (6) above followed the older structural plan, in which basic relationships of parts, sections, and phrases in the theme were preserved in the variations. By the early twentieth century, variations were constructed in two ways: following the structural plan and following the newer free plan, in which basic relationships of sections and phrases in the theme were disregarded. Generally, the most conspicuous elements of themes most emphatically demand change. Rhythm is the most conspicuous element, and thus must be varied the most. The melodic subject is second most conspicuous. The harmonico-structural frame is least conspicuous, was historically generally retained, and therefore may be considered as the substance of the theme. All variations are committed to the task of securing unity within a manifold. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there was a growing trend toward the use of original themes. Renaissance and Baroque themes were frequently borrowed from dances and secular songs. In the ornamental variation, borrowed themes continued to include the dance piece and the popular song and also included the operatic excerpt. In the nineteenth-century character variation, neither the secular song nor the operatic aria were important sources of borrowed themes. Instead, composers used instrumental works (such as suites and sonatas) and instrumentally conceived themes from members of their own circles. Despite the trend toward the use of original themes, borrowed themes, including folk songs, still persisted in the free variation.

Index Classifications: General, 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Daniel Bertram

The Czechs have always admired Mozart and Mozart maintained good relations with many musicians of that country. Thus whole operas or popular numbers from them were arranged for different forces or used as a basis for new songs. An example is Figaro's aria "Se vuol ballare signor contino," used in the Frühlingsliedchen (spring song) from the Sammlung einiger Lieder für die Jugend bei Industrialarbeiten mit den hiezu gehörigen Melodien, published by Franz Stiasny. Josef Mysliwetschek was one of those important friends, whose compositions Mozart liked. The theme from his D Major Symphony shows striking similarities with the opening of the Andante from Mozart's Symphony K. 95, which is also used in the Violin Sonata K. 9, and with the folksong Horela líp. Several Czech folksongs correspond with tunes from Mozart's operas, and Nettl assumes that it is more likely that the latter became folksongs than the other way round.

Works: Stiasny (publisher): Frühlingsliedchen (333); Mozart: Symphony K. 95 (337-38), Violin Sonata K. 9 (338); Mela jsem holoubka (folksong) (338); Já jsem chudej poustevník (folksong) (339); Skroup: Kde domov muj (339).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although the records of the council meetings in Leipzig confirm that Bach wrote a cantata for the town council election (Ratswechselkantate) in 1740, only its text has come down to us. In the original version of the Weimarer Jagdkantate, BWV 208, however, Bach underlaid the soprano part of the final chorus with some verses of the 1740 Ratswechselkantate. Since also other parts from the Jagdkantate could be adapted, Neumann mentions the possibility that Bach parodied several of its movements.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Neumann classifies Bach's works including parody by the following categories (directions of borrowing arias, choral movements, or recitatives): (1) Sacred to sacred; (2) secular to sacred; (3) secular to secular; (4) instrumental to vocal; (5) vocal to instrumental. Bach approached parody in two different ways: either he decided to re-use an existing composition and asked a poet to set a new text, or he adapted an old work to independently conceived poetry. If Bach decided to parody a whole cantata en bloc, the former method was applied, whereas parodies of single movements usually followed the latter procedure. If the text or music of either the original or the parody is missing and if further evidence is not extant, tracing parody becomes problematic, since corresponding prosody is neither a necessary nor a sufficient feature, as Neumann shows with several examples. Bach is not known to have re-used material from sacred works in secular ones. In cases evoking this impression, an even older secular composition exists (or existed) from which both later ones borrowed. Several theories have tried to explain this fact (Schering, Spitta, Rust), but Neumann refutes all these theories as unsound, providing a possible exception: the model of the secular cantata Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 was more likely the sacred cantata Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 than the textually unknown (secular) "Köthener Huldigungskantata" from which Bach re-used five instrumental parts in BWV 184. Therefore Neumann moderates the "rule" of the exclusive one-way parody to a hypothesis, of which the only reasonable explanation is Bach's wish to have his secular cantatas (usually written for a unique occasion) more frequently performed. Besides the complete list (64-71) the following works are mentioned.

Works: Bach: "Jesus soll mein erstes Wort," from Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171 (73); Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149 (75); "Domine Deus," from Mass in F Major, BWV 233 (75); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (76); Schwinget freudig euch empor, BWV 36c (76); Herrgott, Beherrscher aller Dinge, BWV 120a (78); Preise Jerusalem den Herrn, BWV 119 (80); Erwünschtes Freudenlicht, BWV 184 (84); Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, BWV 213 (84-85).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

A number of passages in Beethoven's Op. 13 seem to have been derived from Mozart's Sonata K. 457. In addition, both members of a pair of corresponding themes from the slow movements of the sonatas are set in the submediant. The general mood and dramatic impact of the two works is very similar. The C Minor Sonata of Dussek, Op. 35, No. 3 does not share the general "spirit" of Beethoven's Op. 13 as Eric Blom claimed, but several thematic details of the Dussek correspond to the Beethoven. It is difficult to establish a priority for the material, however, since the works were composed at roughly the same time.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13; Dussek: Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 35, No. 3.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Quotation must be understood as a subdivision of the larger field of borrowing, which is a principal component of composition and can be categorized in terms such as conscious vs. unconscious and legitimate vs. illegitimate. Whereas legal and ethical views of quotation have been historically variable, purely musical criteria employed by musicians have emerged to evaluate quotation practices. Quotation is distinguished from thematic reworking and plagiarism by virtue of its specifically extramusical function, intended to be heard by the listener. Quotation may be employed (1) to evoke time, place, or circumstance, (2) as musical wit, (3) as the basis for parody or caricature, or (4) as the basis for exposition of serious content.

Works: Debussy: La bôite à joujouz (136); Busoni: Arlecchino (136); Mozart: Piano Rondo in A minor, K. 511 (136); Berg: Lyric Suite (136).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher, David Lieberman

At six points in Act IV of Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, the composer uses musical motives borrowed from earlier in the opera. In each case, the borrowing has a rhetorical significance, referring back to a pertinent circumstance or statement that is newly appropriate or somewhat ironic in its second appearance. This is one more aspect of Mozart's skillful delineation of characters in his operas.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In his Trio Sonata in D Minor TWV 42:d11, Telemann appears to have borrowed directly from Johann Heinrich Erlebach's VI Ouvertures using the technique of "transformative imitation." This technique is defined as borrowing a motive or phrase from a respected model and adapting the material as part of a new composition, bringing a fresh, critical reading to the piece, and creating a new product. In his second movement, En Menuet, Telemann reworked the first four-bar phrase from Erlebach's Air Menuet I, creating a quasi-imitative texture that was not part of the original, and he also manipulated a cadential block of the model by placing it within the middle of a new phrase. Both of these borrowings helped transform the model from a simple binary form into an extended and highly developed rondeau form. In addition, Telemann may have borrowed from Erlebach in the opening Gravement, though he disguised this heavily through fragmentation and melodic elaboration. Telemann's method of borrowing in these passages mirrors his borrowing of material from the composers Fux and Campra in which he lifted short blocks of material, changed them slightly, and reorganized them within the context of new material.

Works: Telemann: Trio Sonata in D Minor for Two Treble Instruments, TWV 42:d11.

Sources: Erlebach: Overture No. 6 in G Minor from VI Ouvertures.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Telemann's Violin Concerto in B-flat Major and Handel's Overture in D, Ottone, and Sonata à 5 have significant interrelationships. Handel uses the orchestral ritornello opening of the third movement of Telemann's concerto for the fugue subject of his overture in D. Telemann's concerto works well as a source because its solo episodes hint at a fugal outline. Handel expands this subject into a formal fugue in his overture by changing and extending the countersubject. He uses the beginning of this subject again in the greatly extended fugue of the overture to Ottone. This practice of only using the beginning motive of a fugue without preserving other features is a common practice for Handel's borrowings. Although there are several other Handel works which use similar opening gestures, there is no evidence borrowing occurred in these cases. The borrowing between this Telemann concerto and these three Handel works is much more likely because of the personal correspondence and long history of borrowing between the two composers.

Works: Handel: Overture in D, HWV 337 (33-35, 37), Ottone, HWV 15 (33, 35-36); Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33), Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 12 (36).

Sources: Telemann: Violin Concerto in B-Flat Major, TWV 51:B2 (33-35, 37-38); Handel: Sonata à 5, HWV 288 (33, 38-39); Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow: Keyboard Suite in B Minor (36).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

A recent study of the manuscript of Telemann's Flute Concerto, Kross Fl. G1 (TWV51:G2) in G major, reveals that the bass part does survive. This discovery allows a reconstruction of the piece. The headings on two solo part copies indicate that the concerto was intended for either oboe or flute solo. These findings make a more significant discovery: J. S. Bach borrowed literally the first three measures of Telemann's opening Largo to the beginning of the slow movement of his Keyboard Concerto in A-flat major, BWV 1056. More studies show that Bach borrowed this musical material prior to the Keyboard Concerto, namely in a D minor Oboe Concerto, and the opening Sinfonia to his Cantata of 1729, Ich steh mit einem Fuss in Grabe, BWV 156.

Works: J. S. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in A-flat Major, BWV 1056/ii (45).

Sources: Telemann: Flute Concerto in G Major, TWV 51: G2 (Kross Fl. G 1) (45).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

The numerous variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the opera La Molinara demonstrate Paisiello's extensive and lasting influence throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century and serves as a touchstone for examining the trajectory of variations procedures during this time. Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" emerged in at least three contexts. First, singers elaborated upon the work, essentially creating their own variations. Second, opera fantasias and chamber music provided a ready forum for variations on the tune, especially in cities where La Molinara was well-received. Finally, the growth of the market for published arrangements prompted popular variations on the tune. Between 1790 and 1820, variations remained close to Paisiello's classical style, and arrangements from this period generally were for private use. After 1820, emerging virtuosos also took up "Nel cor più non mi sento," using expanded proportions and new techniques. Although variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" were readily available in sheet music form in the United States throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1850 its popularity had faded.

Works: Mr. Meyer, arr.: "Ah, Will No Change of Clime," from Inkle and Yarico (43-45); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (44-47); Beethoven: Six Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento," WoO 70 (47, 51-53); Josepha Barbara von Auernhammer: Six Variations for the Harpsichord on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (49-51); Joseph Gelinek: Six Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from the Opera "La Molinara" for Harpsichord or Pianoforte (49-52); Felix Janiewicz: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53); Joseph Mazzinghi: Madam Catalani's Celebrated Air (53); Louis Drouet: Variations on Paisiello's "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Fernando Sor: Fantasie pour la Guitare avec des Variations sur l'Aire de Paisiello "Nel cor più non mi sento" (54); Paganini: Nel cor più non mi sento (54-56), Giovanni Bottesini: Nel cor più non mi sento: Variazioni de Bottesini per Contrebasse (54-55); Mauro Giuliani: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" von Paisiello en Polonaise, Op. 113, for guitar and piano (55-56); Luigi Legnani: Variations on the Duet "Nel cor più non mi sento" from "La Molinara" by Paisiello, Op. 16 (55-56); Bartolomeo Bortolazzi: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Mandoline und Gitarre, Op. 8 (55-56); Luigi Castellacci: Nel cor più non mi sento Nouvellement Varié, Op. 35 (56-57); Johann Wenth: Variations sur un theme de G. Paisiello de l'opera "La Molinara" (57); Johann Baptist Vanhal: Sechs Variationen über das Theme "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte (Violin) und Gitarre, Op. 42 (57-58); Friedrich Silcher: Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" für Flöte und Klavier (57-58); Theobald Boehm: Nel cor più, Op. 4 (57-58); Heinrich Neumann: Theme und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento" (57-59); Johann Wilhelm Wilms: The Favorite Air of Hope Told a Flattering Tale (57-58); Charles Bochsa: Thema und Variationen über "Nel cor più non mi sento," Op. 10 (59); Walter P. Dignam: Hope Told a Flattering Tale, E-Flat Cornet Air Varié (60).

Sources: Paisiello: "Nel cor più non mi sento," from La Molinara (43-62); Mozart: Piano Concerto in C Minor, K. 491 (49-50); Madame Catalani: Variations on "Nel cor più non mi sento" (53).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

J. S. Bach’s chorale cantata Meine Seel’ erhebt den Herren, BWV 10, is unusual because it is also a Magnificat paraphrase, situating the work within both liturgical, poetic, and compositional traditions. The text is derived from Martin Luther’s German translation of the Magnificat (Meine Seele), making BWV 10 the only Bach chorale cantata based on a biblical text. It is also the only chorale cantata based on a Gregorian chant melody, the ninth psalm tone, rather than a chorale. Bach accommodates the irregular text of Meine Seele with the flexible psalm tone formula. The psalm tone melody is shorter and simpler than a typical chorale melody, and the reciting tone allows for variable phrase lengths. In the opening movement, Bach presents the Meine Seele melody twice, the only example of him doing so in a chorale-cantata first movement. The two presentations of the cantus firmus differ in rhythm, text accent, and key signature. The fifth movement duet also exhibits an unusual setting related to the distinctive nature of the psalm tone. The two halves of the vocal melody are unequal in length, and the psalm tone only appears in the trumpet. The Meine Seele text and melody also appear in the final movement of the cantata. Again, Bach employs an unusual compositional approach not only by setting two verses of the text to the same melody, but also by reharmonizing the second verse instead of repeating the same music as he does in BWV 178, 94, and 130. The special treatment Bach and his librettist gave to BWV 10 is consistent with the importance of the Magnificat in Leipzig and with Bach’s apparent vigor in taking up the compositional challenge of the chorale cantatas.

Works: J. S. Bach: Meine Seel’ erhebt den Herren, BWV 10 (47-61)

Sources: Plainchant: Ninth psalm tone (47-61)

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Quotation in music is different from literary quotation. Most examples of musical quotation are accidental, but exceptions to this include self-borrowing, universally recognized excerpts, programmatic or evocative borrowing, or humorous allusions. All other conscious quotation is plagiarism. "Making a few possible exceptions where words are used, THERE IS NO QUOTATION IN MUSIC" (capitals original).

Works: Wagner: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (218); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 (218), Quintet, Op. 16 (218); S. S. Wesley: Ascribe Ye Unto the Lord (218); Beethoven, Diabelli Variations (241); Reinecke: Variations for Two Pianofortes (241); Bach: Wachet auf, BWV 140 (242), Christmas Oratorio (242); Mackenzie: Dream of Jubal (242); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (265); Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture (265); Volkmann: Richard the Third Overture (265); Saint-Saëns: Henry VIII (265); Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen (266); Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (266); Haydn: The Seasons (266); Mozart: Don Giovanni (267).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Muzio Clementi’s preoccupation with writing keyboard music for virtuosic display was only a passing phase in his long creative life. More characteristically, many of his piano compositions reveal the profound influence of J. S. Bach. Clementi’s fugal movement from the first Sonata of his Op. 5 draws harmonic, melodic, and stylistic materials from both the Prelude and the Fugue in B-flat minor from Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. The opening slow movement of Clementi’s Op. 34, No. 2, also shows Bach’s influence through its dramatic escalation of harmonic complexities and contrapuntal technique. Bach’s influence is further attested by Clementi's possession of the autograph of The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (the so-called “London Autograph”). It was this influence that led Clementi's contemporary critics to recognize the “German manner” of his music.

Works: Clementi: Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 2 (304-6), Toccata, Op. 11 (308-11), Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13, No. 6 (314-21), Sonata in G Minor, Op. 34, No. 2 (319, 322-23), Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 5, No. 1 (323-29).

Sources: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata, K. 133 (313); Johann Sebastian Bach: Prelude and Fugue in B-flat Minor, BWV 867, from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I (323-29).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Index Classifications: 1700s

The horn part of the second movement of Mozart's Horn Concerto in E-flat, K. 447, is essentially identical to that of Michael Haydn's Romance for horn and string quartet of 1795. As an alternative to Mary Rasmussen's explanation, Plath suggests that a horn player, who possessed only the horn part of the second movement of Mozart's concerto, prevailed upon Haydn to write an accompaniment.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Index Classifications: 1700s

Haydn's Requiem in C Minor shares numerous similarities with Mozart's Requiem, in instrumentation, choral and instrumental textures, placement of solo sections, specific features of style and technique, movement structure, tonal design and cadential progressions, and rhythmic patterns of text setting. The similarities between the works decrease significantly in those sections completed or composed by Süssmayer.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Three collections of Brunettes (mostly songs about shepherdesses with brown hair) from the press of Christophe Ballard in 1703, 1704, and 1711 show the transition from modal to tonal systems of composition in France. Ballard's pieces were assembled from popular airs serieux, airs à danser, and chansonettes from the previous century. Ballard brought them up to date by simplifying melodies, altering texts, and composing bass lines for the songs. In composing bass lines for the once monophonic chansons à danser and creating new bass lines for the rest of the polyphonic pieces, he adjusted modal organizations that had become outdated. Too this end, accidentals were changed, and cadences and their preparations were altered as well. Individual modes were turned into major or minor systems, each in its own unique way. By comparing both versions, we can see what Ballard considered to be essential modernizations. These Brunettes then served as the basis for further revisions by composers Dandrieu and Montéclair later in the century. Thus several versions of the same song can be examined over a large span of time.

Works: Anonymous: J'entends le voix de la belle Climene (191); La jeune Bergere Anette (192); Nous nirons plus aux champs Brunete (195); L'amour n'est jamais sans peines (197); Dans un Bois (200); Quand on a tant d'amour (202); O beau jardin ou l'Art et Nature (205).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: John F. Anderies

The Spanish Pange lingua in Mode V known only on the Iberian peninsula has been set repeatedly by Spanish keyboard composers, revealing the change of styles and techniques over three centuries. Early settings of the hymn, including ten by Antonio de Cabezón, range from ornamented intabulations to works written in an idiomatic instrumental style. Seventeenth-century settings by Manuel Rodrigues Coelho and Sebastián Aguilera de Heredia often use a three-part texture with a slow-moving melody surrounded by faster figuration. The sixty settings by Juan Cabanilles vary from pieces using simple rhythmic motives to more complex pieces with dense imitation. In a tiento by Cabanilles, the hymn tune begins buried in the tenor before it migrates to the other voices, gradually exposing the basis of the composition. In a setting by Vincente Rodríguez, the lower voices are registered separately on the organ to oppose the treble parts. A more fugal treatment of the hymn can be seen in José Lidón's setting from the eighteenth century, where motives derived from the hymn are developed as subjects of a large fugue. Although the use of the hymn declined by the nineteenth century, pianistic settings by Hilarión Eslava and Nicolás Ledsma are found in an anthology of organ music from 1854. The short survey of keyboard settings of the hymn shows a wide spectrum of styles: intabulations in ricercar style, divided-register pieces, sophisticated fugues, and nineteenth-century pianistic styles.

Works: Cabezón: Pange lingua (67); Heredia: La reina de los Pange linguas (68); Cabanilles: Tiento de Pange lingua (68); Rodríguez: Pange lingua de mano izquierda (68); Lidón: Fuga sobre el Pange lingua (69).

Sources: Pange lingua from the Liber Processionarius Regularis Observantiae Ordinis Cisterciensis, 1569 (66).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Jir Shin Boey

Index Classifications: 1700s

To properly understand London pasticcios of the eighteenth century, the genre must not be compared to the nineteenth-century ideal of opera, but must be considered in light of what was practiced and performed in eighteenth-century London. To showcase the talents of the performers and reflect the tastes of the audience, theatrical and pasticcio performances usually presented an amalgamation of materials. As the eighteenth century progressed, pasticcios became increasingly important, occasionally serving as venues for experiments and innovation. For example, Ferdinando Bertoni's Giunio Bruto (1782) defied pasticcio conventions by concluding with a secco recitative. Pasticcios could also significantly alter a model. Samuel Arnold's Giulio Cesare (1787) both reduced the musical material of Handel's original Giulio Cesare (1724) and inserted popular numbers from several of Handel's other operas. Until the later part of the eighteenth century, performers had the legal ability to perform substitute arias in a pasticcio. As the century continued, a power struggle erupted between copyists and singers, culminating in two legal battles. The courts ultimately sustained the rights of the performer to introduce arias in an opera, regardless of whether the aria was newly composed or borrowed the work of another composer.

Works: Samuel Arnold: Giulio Cesare in Egitto (22-24); Paisiello: Il re Teodoro in Venezia (25-27); Vincenzo Federici: L'usurpator innocente (27); Gertrude Elisabeth Mara: "Anche nel petto io sento" (27-30).

Sources: Handel: Guilio Cesare (22-24); Steven Storace: "Care donne che bramate" (25-27); Paisiello: La Molinarella (27-30).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

An examination of Alessandro Stradella’s work Serenata a 3, con Stromenti shows that Handel borrowed from the composer. The opening sinfonia of Stradella’s serenata is reworked into the opening to “Hailstone” in Handel’s Israel in Egypt. Additionally, the subject of the Serenata’s second movement is used in one of the choruses in Joseph and his Brethren, one of Handel’s lesser-known oratorios. Handel employs a theme from the third movement of the Serenata’s sinfonia in the chorus “Him or his God we scorn to fear” from the Occasional Oratorio. The fourth movement of Stradella’s work is uprooted and placed in its entirety into “He Spake the Word” in Israel in Egypt. Finally, Handel adapts the themes from Stradella’s airs for use in Israel in Egypt.

Works: Handel: Israel in Egypt (154-55), Joseph and his Brethren (154), Occasional Oratorio (155).

Sources: Alessandro Stradella: Serenata a 3, con Stromenti (154-55).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In composing the overture to Music for the Royal Fireworks, Handel most likely borrowed material from William Croft's overture in D Major to his ode With Noise of Cannon. The beginning Allegro section of Handel's overture greatly resembles Croft's ode in the trumpets' fanfare-like statements and the dotted rhythmic answers of the other instruments. Though Croft's piece was more than forty years old at the time, the circumstances of both works as occasional music, each written for civic and secular celebrations, show that Handel wanted to draw from a long musical tradition and looked to secular instead of sacred music as a model.

Works: Handel: Overture to Music for the Royal Fireworks, HWV 351.

Sources: Croft: Overture to With Noise of Cannon.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Mary Ellen Ryan

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

Handel undoubtedly turned to Purcell's works for guidance during his early years in England. Acis and Galatea, one of Handel's earliest works written for England, appears to be a manifestation of this influence. Although Handel never directly borrows from Purcell, an unmistakable likeness in feeling is present between passages of Acis and Galatea and passages from Purcell's secular works.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Characteristics of Martin Luther's quintessential chorale, Ein feste Burg, the text of which is taken from Psalm 46, suggest so strong a spirit of revolutionary heroism that several composers responded to it. In addition, many qualities of the tune suggest a folk characteristic, contributing in part to the great response the tune received. In particular, the "defiant" tones of the opening stanza evoke a "battle-song" of liberty in the face of the enemy. Many composers adapted the melody of the tune and devised new harmonies for it. A common eighteenth-century adjustment, for example, was to remove the syncopation from the tune, a tradition begun by J. S. Bach in his cantatas. Subsequent composers, including Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer, retained Bach's adaptation of the melody in their own settings.

Works: J. S. Bach: In festo Reformationis, BWV 80, Ein feste Burg, BWV 720 (248); Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 5 in D Minor, Reformation (248); Meyerbeer: Les Huguenots (248).

Sources: Luther: Ein feste Burg (247-49).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Katie Lundeen

Although composers in the Romantic era did not discuss the concept of allusions and borrowings in their works, there is evidence of borrowing in the writings of music critics and the music composers wrote. It is unknown why composers so infrequently discussed where the allusions came from, but it may be connected to differing levels of audience knowledge: from the amateur “Liebhaber,” the reminiscence-hunting “Kenner,” and an exclusive group close to the composer. These allusive traditions, however, are evidenced in the very fact that fellow composers recognized them. One of the most extensive allusive traditions is that of the “Es ist vollbracht” motive from J. S. Bach’s St. John Passion. It is unclear whether Beethoven knew the St. John Passion, since it was not published in Berlin until 1830, though it is possible that C. P. E. Bach, in quoting his father, might have been the bridge between the two composers’ similar motives. Even if Beethoven did not know the work, later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann did, engaging with both the Passion and Beethoven’s similar motives in their own works. There is a particularly strong case with Mendelssohn’s Elijah due to the formal parallels and similarities between Jesus and Elijah. There may have also been an extramusical aspect of this motive as a topic for death and suffering. Connecting Beethoven’s Third Piano Concerto to this extramusical tradition means that Beethoven was engaging with this theme for about two decades, putting his first use of the theme in the period of The Heiligenstadt Testament. Regardless of whether Beethoven did actually know the source of the motive, the end result is an allusive tradition not only of Bach but of Beethoven as well.

Works: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143-44); Robert Schumann: Lieder und Gesänge aus Goethes Wilhelm Meister (143-44), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (143-44); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 2 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 2 (144-45); Luigi Cherubini: Pater noster (145-46); Louis Spohr: Vater unser (145); Felix Mendelssohn: Die erste Walpurgisnacht (146); Brahms: Balladen (147); Felix Mendelssohn: Violin Sonata No. 2 in F Minor, Op. 4 (147); Ferdinand Hiller: Die Zerströrung Jerusalems (147); Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (147-48); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Das Jahr (149), Beharre (149); Robert Schumann: Piano Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44 (149, 153-54); Felix Mendelssohn: Capriccio for Cello and Piano (150), Elijah (151-53), String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 13 (153); Robert Schumann: Symphony in G Minor (unfinished) (153-54); C.P.E. Bach: Dank-Hymne der Freundschaft (155-56), Passions-Cantate (155-56), Cello Concerto in A Minor (155-56); Beethoven: Sonata for Cello and Piano, Op. 69 (156), Piano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 (156-58); Mozart: Concerto for Horn No. 4 in E-flat Major, K.495 (156-58); Prince Louis Ferdinand: Grosses Trio (157-58).

Sources: Beethoven: An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (143); Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel: Lieder für das Pianoforte, Op. 2, No. 2 (144-45); Anonymous: Vater unser (146), Ach Vater unser, der du bist im Himmelreich (146); Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (147-53, 155); Beethoven: Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (149, 153), String Quartet No. 11 in F Minor, Op. 95 (153), String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (153), String Quartet No. 14 in C# Minor, Op. 131 (153), String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor, Op. 132 (153), String Quartet No. 16 in F Major, Op. 135 (153).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Emily Baumgart

An assimilative allusion is an allusion that endorses the musical and poetic sense of the earlier passage. The practice of using quotations from earlier pieces to evoke the same mood or meaning began in the late-eighteenth century with Haydn and Mozart, and continued to Wagner. Beethoven borrowed a motif from Reichardt’s Ino depicting family love in his “Archduke” trio, which he told the Countess Guicciardi was about him embracing her family. Some pieces, like Schubert’s Mass in A-flat and his song Der Doppelgänger were composed simultaneously using the same material, so that each work adds to the meaning of the other. Haydn used assimilative allusion in some of his works, but in others he used allusions wittily, the way Schumann did. Liszt alluded to either a Schubert song or an opera by Chelard in his Faust-Symphonie; Wagner in turn incorporated a motive from the Faust-Symphonie into Die Walküre. Wagner’s opinions on Faust also influence the plot of the opera, particularly moments such as the downfall of the gods and Wotan’s inability to recognize the truth. Although people often speak of Wagner’s borrowing in regards to the texts or stories of his works, he used musical allusions as well; Tristan’s death scene in Tristan und Isolde, for instance, uses a theme from Beethoven’s Symphony No. 3, which had been described by contemporaries as depicting death.

Works: Piano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97 (46-48); Mozart: Piano Concerto in A Major, K.488 (48); Carl Maria von Weber: Mass in E-flat, Op. 75 (51); Schubert: Mass in A-flat Major, D.678 (51-52); Haydn: Mass in B-flat Major, Hob. XXII/13 (52-53); Beethoven: Fidelio (54-57); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57); Wagner: Die Walküre (57-63), Tristan und Isolde (63-66).

Sources: Friedrich Reichardt: Ino (46-48); Carl Maria von Weber: Der Freischütz (51); Schubert: “Der Doppelgänger” from Schwanengesang, D.957 (51-52); Haydn: The Creation (52-53); Mozart: The Magic Flute (54); Beethoven: Vestas Feuer (54); Haydn: Abendlied zu Gott, Hob. XXVc:9 (54-55); Mozart: Abendempfindung, K.523 (56-57); Schubert: Szene aus Goethes Faust, D.126 (57-58); Andre-Hippolite Chelard: Macbeth (57-58); Liszt: Faust-Symphonie (57-61); Marschner: Hans Heiling (62); Robert Schumann: Abschied vom Walde, Op. 89, No. 4 (63); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55 (63-66).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Meredith Rigby

Allusion in music is an intentional reference to a preexisting work via a resemblance that influences the interpretation of meaning among those who recognize it. Any instance of allusion involves the interaction of four factors: the composer, the new composition, the old composition, and the audience. Allusions create musical order while simultaneously expressing non-musical meaning, and act within one of two categories. Assimilative allusions rely upon the creator’s acceptance of the referenced material, while contrastive allusions frame the earlier material in a way that creates new, possibly contradictory meaning. Thus, the interpretation of an allusion requires consideration of its musical-rhetorical significance, that is, the composer’s intention and the contextual framework of their audience, not just the intervallic and rhythmic similarities between the allusion and its model. This more nuanced approach to borrowed material allows for a more flexible understanding of the pieces in question, leading listeners to form interpretations may at times partially or completely contradict composers’ intentions.

Such allusions in the early nineteenth century are often achieved through symbolism, and often relied on composers’ invocation of conventional topics, such as dance types, fanfares, regional styles, and pastoral sounds. As Romanticism pervaded artistic circles, however, composers developed more personal systems of symbolism, and their allusions to other works and styles became less overt. It may be difficult to ascertain, however, the motivations behind allusions in the works of certain nineteenth century composers who, unlike Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner, were not forthcoming about their allusions or “reminiscences.” Intertextual relationships nevertheless exist in the works of Liszt and his followers that were not identified outright by the composer, and these same relationships may be said to exist in the works of less forthcoming allusory composers like Schumann and Brahms. Huizinga’s theory of metaphor as play helps to conceptualize allusion as a form of play; if rhetorical allusion is play upon words in a text, musical allusion can be play upon motives in a composition. The works of Mikhail Bakhtin, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Harold Bloom offer further context for discussion of how artists interact with other artists’ ideas.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat Major Op. 110 (1), Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69 (1), Fidelio (11); Schubert: Mass No. 2 in G Major, D. 167 (10); Haydn: The Creation (11); Mendelssohn: Festgesang zum Gutenbergfest, WoO 9, Lobgesang, Op. 52 (12); Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra (12); Robert Schumann: Frühlings Ankunft (17–19), Symphony No. 2 in C Major, Op. 61 (21); Brahms: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C Major, Op. 1 (21).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: St. John Passion, BWV 245 (1); Anonymous: Crux fidelis (7-8); Beethoven: Fidelio (10, 17–19), Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat Major, Op. 106 (21); Mozart: Die Entführung aus dem Serail (11); Handel: Samson (12); Franz Anton Rösler: Der sterbende Jesus (12); Haydn: The Creation (12), Symphony No. 104 in D Major, H. 1/104 (21); Niels Gade: Frühlings-Phantasie (14).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Chelsey Belt, Elizabeth Stoner

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Handel tended to return regularly to the works of certain composers as sources for his borrowed materials, notably the operas of Reinhard Keiser. Handel would have become familiar with Keiser's music through listening, performance, and presumably study of the scores during his years in Hamburg (ca. 1703-5). A table of the ten Keiser operas from which Handel borrowed is included. Roberts theorizes that Handel was often inspired to borrow by a textual similarity. Handel generally subjected the musical material extracted from another piece to extensive reworking, which leads Roberts to speculate that the composer's creative process may have required the stimulus of outside ideas.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn, Nancy Kinsey Totten

Roberts provides a list of 128 items containing borrowings from three collections of works of Telemann, Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst, the Musique de Table, and the Sonates sans basse, as well as borrowings from other sources contained in the same items. After briefly describing the three Telemann sources, Roberts divides Handel's Telemann borrowings into three types: use of incipit with fresh ideas or development; use of single internal passage; and compound borrowings from one model. He then offers guidelines for analysis according to these types.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron, Jean Pang

The pastiche opera Demofoonte is attributed to Niccolò Jommelli in contemporary London reviews, but it contains music by many other composers, including many Gluck arias. Eighteenth-century reviews of the work also noted the similarity of the aria "Ogni amante," thought to be from a lost opera by Gluck, to a certain Handel minuet. Although the Gluck aria was also used in self-borrowing in his opera La Clemenza di Tito, it is the Issipile version that is used in Demofoonte and compared to Handel. Through thorough analysis current audiences can better understand the observations of the work's first audiences. Gluck also borrowed from Handel's Alessandro for his opera La Fausse Esclave. The differences between Handel opera excerpts and Gluck's aria showcase the composers' different strengths and weaknesses.

Works: Niccolò Jommelli: Demofoonte (168-69); Gluck: "Se all'impero" from La Clemenza di Tito (169, 178-80), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (171-80), "Tendre Agathe" from La Fausse Esclave (180, 183-87).

Sources: Handel: Arianna in Creta (168-70), "Il cor mio" from Alessandro (180-83, 185); Niccolò Jommelli: "Padre sposa" from Cajo Mario (169); Johann Adolf Hasse "Or che salvo" from Arminio (169); Gluck: "Padre perdona" from Demofoonte (169-70), "Ogni amante" from Issipile (169-71, 178-80).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Although borrowing was not unusual in Handel's time, no other leading composer of the period is known to have borrowed on the same scale as Handel, so that the practice of the time does not fully explain why Handel borrowed. Nor do any of the more personal explanations offered in the past prove very satisfactory. Rather, it appears that Handel "had a basic lack of facility in inventing original ideas," writing melodies, and attaining fluency in the operatic style. These speculations do not diminish Handel's stature, and he deserves to be judged solely by the effects he achieves.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Wendy Jeanne McHenry

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The music composed for theatrical productions at the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne in late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century Paris shaped the urban popular song tradition of vaudeville, or popular songs that circulated in urban Paris with often satirical and subversive texts commenting on public affairs. Out of Évariste Gherardi’s six volumes of repertoire from the Comédie-Italienne, twenty-six songs originating in the theater appear in chansonniers collecting the texts (and sometimes music) of the vaudeville tradition. A ribald parody of Jean-Gille, Gilli joli Jean from the 1697 play Pasquin et Marforio, Médecins des mærs printed in the Maurepas Chansonnier demonstrates the appeal of using such innuendo-laden theater music to comment on public scandal. It is also a useful case study in tracing the origin of a vaudeville tune back to its original form. The vaudeville Les Trembleurs presents a notable case of a vaudeville originating from an opera, Lully’s Isis (1677), before itself being absorbed into the Comédie-Italienne repertoire in 1693. Musical finales from the Comédie-Française and the Comédie-Italienne, which were very often structured as highly repetitive strophic tunes, were frequently turned into vaudevilles collected in chansonniers. The plays of Florent Carton Dancourt and Jean-Claude Gillier at the Comédie-Française also frequently included similar strophic tunes at the end of their divertissements, several of which also “ran in the streets” as vaudevilles. The dynamic relationship between Parisian theaters and the vaudeville tradition was mutually beneficial. Theatrical songs that became vaudevilles acted as effective word-of-mouth advertisement for the productions themselves, and after the closure of the Comédie-Italienne, the vaudeville repertory reemerged in fairground theater, giving birth to French comic opera.

Works: Anonymous: Jean-Gille, Gille joli Jean printed in Maurepas Chansonnier (426-30), Les Trembleurs (430-34); André Campra: Hésione (442-45).

Sources: Dufresny and Claude-Ignace Brugière de Barante: Jean-Gille, Gille joli Jean from Pasquin et Marforio, Médecins des mæurs (426-30); Lully: Isis (430-34); Dancourt and Gillier: La Foire de Bezons (439-45).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Influences on one composer by another's work are demonstrated between Haydn and Mozart. In the first of two examples, the rhythmic shape of Mozart's fugal Gigue for Piano, K. 574 parallels the gigue finale of Haydn's C Major Quartet, Op. 20, No. 2. Mozart was familiar with Haydn's quartets Op. 20 and imitated them closely for years. Similarities are also drawn between Haydn's Symphony No. 81 and Mozart's Prague Symphony, including the use of ostinati, a flatted seventh degree within the introductions, similar rhythmic patterns, and the use of new motifs. Influence through structural modeling is then illustrated by a comparison of the finales from Brahms's D Minor Piano Concerto and Beethoven's Piano Concerto in C Minor.

Works: Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Minor, D. 959 (93); Brahms: Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 1 (93); Scherzo, Op. 4 (93); Piano Concerto No. 2 (94).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

English ballad operas and burlesques regularly used borrowed melodies, drawn from popular tunes. The use of these tunes often had a nationalistic motivation, attempting to imbue the music with an English identity, while simultaneously establishing a locale within the opera. The songs for burlesque and ballad operas were adapted from a wide variety of sources, including ballad airs, folk songs, arias from Italian and French opera, and minstrel tunes. The burlesque orchestra also played familiar tunes to signal associations in the minds of the audience, often with humorous intent. Humor played a large role in burlesques, taking form in parody through song, puns in dialogue, and through women playing men’s roles.

Works: Kane O’Hara: Midas (553); James Planche: The Golden Branch (554); Edward Stirling: The Buffalo Girls (555); Albert Smith: Hop-o’-my-Thumb (555); William Leman: Douglas Travestie (556); Francis Talfourd: Macbeth Trovestie (555), Atalanta (557), Electra in a New Electric Light (557); Henry Byron: Ali Baba (557); Joseph Coyne and Francis Talfourd: Leo the Terrible (557); William Rhodes: Bombastes Furioso (557); Maurice Dowling: Othello Travestie (558); Robert Brough: Masaniello (559); Leicester Buckingham: William Tell (559); Joseph Coyne: Willikind and hys Dynah (559); James Planche: Puss in Boots; An Original, Comical, Magical, Mew-sical, Fairy Burletta (561); William Hale and Francis Talfourd, The Mandarin’s Daughter (561).

Sources: Anonymous: Shaan Bwee (553), Sheelagh na guig (553), Larry Grogan (553), Kiss me fast my mother’s coming (553), Bobbing Joan (553); Handel: Overture to Ottone (553); Anonymous: Cherry Ripe (554), If you’re waking, call me early (555); Rossini: Il Barbiere di Siviglia (555); Anonymous: Sich a gittin’ up stairs (555), Come haste to the wedding (556), Paddy’s Wedding (557), My Lodging is on the Cold Ground (557), Drink to me only with thine eyes (557), Weippert’s Fancy (557), Lord Cathcart’s Favourite (557), Oh ‘tis love (558), The Ratcatcher’s Daughter (559), We won’t go home till morning (559), My poor dog Tray (559), To all you Ladies now on Land (560); John Christopher Pepusch: The Beggar’s Opera (561); Anonymous: There’s nae luck about the house (561).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

The Jovial Crew, an eighteenth-century ballad opera based on Richard Brome’s play of the same name, was composed primarily from popular tunes. The songs used are mainly of dance origin, and are synonymous with the English nationalist paradigms propagated in ballad operas. The ballad opera was subject to subsequent revivals, which changed the songs’ texts and music or omitted them entirely.

Works: Anonymous: The Jovial Crew (240–43).

Sources: Anonymous: Which Nobody Can Deny (241), Under the Greenwood Tree (241), Now Ponder Well (241), Young Philander lov’d me long (242), Gilderoy (242), Now ponder well! (242), To you, fair ladies, now on land (242); John Barrett: The St. Catherine; James Paisible: Room Room for a Rover; Purcell: A New Scotch Tune (241), Lilliburlero (242); Richard Leveridge: One Sunday After Mass (242).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Maria Fokina

Index Classifications: 1700s

Spanish composers for the Baroque guitar took borrowed material as a point of departure for unique and personal creative expression. In the simplest cases, phrases were added or omitted from existing works, or changes were made in ornamentation. Another technique was the use of a musical "module" that could be altered, expanded into two separate phrases, or serve as a sort of musical parenthesis. This type of recomposition is frequently found in passacaglias, variations, batallas, and obras de clarines. In other cases, a borrowed phrase may serve as a point of departure for an entirely new composition. At other times, motifs may be borrowed to serve as unifying elements in a new composition, especially a suite.

Works: Libro de diferentes cifras de guitarra escojidas de los mejores autores (1-10, 14-15); Santiago de Murcia: Passacalles y obras de guitarra por todos los tonos naturals y acidentales (12-17), Obra por la O (18-22); Ruiz de Ribayaz: Luz y norte musical para caminar por las cifras de la guitarra española y arpa (16-17).

Sources: Gaspar Sanz: Instrucción de música sobre la guitarra española (2-10, 14-15); Antonio Martín y Coll: Flores de música (11-13); Antoine Carré: Prelude (14-15); Henry Grenerin: Gigue Aymable (14-15); Arcangelo Corelli: Sonatas from Opus 5 (15-16); François Campion: Nouvelles découvertes sur la guitarre (17); François Le Cocq: Recueil des pièces de guitarre (18-22).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Since Girdlestone's article on Rameau's self-borrowings omitted most of them and contains many errors, a re-examination is necessary. Sadler discovers patterns in Rameau's borrowing habits according to the genre of the pieces quoted from. These include (1) harpsichord collections, (2) instrumental pieces from operas, and (3) vocal borrowings. The article, however, excludes borrowings "consisting of a single phrase or motive in mid-piece" and "items moved bodily from one self-contained entrée of an opera to another when a work was revived." Rameau's harpsichord pieces were well known and quotations from them were the only ones that the public seems to have identified. Rameau did not disguise them but rather placed them in prominent positions of his first group of operas. His usual practice was to change the formal structure of the original considerably, borrowing only the first one or two phrases or the refrain of a rondeau. With these quotations Rameau hoped to transfer some of the popular appeal to his early operas. Once the Lulliste-Ramiste controversy had resolved in his favor, these borrowings were handled much more freely. Rameaus's approach to borrowing from instrumental operatic pieces differs considerably from the one discussed above. From 1745-60 he quoted his lesser-known operas with little change, whereas during the last four years of his life, he extensively reworked parts from his most famous operas, such as Castor and Pollux,Zoroastre,Platée, and Zaïs. The reluctance of the French to re-use vocal numbers and to re-set existing libretti explains why Rameau usually altered the text of his vocal borrowings, a fact which makes it difficult to trace possible borrowings from operas of which the music is lost. Vocal borrowings make up the smallest category and it is thus difficult to draw any conclusions about their purpose. Rameau quotes from some of his most famous arias but here again may borrow only the opening measures, stimulating his imagination to continue freely.

Works: Rameau: La Princesse de Navarre (260, 270, 273), Les fêtes d'Hébé (262), Zoroastre (262, 264-65, 266, 272), Les Indes galantes (264), Pièces de clavecin en concerts (265), Dardanus (266), Les surprises de l'amour (268), Les fêtes de Polymnie (273), Io (273).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Public disapproval with certain elements of Rameau's Les Indes galantes led the composer in 1735 to issue some of the opera's instrumental music in the form of harpsichord pieces, titled Quatre grands concerts. The collection, largely neglected by scholars, provides insight into Rameau's methods of reworking while filling a chronological gap in the composer's keyboard output. The reworkings are clearly intended for performance on keyboard despite the possibility of performance on multiple instruments. Rameau's modifications to the original pieces are extensive: they involve a general thinning of texture, recomposition of inner lines, significant alterations to accompaniments, mimicry of orchestral textures through chordal writing, and liberal addition of ornamentation idiomatic to the keyboard. In addition, cuts are made in the originals in several locations for the benefit of the new texture.

Works: Rameau: Quatre grands concerts.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

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Mozart's arrangement of Handel's Messiah in 1789 is not a "joyless labor in which Mozart invested a minimum of artistic efforts" as many scholars perceive it. After being commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten, Mozart worked on the arrangement based on the first edition of Handel's score published by Randall and Abell. Mozart's changes fall into four categories: cuts and substitutions; changes of orchestration; addition and alteration of performance indications; and others. Most extensive and significant are the alterations made in orchestration. Mozart minimizes the juxtaposition of soloist and orchestra of the concerto-like dialogue in Handel; alters Handel's inflections by emphasizing important cadences in order to clarify the structure; and adds dynamic markings, bowings, articulations, trills, and tempo changes. All these alterations indicate an underlying logic of Mozart's artistic intention: to transform the outdated style of Baroque music and its performance practice into the musical language of his time in order to suit the taste of the late-eighteenth-century audience.

Works: Mozart: Arrangement of Handel's Messiah K. 572 (132-36, 140-46).

Sources: Handel: Messiah (137-39).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

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Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

The melodic source material which Haydn uses provides insight into the creative process. Special attention is paid to the sources which Haydn draws upon (either consciously or unconsciously) in the slow introductions and allegro themes of the symphonies written during or after 1785. The use of these sources arises "naturally from [the composer's] storehouse of material in order to create certain effects or types of character." Slow introductions often show the influence of folk songs and hymns. Allegro themes have an affinity with dance music. Haydn draws upon his national heritage to create works of a strong individual cast. Statements by Mahler and Ravel indicate that Haydn is by no means unique in the manifestation of an aesthetic in which national heritage and individual consciousness meet.

Works: Haydn: Symphony No. 26 (499), Symphony No. 64 (500), Symphony No. 103 (508).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

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The subject of parody procedure in Bach's music has been approached with uneasiness and skepticism by writers for at least the past 100 years. Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century writers, including Rust, Spitta, and Schweitzer, have exhibited a tendency to minimize the extent of Bach's borrowing procedure and to simultaneously reify his status as "Germany's greatest church composer." On the other hand, later twentieth-century scholars, such as Schering, Smend, Neumann, and Finscher, have approached Bach's parody technique more directly, defining its parameters more clearly while attempting explanations which at times assume an apologetic tone. Descriptions of parody procedure in Bach's era, in contrast, tend to be uncritical of it as a method but insist on a skillful application of new text to the existing music. A consideration of parody procedure in Bach's Christmas Oratorio (BWV 248) demonstrates that the joining of the new texts with the older music was carried out with great care. The implications suggested by this work and others for our understanding of Bach's parody procedure are manifold: a number of explanations--including those of economic necessity, "neutrality" of the music with respect to the original text as a prerequisite for parody, and the desire to further elaborate existing material--may be accepted without contradiction as long as an apologetic attitude is not adopted. In the final analysis Bach's borrowing procedure should be seen as a vital method by which a given piece of music is qualitatively elaborated upon.

Works: Bach: Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (9), Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (14-17).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Amid the general discussion of the various forms that indebtedness can take (Handel is most specifically discussed), the article questions composers' frequent use of "familiar phrases": Was Wagner aware that the opening notes or intervals from the prelude to Tristan had already been used by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann, and Liszt? The main interest focuses on various and sundry quotations, merely citing examples by well-known composers, while no real connection between the quotations is apparent.

Works: Beethoven: Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2 (504-06), Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique) (503); Wagner: "Anvil" motive from the Ring (504-05); Brahms: Symphony in C Minor (505), Piano Quartet in G Minor (505); Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique) (506); Liszt: Dante Symphony (507); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (502, 507); Mozart: Don Giovanni (508); Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (508); Brahms: Unüberwindlich (509); Elgar: "The Music Makers," from Enigma Variations (509); Mackenzie: London Day by Day Suite (509), Dream of Jubal (509); Puccini: Madame Butterfly (509); Richard Strauss: Elektra (498); Bach: Wachet, betet (504), Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss (504), Uns ist ein Kind geboren (504), St. John Passion (504), St. Matthew Passion (504).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz

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Within an overall discussion of Handel's 1720 publication Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1, similarities in style and notation are noted with Muffat's Componimenti musicali.

Works: Handel: Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, Vol. 1.

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (140).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Charles Burney, in his 1789 History of Music, appears to have been the first person to make note of Handel's borrowings. This, in turn, inspired William Crotch, in Substance of Several Courses of Lectures on Music (1831), to identify some twenty-nine composers from whom Handel borrowed. After reviewing the literature to date on the subject, examples are cited for all but six of the composers listed by Crotch. In several cases, the borrowings were not from specific composers but rather from a common repertory of familiar figures used by many composers. For the most part, Crotch feels that Handel's borrowings constitute "improvements" over the originals.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Agrippina, "L'alma mia frà le tempeste ritrover spera il suo porto" (596), Solomon, "Music spread thy voice around" (597), Solomon, "From the censer" (598), Chaconne in G (597), Susanna, "Virtue shall never long be oppressed" (598), Triumph of Time and Truth, "Comfort them, O Lord" (598), Suite in F (598).

Sources: Antonio Cesti: "Cara dolce libertà" (596); Agostino Steffani: Qui diligit Mariam (597); Henry Purcell: "Saul and the Witch of Endor" (597); Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg Variations (597); Johann Kuhnau: Frische Clavier Früchte, Sonata I (598), Neue Clavier-‹bung (598); Antonio Lotti: Mass (Latrobe, No. 16), "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Antonio Caldara: Mass a 5, "Qui tollis peccata mundi" (598); Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer: Fugue (598); William Croft: Musicus Apparatus Academicus, "Laurus cruentas" (598).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

It is well known that Handel in his Grand Concertos Op. 6 borrowed musical material from the Componimenti musicali of Gottlieb Muffat. In eight examples Handel may also have incorporated music from the Essercizi per cembalo of Domenico Scarlatti. There is no firm evidence that Handel actually saw these particular works of Scarlatti, since he and the Italian composer had no direct contact after Handel left Italy. However, the Scarlatti pieces were published in London between April 1738 and January 1739, and it seems likely that Handel would have maintained an interest in the newest works by his former colleague. Handel wrote his Concertos during September-October 1739. The similarities in themes, key, meter, phrase structure, and register together prove that Handel did see the Essercizi before the composition of several portions of his Grand Concertos.

Works: Handel: Grand Concertos Op. 6: Nos. 1, 5 (93), No. 3 (93-94).

Sources: D. Scarlatti: Essercizi per cembalo: Sonatas nos. 2, 26 (93), Sonata no. 30 (93-94), Sonata no. 15 (94); Muffat: Componimenti musicali (93-94).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Paula Ring Zerkle, Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s

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Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Composers of ballet scores for the Paris Opéra from the early nineteenth century evince dramatically and aesthetically sensitive approaches to borrowing, even during the 1830s and 1840s as critical opinion turned against the use of borrowed material. Composers sometimes borrowed because they held particular works in high esteem. Moreover, composers often used borrowed material because it served the dramatic needs of ballet scenes, which were often confusing and benefited from the use of well-known music to aid the audience in interpreting the action. For example, borrowing from an air parlant (a familiar song) could bring to mind the song's text, which would in turn clarify the action at hand even without the words being sung. When critical opinion turned against borrowed material, some ballet composers satisfied audiences' need for familiarity through the use of recurring themes, as seen in Adolphe Adam's Giselle, Ferdinand Hérold's La Somnambule, and Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer's La Sylphide. Includes an extensive table of ballet-pantomime scores using borrowed material.

Works: Ferdinand Hérold: La Fille mal gardée (4), La Somnambule (9); Alexandre Montfort: La Chatte metamorphosée en femme (5); Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer: La Sylphide (5-6, 10), La Tempête (11); Frédéric Venua: Flore et Zéphire (9); Rodolphe Kreutzer: Clari (9); Adolphe Adam: Le Diable à quatre (12).

Sources: Rossini: La Cenerentola (4, 18), Il Barbiere di Siviglia (4-5), Moïse (5); J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (6); Paganini: Variations on "Le Streghe" (6); Anonymous, Réveillez-vous, belle endormie (9), Dormez chères amours (9-10), Mon mari n'est pas là (12); Salieri: Les Danaïdes (9); Gluck: Iphigénie en Aulide (9), Orphée et Euridice (10-11); Grétry: Richard Coeur de Lion (11-12); Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro (12).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Virginia Whealton

[Suggests Haydn borrowed from Stamitz, Beck, Boccherini, and others. Challenged by Jan LaRue, "Significant and Coincidental Resemblance Between Classical Themes," Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (Summer 1961): 224-34.]

Index Classifications: 1700s

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Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

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The inclusion of chorales in nineteenth-century oratorios provided a religious aura to these works even when performed in a concert setting. Furthermore, the chorale was seen as the epitome of Protestant music, and by extension German culture, thus taking on a nationalistic character as well. Composers drew from various chorale collections published in the eighteenth century for their source material. Because these collections included new chorales as well as old ones, the source materials represented a variety of musical styles. Mendelssohn's St. Paul consciously drew on Bach's St. Matthew Passion as a pattern for the use of chorales, but Mendelssohn uses fewer of them, and they differ in style and function from Bach. Mendelssohn also realized that his oratorios were concert music, not liturgical music. By contrast, Friedrich Schneider intended his Gethsemane und Golgotha to be a true liturgical work, including congregational participation in the chorales. Even works without chorales, such as Spohr's Des Heilands letzte Stunden, often included movements designed textually and musically to evoke the chorale.

Works: Carl Loewe: Das Sühnopfer des neuen Bundes (124, 134-35, 139-40); Heinrich Elkamp: Paulus (124-25); Carl Heinrich Graun: Der Tod Jesu (126-27); Felix Mendelssohn: St. Paul (127-31); Friedrich Schneider: Gethsemane und Golgotha (132-33); Carl Loewe: Die sieben Schläfer (137), Die Zerstörung von Jerusalem (137-38), Johann Huss (140-41).

Sources: Chorales: Schmucke dich O liebe Seele (124), Herzliebster Jesu (127, 132), Dir Herr will ich mich ergeben (128-29), Allein Gott in der Höh sei Her (128), Wachet auf (128-31, 132-22), O Jesu Christe, wahres Licht (128-29), Wir glauben all an einem Gott (128), O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden (132, 136), O Lamm Gottes (132), Aus tiefer Noth (132), Herr Jesu Christ mein Lebens Licht (132), Wie lieblich ist O Herr die Stätte (132), Erscheinen ist der herrlich Tag (137), Jesus meine Zuversicht (138), Grosser ist, o grosser Gott (139) Was mein Gott will, das gesheh allzeit (140-41); Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Geistliche Oden und Leider mit Melodien (124-25).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Discusses the methodological change in making "music about music" which was introduced by Stravinsky around 1920. The concept of creating an updated and/or "improved" setting for familiar thematic material is exemplified here by Baroque practice and related to the late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century vogue involving both salon pieces and serious variation sets and fantasies. The musical goal of all such works, that is, the exhibition of artistry through inventive development of recognizable material, finds its inversion in the trend, eventually termed Neo-Classicism, of the twentieth-century. Therein new thematic materials, and even new musical languages, could be introduced by placing them within recognizable, traditional structural frameworks.

Works: Bach: Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 579, Organ Pieces on Themes by Corelli, BWV 579, Organ Pieces on Themes by Legrenzi, BWV 574; Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Handel, Variations on a Theme by Haydn; Fortner: Elegies for Piano; Hindemith: Ludus Tonalis, Neues vom Tage; Reger: Prelude and Fugue in G Major for Violin Solo, Op. 117, No. 5, String Trio in A Minor, Op. 77b; Stravinsky: Piano Sonata (1924), Pulcinella.

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Amy Weller

Mozart heard Bach's motet Singet dem Herren ein neues Lied in 1789. The chorale "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" is prominent in this motet. The history of this chorale melody is discussed. Bach himself used the melody in some ten works (listed on pp. 216-17). Mozart may have known several of these works besides the motet which he certainly heard and another he may have heard; four of the works were published during his lifetime. The melody of lines 6-7 of "Nun lob mein Seel den Herren" as set in Singet dem Herren largely corresponds to the beginning of Papageno's Lied "Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen" in Die Zauberflöte. (The melody has also been discovered in Haydn's Mondo della Luna.) The strong impression made upon Mozart by Bach's music (evident in Mozart's increased interest in counterpoint in several works) is here made manifest in the form of a quotation.

Works: Bach: Cantata No. 17, Cantata No. 28,Cantata No. 29, Cantata No. 51, Cantata No. 167, Motets Singet dem Herrn and Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren, Chorales Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 389) and Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV 390), Organ Prelude Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (BWV, Anhang, No. 60); Mozart: Die Zauberflöte.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: David C. Birchler

Establishing whether a musical quotation is deliberate or whether it is an unconscious reminiscence is not simple. Quotation may take various forms, including variations, where it is well-disguised. It may be used for many different purposes--to convey emulation, to enhance the plot of a drama, to add textual significance, for symbolic significance, and for popular appeal. Self-quotation may take the form of organic motivic quotation.

Works: Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 (430), Diabelli Variations (431); Peter Cornelius: Beethoven-Lied for mixed choir, Op. 10 (431); Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice (431); Mozart: Bastien et Bastienne (431); Don Giovanni (431), Die Zauberflöte (431).

Index Classifications: General, 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Cathleen Cameron

Denis Forman's claim that J. C. Bach transferred certain stylistic devices of opera to his piano concertos is an uncritical assumption. In his study of Mozart piano concertos, Forman argues that the virtuosic solo passage which occurs at the end of the first solo section--the "piano climax"--is essentially a musical device particular to da capo aria, conceived and developed in opera first and transferred to concerto later. He believes that this transfer was first made by J. C. Bach, in two of his concertos published in 1763, which subsequently influenced young Mozart. A study of the keyboard concertos of C. P. E. Bach shows that he used a similar kind of cadential passage as early as the 1720s, under the influence of J. S. Bach and contemporary Italian opera composers. Transferring musical devices from one genre to another is an oversimplified theory. Knowing that J. C. Bach studied with C. P. E. Bach, it is equally unlikely that J. C. Bach discovered the "piano climax" in the aria and simply transferred it to an instrumental genre.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 25 in C Major, K. 503 (245-52), "Se il tuo duol" from Idomeneo (253-54); J. C. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 1, No. 1 (255-56), Keyboard Concerto in F Minor, Op. 1, No. 2 (257-58, 260-61), "Trafiggero quell core" from Allesandro nell'Indie (259); Vivaldi: Concerto in G Minor, Op. 4, No. 6 (263-65); C. P. E. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in E-flat Major, H. 404 /Wq. 2 (264-67), Keyboard Concerto in B-flat Major, H. 413/Wq. 10 (267-68); Hasse: "Corre al cimento ardita" from Armino (267-69); C. P. E. Bach: Keyboard Concerto in A Major, H. 411/Wq. 8 (270-71), Keyboard Concerto in C Minor, H. 441/Wq. 31 (273-75).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tong Cheng Blackburn

Bach's organ trios are divided into three categories: free works, chorale settings, and transcriptions. It is likely that three organ transcriptions, the Trio in G Major, BWV 1027a, and two trios not listed in the Schmieder catalogue, are not by Bach, although they are crucial to the understanding of a possible lost Bach chamber work. Stinson shows how these transcriptions rework the Bach originals and suggests names of Bach's contemporaries who could have been responsible for these transcriptions.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alfredo Colman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Questions regarding the authenticity of J. S. Bach's Sonata in E-flat Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1031, resurfaced when several similarities were noticed between it and Quantz's Sonata in E-flat Major, QV2:18. Both works share stylistic, thematic, and structural elements, notably in the first and third movements. For example, the first movements are in common time and feature a ritornello structure that uses an identical musical motive. The second movements are sicilianos in minor keys, and the third movements are quick, bipartite compositions in 3/8. The use of parallel thirds, two-measure units, and a concluding tonic pedal further connect the final movements. Because BWV 1031 has never been firmly attributed to Bach, the similarities between it and QV2:18 may indicate that Quantz composed both pieces. The contrapuntal writing is not typical of Bach and the range of the flute is quite limited, unlike Bach's other works for flute. Yet the first and third movements of BWV 1031 are thematically complex and extended in length, which, though not incongruent with Quantz's compositional procedures, is more characteristic of Bach. The opening ritornello of BWV 1031 also shares several characteristics with the opening ritornello of a work firmly attributed to Bach: the Sonata in A Major for flute and cembalo, BWV 1032. Thus while it is possible to see that QV2:18 served as a model for BWV 1031, it remains impossible to determine whether Bach or Quantz is the work's composer.

Works: J. S. Bach: Sonata in E-flat Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1031 (31-47), Sonata in A Major for Flute and Cembalo, BWV 1032 (44-47), Sonata in G Minor for Violin and Cembalo, BWV 1020 (45-47).

Sources: Quantz: Sonata in E-flat Major, QV2:18 (31-47), Sonata in G Minor, QV2:35 (45-47).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Bach's choice of the opening chorus from Cantata 12 as the basis for the Crucifixus of the B-minor Mass is based on Aristotelian rhetorical principles. In both instances, there are identical topoi, predicament, and species. The same musical-rhetorical gestures of Cantata 12 are thus appropriate to the Crucifixus as well. Thus Bach's choice of model for parody goes well beyond strictly musical or textual considerations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Mass in B minor, BWV 232: Crucifixus.

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12/1.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1700s

Poland experienced an awakening of interest in art and music in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In addition to the imported traditions of western Europe which accompanied an influx of Italian musicians to Poland, a body of music existed which, although not actual folk music, was the music of everyday life in Poland, the music which accompanied the rituals of church and social events. This music, which included the traditional dance forms of the mazurka and polonaise, provided the basic material for new works such as parody Masses. Other composers quoted popular melodies in various genres such as instrumental canzone and pastorals.

Works: Jan Fabrycy: Parody Mass on the motet In te Domine speravi by Waclaw of Szamotul (106); Gerwazy Gorczycki: Missa Paschalis (106); Marcin Leopolita: Missa Paschalis (106); Marcin Mielczewski: Missa super o glorioso (107); Bartlomiej Pekiel: Missa Paschalis (106).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Nancy Kinsey Totten

Index Classifications: 1700s

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Arrangements of large-scale vocal works for instrumental chamber ensembles in early nineteenth-century Vienna inspired their performers’ inner senses through physical engagement with a piece of music, superseding the moral meaning of the text. The many versions of Haydn’s The Creation, including several variations linked to Haydn himself, demonstrate the fluidity of the oratorio. Anton Wranitzky’s arrangement for string quintet (published in 1800) sets The Creation in its entirety, including recitatives. Each performer “recites” the text of the oratorio instrumentally; the recitative text is printed in the parts to assist in phrasing and tone (the arias are printed without text). The quintet arrangement also foregrounds the engagement of mind and body in realizing the intricacies of chamber performance. This understanding of the function of musical arrangements is contextualized by the philosophy of Gottfried van Swieten, librettist for The Creation and President of the Court Commission on Education. Van Swieten advocated for a system of empirical learning with important texts (music included) taught partly via “pleasurable repetition.” To this end, the adaptability of art was essential, and van Swieten regularly held salons that included Bach arrangements, theater pantomime games, and tableaux vivants. Considered in this context, chamber arrangements of large-scale musical works become an essential tool in the establishment of an enlightened society.

Works: Anton Wranitzky: Die Schöpfung: Ein musikalisches Oratorium von Herrn Joseph Haydn übersetzt in Quintetten (350-60)

Sources: Joseph Haydn: The Creation (350-60)

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Matthew Van Vleet

Index Classifications: 1700s

There are melodic similarities between Bach's Freut euch und jubiliert and the setting of the same text in an earlier motet by Calvisius. In conjunction with other evidence, this suggests that Kuhnau was not the only source for Bach's interpolations.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Reginald Sanders

Index Classifications: 1700s

Instances of borrowing in two works by Mozart raise the question whether he failed to acknowledge the sources from which he borrowed. The melody in the second minuet in Mozart's Divertimento in D Major, K. 251 is similar to the Provençal melody of a minuet for piano by Angela Diller and Elizabeth Quaile (published in 1919 by G. Schirmer, New York: Second Solo Book for the Piano). Did Mozart borrow from a Provençal source also tapped by Diller and Quaile? Tracing the source and establishing its date of origin can resolve that question. Another case: the ending of the quintet in the first act of Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (No. 5) is reminiscent of a song by Johann Baptist Henneberg. The latter was published in a book of songs called Frühlingslieder (1791) that also contains three songs by Mozart. Did Mozart borrow that melody from Henneberg (say, to please Schikaneder's Kapellmeister) or did both composers use a popular Viennese tune?

Works: Mozart: Divertimento in D Major, K. 251 (126-27), Die Zauberflöte (127).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Tamara Balter

[See Vol. III, pp. 34-43.]

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Among the ways music is made is by the re-use of similar ideas. Three fugue subjects by J. S. Bach, Handel, and Mozart, are each built on the same phrase.

Works: Bach: Fugue No. 20 from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II (218); Handel: "And with His Stripes" from Messiah (217); Mozart: "Kyrie" from the Requiem (218).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Rob Lamborn

Nineteen of the works now contained in the Turin manuscripts are works not by Vivaldi. The composers for most of these works are not known. Vivaldi plagiarized five of these compositions directly in order to copy an older style. Vivaldi seems to have obtained these manuscripts in an intentional attempt to learn the stile antico for choral works. The variety of works borrowed suggests he needed to learn the strict stile antico, the stile misto, and the brilliant concerto style. Borrowings from madrigals by Antonio Lotti also helped Vivaldi to gain fluency with traditional vocal styles. The lack of these sources and borrowings in other genres such as the instrumental concerto suggest that he was already comfortable with these styles.

Works: Vivaldi: Gloria, RV 588 (93), Gloria, RV 589 (93), Credidi, RV 605 (93), Dixit Dominus, RV 595 (94, 98, 103-107), Kyrie, RV 587 (99), Concerto madrigalesco, RV 129 (99), La Senna festeggiante (99-100).

Sources: Giovanni Maria Ruggieri: Gloria in due chori (93, 95-96); Anonymous: Lauda Jerusalem, RV Anh. 35 (93, 96), Dixit Dominus, RV Anh. 27 (94); Antonio Lotti: Inganni dell'umanità (98-99, 103-107), Moralità d'una perla (99-102).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

The passion oratorio La morte di Cristo is one of the most unusual works attributed to Johann Adolf Hasse. Previously, Reinhard Strohm had revealed that the oratorio is actually a pasticcio, with most of the arias borrowed from operas written around 1730 by Hasse, Leo, Porta, and others. Recently, a newly discovered libretto entitled La Vittima d’amore ossia la morte di Cristo confirms the work was originally created in Brno in 1741 and later performed in Prague in 1744. The Brno Kapellmeister Josef Umstatt likely compiled the work and adapted the arias, and he was probably responsible for composing the oratorio’s sinfonia, recitatives, and final chorus. The sources for three of the arias in La morte di Cristo still remain unidentified, either because the sources have been lost, or because Umstatt himself composed one or more of them specifically for the new oratorio.

Works: Josef Umstatt (attributed to Johann Adolf Hasse): La Vittima d’amore ossia la morte di Cristo.

Sources: Johann Adolf Hasse: Siroe (263, 266), Issipile (266-67); Giovanni Battista Pescetti: I tre difensori della patria (263-64, 266); Antonio Caldara: Morte e sepoltura di Cristo (265-66); Leonardo Leo: Argeno (266), Demetrio (266); Giovanni Porta: Farnace (266); Francesco Feo: Ipermestra (266).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1700s

From its inception in 1737 through the 1750s, Orazio appeared in several guises. A study of fifteen librettos and two scores shows that a number of arias and other vocal numbers from the earliest version of Orazio were often omitted from later productions. Revivals throughout the 1740s and 1750s often substituted music from other works, consistently retaining only six of the original (1737) vocal numbers. Due to its constant modification, Orazio could be viewed as a single, often misattributed work in several versions or settings of a single text by multiple composers. Pietro Auletta seems to have written the earliest version, which included thirty-four vocal numbers. A version attributed to Gaetano Latilla appears to have been conflated with Pergolesi's Il maestro di musica around 1743, creating a Venetian version that included ten of the original thirty-four vocal numbers. By the late 1740s, Orazio was again attributed to Auletta, but with a severe reduction of his original vocal numbers.

Works: Gaetano Latilla: Orazio (370-72, 374); Pergolesi: Il maestro di musica (370, 374); Latilla and Pergolesi: Orazio (370, 375-77).

Sources: Pietro Auletta: Orazio (370-83); Pergolesi: Il maestro di musica (370, 374).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Beethoven paid tribute to Mozart through imitation and borrowing, yet demonstrated his own genius in accepting the influence while assessing his own personality. The article focuses primarily on chamber works, and treats probable influences, direct influences, and "deliberate imitations or unconscious reminiscences" of Mozart's muse.

Works: Beethoven: Leonore Overture No. 3 (249), String Trio, Op. 3 (250), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1 (251, 253), String Quintet, Op. 29 (251, 255), Duo for Clarinet and Bassoon (1792) (253), Duet for Augengläser (253-54), String Trio, Op. 9 (253), Serenade for Flute, Violin, and Viola, Op. 25 (253), Quintet for Piano, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon, and French Horn, Op. 16 (253), Oboe Trio (254-55), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 4 (254-55), String Trio in C Minor (256), String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 6 (256), String Quartet, Op. 56, No. 1 (256-57), String Quartet, Op. 131 (256-57); Mozart: Quartet in E-flat Major, String Quintet, K. 515 (254).

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Contributed by: Marc Moskovitz, J. Peter Burkholder

Index Classifications: 1700s

In the late 1780s, four collections of vocal arrangements that borrowed from a number of Haydn's instrumental works were published in London. Each collection contained twelve songs, and nearly every movement had been previously published as a keyboard setting. Preston's Second Sett of Twelve Ballads (1786) borrows from several of Haydn's most recent compositions, but his Third Sett of Twelve Ballads (1786-87) uses a more diverse sampling of works. Longman and Broderip's Twelve English Ballads (1787) primarily draws upon keyboard sonatas and chamber works of the late 1770s and early 1780s. Thompson's Twelve Elegant and Familiar Canzonetts (1788) uses material from string quartets and overtures, but may also be influenced by Blundell's A Select Collection of Six Favorite Pieces . . . adapted for Harpsichord or Piano Forte (1778-80), which draws from Haydn's String Quartets Opp. 1, 2, 9, and 17. Because amateur vocal music needed to be metrically regular and symmetrical, as well as within a suitable range, these vocal arrangements often alter Haydn's original instrumental parts. In the four collections, nearly half of the arrangements are transposed and many melodies are stripped to their most diatonic, homophonic, and metrically regular elements. Several tempos are also manipulated in order to accommodate the more modest abilities of the average consumer. Integrity and fidelity to the source are clearly secondary to the promise of accessibility and marketability. Although the sources for vocal arrangements are quite diverse, there is one source, the Andante of Haydn's Symphony in D Major, No. 53, that already seemed particularly suited to the voice in its original form. In fact, due to its limited range, diatonic line, and regular phrasing, the melody of the Andante may be more remembered as a vocal arrangement than a symphonic movement.

Works: Samuel Arnold (arranger): Twelve English Ballads, No. 1, "Life, an Ode" (377), No. 3, "Hymn to Solitude" (377), No. 6 "Prayer for Indifference," (379-80), No. 4, "Colin and Lucy," (379, 381), No. 2, "Love Elegies VIII" (382, 384-85), No. 10, "Morning, A Pastoral" (389); John Preston (publisher): A Third Sett of Twelve Ballads, No. 10, "An Ode" (377-78), No. 11, "From the Sorrows of Werter" (385, 387); Thompson (publisher), Twelve Elegant and Familiar Canzonetts, No. 7, "The Nightingale" (385-86, 389), No. 12, "To Sleep" (388, 390).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (377), Keyboard Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: 39 (377), Keyboard Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI: 37 (378), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (379), Violin and Viola Duo in B-flat Major, Hob. VI: 3 (379), String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 33, No. 2 (382, 386), Symphony No. 69 in C Major (385, 388), Symphony No. 47 in G Major (385-86, 389), Overture to L'isola disabitata (387, 390), Symphony No. 53 in D Major (389-95).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Laura B. Dallman

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s

In the early eighteenth century, the concepts of "intellectual property" and "proprietary authorship" were just emerging and entering English, German, and French law. English jurist William Blackstone, in the second volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-69), argues forcefully for the author's product as intellectual property. Jonathan Swift's Battel of the Books (1704) sets out the argument that borrowing material was acceptable so long as the borrower transformed it substantially. This view is also held by Johann Mattheson in Der volkommene Cappellmeister (1739). Handel's Acis and Galatea shows how transformative borrowing was employed. The librettist, probably John Gay, used numerous sources to create the text of the masque; these included Pope, Hughes, Dryden, and others. Handel's musical borrowings sometimes changed the nature of the original material altogether. Most often, however, Handel borrowed certain motives, transforming and absorbing them into the musical texture.

Works: George Frideric Handel: Acis and Galatea, "O ruddier than the cherry" (454-61), "Must I my Acis still bemoan" (458, 463-68), Teseo,"Quanto che è me sian care" (461-66).

Sources: Reinhard Keiser: Janus, "Wann ich dich noch einst erblicke" (456-58), La forza della virtù, "Mit einem schönen Ende" (461-68).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Mozart became director of Baron van Swieten's oratorio concerts in 1787. One of the pieces he was asked to arrange was Handel's Messiah. For this he was provided with a skeleton version of Handel's score that was condensed and translated into German by van Swieten with lines left blank for Mozart to add extra parts. Van Swieten expected Mozart to arrange the work to fit musical taste of the time, which involved extensive changes in orchestration including the addition of several extra wind parts with mostly new material. Mozart also added material so that the instrumental parts would more directly reflect the text. The declamatory style and basso continuo parts were also changed in some sections. Baron van Swieten specifically suggested some of these additions. During this arrangement process, van Swieten and Mozart represented conflicting aims, van Swieten wanting to make dramatic alterations and Mozart wanting to stick closely to Handel's original. Mozart executed all of these ideas, however. This arrangement served as the basis of the German performance tradition of the work throughout the nineteenth century and led to further reworkings of baroque compositions by German Romantic composers.

Works: Mozart/Baron Gottfried van Swieten/Handel: Messiah (1-14); Mozart: Requiem (2).

Sources: Handel: Messiah (1-14).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Since the time of Forkel, the study of the music of Vivaldi has generally been carried out with respect to Bach, and has resulted in an overemphasis on the former composer's concertos. While Forkel to some extent oversimplified the significance of Vivaldi to Bach's music, it is nevertheless the case that the study and transcription of Vivaldi's concertos played an important role not only in the formation of Bach's musical style, but also in the development of his "musical thinking." Bach recognized that Vivaldi had developed a system for the composition of instrumental music that was based on a threefold process of order/organization (Ordnung), connection/continuity (Zusammenhang), and relation/proportion (Verhältnis). This process transcends superficial considerations of genre and directly addresses the elaboration of musical material from germinal ideas. Bach's transcriptions of Vivaldi's concertos represent an opportunity to observe this process of "musical thinking" as it unfolds in the elaboration of musical motives. The compositional process consists, then, in the exploration of the potentialities of core ideas: their organization and reorganization, their contribution to the unity of the movement, and their relationship and proportion with respect to other ideas. Such a system of "musical thinking" was instrumental not only in the formation of Bach's style, but also in the gradual dominance of instrumental music in the eighteenth century.

Works: Bach: Concerto for Harpsichord in F Major, BWV 978 (75-83).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Alexander J. Fisher

Index Classifications: 1700s

The fugue subject in the second movement of Handel's Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, No. 2, is taken from a Ricercar by Gottlieb Muffat. Handel extends Muffat's subject by continuing the sequential progression one step further. He also uses Muffat's voice order and countersubject pattern. The Muffat ricercar used by Handel is found in only one source, a manuscript collection of keyboard music copied by Padre Alexander Giessel; like Muffat, Giessel was a pupil of Fux at the Minoritenkonvent in Vienna.

Works: Handel: Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7, no. 2.

Sources: Muffat: Ricercar.

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Felix Cox

One main reason for the Dies Irae sequence's acquired fame as a leitmotif of death is its "catchy" and easily recognizable melody. Brief discussions of works using the chant note the setting and models. The polyphonic treatment illustrated by Asola and Pitoni's Requiems is traced in Liszt's Totentanz. The dance-like rhythmic treatment in Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique is applied by Saint-Saëns in his Danse Macabre. Tchaikovsky, the first Russian composer to use the Dies Irae, uses a contrapuntal device, applied before in Totentanz and later in Rachmaninoff's Toteninsel. Other works mentioned are Glazunov's Moyen Age, Miaskovsky's Sixth Symphony, Schelling's Impressions from an Artist's Life, Loeffler's Ode for One Who Fell in Battle, and Simond's unpublished Elaboration for organ.

Works: Asola: Requiem (6); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (6); Glazunov: Moyen Age, Op. 79 (6); Liszt: Totentanz (6); Loeffler: Ode for One Who Fell in Battle (39); Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6 (6); Pitoni: Requiem (6); Rachmaninoff: Toteninsel (6); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (6); Schelling: Impressions from an Artist's Life (39); Simonds: Elaboration of Dies Irae for Organ (unpublished) (39); Tchaikovsky Modern Greek Song, Op. 16, No. 6 (In Dark Hell).

Index Classifications: 1500s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

An appendix of 21 works based on B-A-C-H.

Works: Albrechtsberger: Fugue for Organ; J. C. Bach: Fugue für das Pianoforte oder die Orgel komponiert von Christian Bach uber die Buchstaben seines Namens; J. S. Bach: Contrapunctus XI and XIX from Die Kunst der Fuge; Fantasy and Fugue (formerly attributed to J. S. Bach [??]); Berblan: Chaconne on Bach, Op. 10; Beethoven: Sketches for an Overture on BACH; Bellermann: Prelude and Fugue on BACH for Organ, Op. 8; Bräutigam: Johann Sebastian Bach; Casella: Two Ricercari on the Name BACH, Op. 46; Eisler: Prelude and Fugue on BACH (study on a twelve-tone row), Op. 46; D'Indy: "Beuron," No. 11 from Tableaux de voyage, Op. 33; Karg-Elert: "Basso Ostinato" from Madrigale, 10 schlichte Weisen, Passacaglia and Fugue on BACH, Op. 150; Krebs: Fugue on BACH for Organ; Liszt: Phantasy and Fugue on BACH for Organ; Pepping: Three Fugues on BACH for Piano; Reger: Phantasy and Fugue for Organ on BACH, Op. 46; Rimsky-Korsakov: Fugue, Op. 17, No. 6; Schumann: Six Fugues on the Name BACH for Organ or Piano with Pedal; Sorge: Three Fugues; Wellesz: Partita in honorem J.S. Bach 1965.

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Contributed by: Jean Pang

Index Classifications: 1700s

Antonio Caldara’s three surviving Christmas cantatas from his years working in Rome (1709-1716) exemplify several aspects of early eighteenth-century Italian music, as well as the patronage system and political issues of the time. Caldara composed two of the cantatas—Vaticini di pace and Amarilli vezzosa—for his patron, Prince Francesco Maria Ruspoli, while Vo’ piangendo e sospirando was written for Pope Clement XI’s Christmas celebrations at the papal court. Although all of these works draw on Italian Christmas traditions such as the pastorale, their allegorical texts, characters, and dramatic action draw a direct connection between the Pope and the newborn Jesus, who will bring peace to the world. Not only did this depiction of Clement XI communicate Ruspoli’s support of the papacy, but it was also overtly political and, like many other artistic works of the time, promoted the Pope as a peacemaker in the final years of the War of Spanish Succession. Additionally, the three cantatas are connected in other ways: the plots and characters of Vaticini di pace and Vo’ piangendo e sospirando share many similarities, and Caldara also reused some of the music from Amarilli vezzosa for Vo’ piangendo. We can only speculate about the significance of the latter case, as Caldara rarely reused existing music for his new works, but it may have been a way to musically link the courts of Ruspoli and the papacy, or to further emphasize Ruspoli’s loyalty to Pope Clement.

Works: Caldara: Vo’ piangendo e sospirando (104-5, 110-17).

Sources: Caldara: Vaticini di pace (104-5, 114-17), Amarilli vezzosa (110-17).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Matthew G. Leone

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Evidence suggests that Handel came into contact with Purcell's King Arthur during the period of his greatest struggles as a composer, and thus when he may have been particularly susceptible to borrowing. The period of Handel's heaviest borrowings from Purcell occurs during the 5 years after his return from Aix-la-Chapelle in 1737. Handel may have turned to Purcell's music for assistance in coping with two main problems: the unfamiliar English language, and an unfamiliar and intractable English public. Although there is a lack of solid evidence linking Handel's works directly to Purcell's, there are numerous similarities in melodic and motivic construction as well as in general style that cannot be ignored. An appendix of muiscal examples can be found on 28-30.

Works: Handel: Susanna (22-23), Saul (23), L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (24), Messiah (26), Alexander Balus (27), Belshazzar (26), Joshua.(27).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Handel based the overture to his oratorio Susanna on John Blow's ode Begin the Song for St. Cecilia's Day (1684). Although Handel included most of Blow's composition, he transformed it into a typically Handelian work. In the grave section, Handel changes the subject slightly and the countersubject substantially; however, he reworks the fugal allegro completely, borrowing only the opening motive. He also modernized his model: he simplified themes, thus making them more suited to effective contrapuntal treatment, and introduced polychoral effects, concerto-grosso-techniques, and new ornaments.

Works: Handel: Acis and Galatea (20), Overture to Susanna (20-29), Agrippina (23-24), Messiah (24), Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (24).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Andreas Giger

Although musical borrowing has become suspect during the past 200 years, it was a commonly accepted aspect of music from the time of Quintilian through the Baroque period. Parody was the most important technique for the use of borrowed material, from both an aesthetic and an historical perspective. Purcell publicly avowed his intention to imitate Italian composers, improving upon his models in most circumstances. Purcell and his contemporaries also used English compositions as models. Handel was extremely prolific in his use of borrowed material and, like Purcell, usually improved upon his models.

Works: Pietro Reggio: Cruda Amarilli (486); Purcell: She loves and she confesses too (487); John Blow: Ah heav'n! What is't I hear (490); William Croft: Thou knowest Lord (491); Handel: "Hallelujah Chorus" from Messiah (495).

Index Classifications: 1600s, 1700s

Contributed by: Fredrick Tarrant

Four types of borrowings in Handel's music can be identified: (1) overt plagiarisms; (2) re-workings of components of work other than the melody; (3) parodies; and (4) borrowings of scene, mood, atmosphere or affect re-used in a different context. When turning to Purcell for material to borrow and rework, Handel was much more subtle than with other composers, primarily utilizing the last technique. The conspicuous lack of the first three types of borrowings from English composers in Handel's output constitutes strong evidence that Handel was wary of being found out by the London public. He knew that any borrowings from English composers would likely be recognized, and especially those of Purcell.

Works: Handel: Susanna (50), L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (51), O Sing Unto the Lord (52-53), Hercules (54), Judas Maccabeus (54-55), Theodora (55), Alexander Balus (56), Alexander's Feast.(57).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Randal Tucker

Bach's harpsichord concerto BWV 1056 has long been recognized as a borrowed work. The origins of the second movement have falsely been attributed to a number of Bach's earlier works, however. A closer match can be found between this movement and the first movement of Telemann's concerto in G Major. Manuscript evidence analyzed in context of Telemann's early concertos supports it being composed before Bach's concerto. This example is a break in Bach's normal concerto borrowings. Telemann's style of concerto writing is preserved, thereby changing Bach's style. Bach improves the contour of Telemann's melody to make it more dramatic. The technique of borrowing through transformative imitation fits the writings on musical rhetoric in the early eighteenth century. This is one of the only instances of a borrowing from concertos by his German contemporaries and shows a greater relationship between Bach and Telemann than has previously been assumed. Both works are also used in self-borrowings. Some of the material in the Telemann concerto is used in his solo for flute. Bach's harpsichord concerto movement also served as the basis for his Cantata No. 38, BWV 156. This could be a sign of Bach thinking of his concerto slow movement as an aria form.

Works: J. S. Bach: Concerto for Harpsichord in F Minor, BWV 1056 (546-51, 556-61, 571, 574, 580-84), Cantata No. 38, BWV 156 (551-53); Telemann: Solo in G Major, TWV 49: G9 (557-58).

Sources: J. S. Bach: Concerto for Violin in G Minor [lost] (546), Concerto for Harpsichord in F Minor, BWV 1056 (551); Telemann: Concerto for Flute or Oboe in G Major, TWV 51:G2 (547-51, 554-67, 580).

Index Classifications: 1700s

Contributed by: Danielle Nelson

Index Classifications: 1700s

Index Classifications: 1700s